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NONLINEAR WAVE
AND PLASMA
STRUCTURES IN
THE AURORAL
AND SUBAURORAL
GEOSPACE
EVGENY V. MISHIN
Air Force Research Laboratory, Space Vehicles Directorate, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States

ANATOLY V. STRELTSOV
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Department of Physical Sciences, Daytona Beach, Florida, United States
Elsevier
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 Preface

From smart watches and cell phones to purpose driving research in this field is,
GPS satellites, humanity increasingly relies therefore, to identify possible effects of space
on the ability of modern gadgets to exchange storms, to understand and to predict storm
information via electromagnetic waves. The development from the Sun to the ground,
quality of such communication links, how- and then to develop methods to mitigate
ever, depends on the propagation character- those effects. The Sun is the ultimate energy
istics of the near-Earth plasma environment, source of space weather. Ground-based and
which is frequently not at equilibrium. In onboard sensors monitor the Sun to detect
particular, plasma irregularities occurring in the onset of coronal mass ejections (CMEs),
the ionosphere during space storms cause when billions of tons of the hot solar plasma
severe distortion of wave trajectories, leading are ejected into interplanetary space and
to the interruption of communication and create a shock wave moving from the Sun at
navigation. Enhanced fluxes of MeV, so- a speed greatly exceeding that of an undis-
called “killer” electrons forming the Earth’s turbed solar wind.
radiation belts, strike spacecraft, thereby CMEs are manifested by sharply intensi-
shortening their lifetime. These phenomena fied optical (solar flare), radio, and X-ray
represent just a fraction of the Sun-driven radiation. The radiation covers the distance
space weather affecting technological sys- between the Sun and the Earth (1 AU z 150
tems in near-Earth space. The self-explana- million kilometers) in about 500 seconds,
tory term “space weather” remains in use whereas the shocks approach the Earth in
since the space era began. about 1e2 days. The shock arrival at the
Humankind will probably never have magnetosphere’s boundary, the magneto-
control of space weather. The main practical pause, leads to an abrupt compression of the

FIGURE 0.1 Artist’s not-to-scale illustration of a Space Weather event: Coronal Mass Ejection manifested by a
solar flare (white light) creates a shock wave moving toward the Earth’s magnetosphere. Source: NASA www.
sunearthplan.net/3/inter.

vii
viii PREFACE

magnetosphere, indicated by a so-called selected geospace phenomena that are crit-

“storm sudden commencement (SSC)” in the ical for the understanding of electromagnetic
geomagnetic field. Another global manifes- and plasma disturbances in the near-Earth
tation is the so-called “shock aurora” caused plasma environment at auroral and sub-
by electrons precipitating from the disturbed auroral latitudes. We intend to demonstrate
magnetosphere into the lower atmosphere. that the underlying physics of many of these
Fig. 0.1 provides an impressive illustration of phenomena is the same in the different parts
the space weather concept. of the strongly coupled magnetospheree
A more continuous effect results from a ionosphere system. Nonetheless, the same
so-called magnetic cloudda twisted, mag- classical plasma instabilities and nonlinear
netic structure carried by the perturbed solar interactions occurring at different latitudes
winddwhich interacts with the Earth’s can lead to different observational phenom-
magnetic field. This interaction, via a com- ena, depending on the background parame-
plex process of “reconnection” or “merging” ters and the disturbance magnitude. We
at the magnetopause, leads to the electro- illustrate the results of the theoretical anal-
magnetic and plasma energy inflow and a ysis with a large number of observations
strong distortion of the geomagnetic field. made over the past 40 years, starting with
The interaction is particularly strong at polar the first active experiments conducted in
latitudes because of this region’s magnetic space and ending with the most recent ob-
connection to the solar wind. This process servations from the ground sensors and
results in the intensification of a global elec- satellites.
tric field and current system accompanied by This book consists of five parts. In Part 1,
particle energization and precipitation into we provide a general description of the basic
the atmosphere, creating aurorae even at structural elements of the near-Earth space
mid-latitudes during major space storms. environment for readers unfamiliar with the
The electromagnetic and particle energy subject. Part 2 describes the linear theory of
flowing into the magnetosphere makes the plasma waves, basic plasma instabilities, and
magnetosphereeionosphere system unsta- nonlinear waveeparticle and waveewave
ble. Various plasma instabilities lead to en- interactions. Part 3 outlines processes occur-
ergy release and the ultimate relaxation of ring in the auroral geospace during sub-
the system to a new equilibrium state after storms, as well as the spatial and temporal
the magnetic cloud passes on. Instabilities in characteristics of different types of aurorae
the outer magnetosphere, such as reconnec- and their physical sources. Part 4 contains a
tion at the magnetopause and in the mag- survey of the “classical” aurora resulted from
netotail, maintain the global energy balance the collisional impact of energetic electrons on
by injecting electromagnetic and particle the atmosphere, describes observations of
fluxes into the inner magnetosphere. In turn, noncollisional auroral features, artificial
instabilities in the inner magnetosphere aurora experiments, the theory of nonlinear
generate electromagnetic waves and plasma electron beameplasma interactions applied
turbulence that enhances energy dissipation to aurorae, and plasma heating effects in the
in a global electric circuit, energizes plasma, auroral E region. Part 5 describes the basic
and makes particles trapped in the geomag- features and processes occurring during
netic field precipitate. auroral substorms in the subauroral geo-
The goal of this book is to consistently space, including subauroraleauroral bound-
apply the methods of plasma theory to ary processes, subauroral flow channels and
 PREFACE ix
arcs, as well as the generation and dynamics quo in the field. Concerning references, we
of VLF whistler waves. believe that the historical aspects of the field
As a rule, we will not dwell on theoretical are subordinate to a proper grasp of the
details by giving all the basic derivations and underlying physics described in most recent
concepts; rather we will provide just enough books and review papers.
background for understanding theoretical This book is a result of 40þ years of the
and experimental results in subsequent authors’ active research, started in the USSR
chapters. Nonetheless, the requirement for and continued in the US, in cooperation with
this text is a reasonable familiarity with the many colleagues whose hard work led to the
contents of a typical graduate physics or development of this discipline. We are
engineering curriculum, including classical grateful to all of them. We would especially
mechanics, vector algebra, Maxwell’s equa- like to acknowledge and thank Roald Sag-
tions, and calculus. Inquisitive readers can deev, who introduced the many fascinating
find further details and rigorous derivations ideas constituting the core of nonlinear
in comprehensive reviews and textbooks plasma physics, as well as Albert (Alec)
listed in Recommended Reading. Galeev, Gerhard Haerendel, Tor Hagfors,
This book is not just a summary of Vitaly Shapiro, Dennis Papadopoulos, Goran
research results; rather it is a presentation of Marklund, Larry Lyons, John Foster, Bill
the basic issues of auroral and subauroral Burke, and Vilen Mishin. Our special thanks
plasma physics, together with illustrations of go to Charlotte Johnson for her able assis-
simple models wherever appropriate. The tance in editing this manuscript and making
material covered could serve as a good it more readable for people unfamiliar with
foundation on which an undergraduate or plasma instabilities.
graduate student could build an under- We acknowledge the continuous financial
standing of the past and present research in support of our activity by the Air Force
this field. We have already used some parts Office of Scientific Research. And last, but
of this book in undergraduate and graduate not least, our deep appreciation to our wives,
Space Plasma Physics courses at Embry- Luba Mishin and Natalia Streltsov, for their
Riddle Aeronautical University. For the constant encouragement during the writing
experienced researcher, we hope that this of this book and for bearing with us through
book is a useful presentation of the status its successful completion.
 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction: near-Earth space
environment
The near-Earth space can be defined as the region where the solar wind magnetic field and
plasma interact with the magnetic field and plasma supplied by the Earth. It starts at the dis-
tance w10e12 RE toward the Sun and extends to >100 RE in the direction from the Sun. It
consists of several large, distinctive regions, which, in turn, contain smaller regions with
different parameters of the plasma and the magnetic field, and as a result, with different
dominant wave and particle processes. In that sense, the near-Earth space is similar to a
Russian “Matryoshka” doll or Chinese Boxes, where smaller objects are nested inside the
larger ones.
Fig. 1.1 depicts five main regions in the near-Earth space: (1) Bow Shock, (2) Magneto-
sheath, (3) Cusps, (4) Magnetosphere, and (5) Ionosphere. Each of these regions has its own
subregions, with different parameters of the plasma and the magnetic field. For example,
the integral parts of the Magnetosphere are the Magnetotail, Plasmasheet, and Plasmasphere.
In the Magnetotail, we distinguish the Mantle, Lobes, and Current sheet. In the plasmasphere,
which contains mainly a dense cold plasma, corotating with the Earth, two energetic particle
populations deserve special attention. One of these populations is radiation belt particles, and
the other is ring current particles.
Let us discuss these regions in some detail.

1.1 Bow shock

This is a region at a distance z10e12 RE from the center of the Earth toward the Sun. Here,
the shock wave associated with the supersonic solar wind plasma around the obstacle
(Earth’s magnetosphere) is formed. Indeed, the average velocity of the solar wind near the
Earth (at distance 1 AU from the Sun) is usw ¼ 400 km/s; the electron temperature
Te z 105 K; and the ion temperature Ti z 104 K. A typical value of the sound speed in the so-
lar wind plasma is cs w 40 km/s, so that the sonic Mach number Ms ¼ usw/cs z 10. There-
fore, the solar wind is supersonic near the Earth’s orbit, and the shock wave appears near

Nonlinear Wave and Plasma Structures in the Auroral and Subauroral Geospace
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820760-4.00001-6 1 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

FIGURE 1.1 Near-Earth space environment and magnetospheric currents. From the internet.

the location where the supersonic flow interacts with the Earth’s magnetosphere. This is the
bow shock.

1.2 Magnetosheath

This is a region between the bow shock and the Earth’s magnetosphere. Here, the transi-
tion from the interplanetary magnetic field carried by the solar wind to the magnetic field
generated inside the Earth occurs. The plasma in the magnetosheath is the postshock solar
wind plasma of the density n z 5 cm3 and Te z Te z 10 eV.

1.3 Polar cusps

These are two narrow, funnel-like regions in the Northern and Southern hemispheres
where the solar wind plasma can penetrate to low altitudes up to the ionosphere due to
the dipole geometry of the Earth’s magnetic field (Smith and Lockwood, 1996).
 1.4 Magnetosphere 3

1.4 Magnetosphere
This is a part of the near-Earth space with primarily the magnetic dipole field although
disguised by the interaction with the solar wind (e.g., Bagenal, 1985). The magnetosphere
is normally divided into the dayside magnetosphere and the magnetotail. The boundary
separating the magnetosphere from the magnetosheath is called a magnetopause. Technically
speaking, this is the boundary around the dayside magnetosphere and the magnetotail, but
more often, it is used to specify the boundary between the magnetosheath and the dayside
magnetosphere (Paschmann, 1979; Russel, 1981).
One of the main parameters describing the dayside magnetopause is the so-called standoff
distance, which defines the distance from the center of the Earth to the subsolar point where
the magnetopause is supposed to be. This distance is calculated from a pressure balance be-
tween the dynamic pressure in the solar wind, rSW u2SW , and the magnetic field pressure inside


the magnetosphere, B2 2m0 . Basically, it is assumed that the magnetic field in the solar wind is
weak (usually, BSW z 4e8 nT near the Earth), and the pressure in the solar wind is due to the
dynamic pressure only. Inside the magnetosphere, the plasma is relatively cold, stationary,
and diluted, and the pressure there is due to the magnetic field only. If we assume that the
magnetic field inside the dayside magnetosphere is dipole, then the magnitude of this field
in the equatorial plane is B ¼ BE ðRE =rÞ3 , where r is the geocentric distance, RE ¼ 6371.2 km
is the radius of the Earth, and BE ¼ 3.2  105 T. In this case, the equation defining the dis-
tance to the magnetopause in the subsolar point from the center of the Earth, rMP , is
 1=6
B2E
rMP ¼ RE (1.1)
2m0 rSW u2SW

For “typical” parameters of the solar wind, usw ¼ 400 km/s, mi ¼ mp ¼ 1.67  1027 kg,
and n ¼ 6 cm3, this distance is rMP z8RE , which is less than the average distance to the
magnetopause observed by satellites in the subsolar region. This value can be corrected by
considering effects from the ChapmaneFerraro currents flowing around the dayside magne-
tosphere. These currents will be described shortly in this chapter. Here, we just note that they
originate from the magnetic curvature and gradient drift motion of the particles in the solar
wind facing the strong magnetic field on the magnetosphere. The resulting current flows in
the ecliptic plane from dawn to dusk producing a magnetic field, which increases the mag-
netic field inside the magnetosphere and decreases it outside the magnetopause.
If the magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the ChapmaneFerraro current is equal
to the magnitude of the field outside the magnetopause, then it will cancel the magnetic field
outside and double it inside. In this case, to calculate the distance to the magnetopause, one
should use B0E ¼ 2BE in Eq. (1.1) instead of BE , and the resulting expression for rMP is
 1=6
B2E
rMP ¼ 21=3 RE (1.2)
2m0 rSW u2SW

Now, rMP z10RE for the same typical parameters of the solar wind, and this value corre-
sponds to the observations.
4 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

1.4.1 Magnetotail
Plasma Mantle. This is the region of the magnetosphere adjacent to the magnetopause.
Here, the plasma density is z 0.1e1.0 cm3 and Te z 100 eV.
Tail Lobes. Northern and southern lobes of the magnetotail extend downstream from
the Earth to >200 RE. Magnetic field lines in the lobes are nearly parallel to each other
and the strength of the magnetic field is z 20 nT. The plasma density here is very low,
z 0.01 cm3, Te z 100 eV, and Ti z 1 keV. This region of the magnetotail maps along the
magnetic field to the polar cap and provides a spatially homogeneous “polar rain” of elec-
trons with energies of a few hundred eV into the ionosphere.
Plasmasheet. This is a central part of the magnetosphere. In the nightside magnetosphere, it
separates two tail lobes. The magnetic field in the nightside of the plasmasheet is weaker than
in the lobes. The field is supposed to be near zero in the most central part of the nightside
plasmasheet where the reconnection occurs. In the part of the plasmasheet closer to the Earth,
the magnetic field lines are “closed,” and this region maps by the magnetic field to the auroral
oval in the high-latitude ionosphere. The average plasma density in the plasmasheet
is z 0.3e1.0 cm3, Te z 0.5e1.0 keV, and Ti z 3.0e6.0 keV. The magnetic field here is
weaker than in the lobes and the plasma is denser than the plasma in the lobes.
Boundary Layers. Two additional subregions in the magnetotail deserving special attention
are the plasmasheet boundary layer and the low-latitude boundary layer (LLBL). They are
shown in Fig. 1.1. These layers represent narrow transition regions, where parameters of
the plasma change significantly over a relatively short distance leading to strong transverse
gradients in plasma density, temperature, and velocity. These gradients cause the develop-
ment of the hydrodynamics instabilities (e.g., KelvineHelmholtz instability in LLBL), which
affect the electromagnetic dynamics of the magnetosphere.

1.4.2 Plasmasphere
The plasmasphere consists of a torus of relatively cold and dense plasma of ionospheric
origin corotating with the Earth. Here, n > 100 cm3 and Te z Ti z 1 eV. The period of the
plasmasphere rotation around the Earth is z 26 h or w10% longer than the period of the
Earth’s rotation. The plasmasphere is bounded in the radial direction by a sharp, well-
defined boundary called the plasmapause. During quiet geomagnetic conditions, the plasma-
pause locates on the magnetic field lines that map down to z60 degrees magnetic latitude.
The characteristic scale size of the plasmapause in the radial direction can be in the range
0.01e0.1 RE, and the plasma density changes over this distance from <10 cm3 outside the
plasmasphere to >100 cm3 inside (Carpenter and Anderson, 1992; Lui and Hamilton, 1992).
The plasmasphere also contains several populations of energetic particles which normally
are considered separately. These populations include particles forming radiation belts and
carrying ring current.

1.4.3 Radiation belts

The first population consists of low-density energetic electrons and ions forming so-called
radiation belts around the Earth. The electrons with energies >0.5 MeV accelerated in the
 1.5 Ionosphere 5
plasmasheet, form an outer radiation belt in the region between L ¼ 2.4 and L ¼ 6 magnetic
shells. Protons with energies >100 MeV, originating from the decay of neutrons produced in
the atmosphere by cosmic rays, form the inner radiation belt near L ¼ 1.5. The two radiation
belts are separated by the “gap” or “slot” region near L ¼ 2.0.
The density of the energetic particles in both radiation belts is 104e106 of the total den-
sity, but because of their high energy, these particles create a real danger for satellites and
humans operating in space. They also can generate some type of plasma waves (for example,
VLF whistler-mode waves) via cyclotron waveeparticle interactions.

1.4.4 Ring current

The second population comprises of ions with a typical energy of z50e70 keV. The
mechanism producing the ring current is the magnetic field curvature and gradient drift,
as is the case of the currents on the dayside magnetosphere. However, the ring current
ions are energized in the magnetotail and move along an almost parallel magnetic field in
the plasmasheet until they reach the region of the strong dipole magnetic field in the plasma-
sphere. Then due to the gradient and curvature of the magnetic field ions start drifting
westward and electrons eastward in the ecliptic plane around the Earth. The net current flows
in the westward direction in the equatorial plane. During storm time, substantial fraction of
the ring current ions comes from the ionosphere.

1.5 Ionosphere

The ionosphere is a partially ionized gas occupying the range of altitudes from 80 to
2000 km above the Earth. Some books suggest considering this gas as a plasma and some
do not. The reason for that discrepancy is that the density of the neutral atmospheric particles
in the main regions of the ionosphere (<400 km) is 100e1000 times higher than the density of
the charged particles, which makes collisions with neutrals and electrochemical reactions be-
tween different species very important participants of the ionospheric processes. Excellent re-
view of physics and chemistry of the ionosphere is given by Schunk (1983), Schunk and Nagy
(2004), and Kelley (2009).
The midlatitude ionosphere is mostly produced by the photoionization of the neutral at-
mosphere by EUV and X-ray radiation from the Sun. Two other important production mech-
anisms are (1) the impact ionization of neutrals by superthermal electrons and (2) charge
exchange. The dissociative and radiative recombination balances the ionization and creates
a dynamically stable configuration of charged particles with some averaged values of the
main parameters.
Tables 1.1e1.3 list some of the major reactions used in photochemical models, with the re-
action rate coefficients from Grubbs et al. (2018), unless noted. As common, we denote the
excited state of nitrogen, N(2D), as N# and si,n ¼ Ti,n (K)/300.
6 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

TABLE 1.1 Ion-molecular reactions.

# Reaction Rate coefficient, cm3/s/Ref. # Reaction Rate coefficient, cm3/s/Ref.
( (
1 NOþ þ O1D 1.4  1010 6 N2þ þ O/NOþ þ N # 1:4  1010 s0:44
i at si < 5
þ
O2 þ N/ þ
NO þ O1S 2.5  1011

2 Oþ þ
2 þ NO/NO þ O2 4:1  1010 7 N2þ þ O/Oþ þ N2 1011 si0:23 at si < 5
 
3 Oþ þ
2 þ N2 /NO þ NO 5  1016 8 Oþ þ NO/NOþ þ O 1013 6:4  1:3si þ 0:8s2i :::
at si < 13
 
4 N2þ þ O2 /Oþ
2 þ N2 5 1011 si0:8 9 þ
O þ N2 /NO þ N þ
1012 1:7  0:7si þ 0:13s2i :::
at si < 12
 
5 N2þ þ NO/NO þ N2 þ
7:5  109 Tn0:52 10 O þ þ
O2 /Oþ
2 þO 1011 2:8  0:7si þ 0:08s2i :::
at si < 16

TABLE 1.2 Recombination.

# Reaction Rate coefficient, cm3/s
( ( (
1 O1D þ O1D 7:6  108 se0:7 7:5  108 s0:61
Oþ
e
2 þ e/ ðse < 4Þand ðse  4Þ
O1D þ O 1:2  107 se0:7 1:2  107 s0:61
e
( ( (
2 N# þ N 1:9  107 se0:39 1:7  107 s0:57
N2þ þ e/
e
ðse < 4Þand ðse  4Þ
N# þ N# 2:6  108 se0:39 2:3  108 s0:57
e
( ( (
3 N# þ O 2:6  107 se0:69 2:3  107 s0:56
e
þ
NO þ e/ ðse < 4Þand ðse  4Þ
NþO 8:4  108 se0:69 7:3  108 s0:56
e

TABLE 1.3 Chemical reactions.

# Reaction Rate coefficient, cm3/s References

1 N þ O2 /NO þ O 1.5  1011 expð 12 =sn Þ Barth et al. (2009)

2 N þ NO/N2 þ O 1.6  1010 expð 1:53 =sn Þ Barth et al. (2009)

( (
3 NO þ O 5:6  1012 sn Duff et al. (2005)
#
N þ O2 /
NO þ O1D 6  1013 sn
( (
4 N2 þ O 7  1011 Barth et al. (2009)
#
N þ NO/ 11
N þ NO 6:7  10
( (
5 NþO 1:3  1012
N # þ O/
N þ O1D 1:4  1013

6 N # þ N2 /N þ N2 1013 expð 1:7 =sn Þ

 1.5 Ionosphere 7

1.5.1 Ionospheric regions

The “classical” daytime midlatitude ionosphere consists of four regions: D, E, F1, and F2, as
shown in Fig. 1.2A:
• The D region occupies the altitude range 70e90 km. A typical electron density here is
w102e103 cm3. The main ion species are NOþ and Oþ 2 . The main sources of ionization
are solar Lyman-a, galactic X-rays, and galactic cosmic rays. This region practically dis-
appears during the nighttime.
• The E region with the peak electron density 1e2  105 cm3 is between 95 and 140 km.
The main ion species are Oþ þ
2 and NO . The main sources of the ionization are solar
Lyman-b, soft X-rays, and UV Continuum.
• The F1 region occurs at the altitudes 140e200 km. The electron density is 105e106 cm3.
The main ion species are Oþ and NOþ. The main sources of the ionization are solar He
II and UV Continuum (100e800 Å). This region also disappears during nighttime.
• The F2 region is the region with the ionospheric density peak between 200 and 400 km.
The peak density in this region is 5  105e5  106 cm3. The main ion species are Oþ
and Nþ. The main sources of the ionization are solar He II and UV Continuum
(100e800 Å).
These ionospheric parameters are “typical” for middle latitudes only. At high latitudes, the
ionosphere strongly depends on particle precipitation from the plasmasheet, and hence, on
the geomagnetic conditions. The nighttime ionosphere between the F2 and E regions features
the so-called “valley,” which depth and location varies with latitude (Fig. 1.2B).

FIGURE 1.2 (A) The average structure of the ionosphere. (B) The electron density in the nighttime ionosphere at
various geographic latitudes. Adapted from (A) Jursa, A.S., 1985, Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environment, AFRL,
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161. (B) Titheridge, J., 2003. Ionization below the night F2 layerda
global model. J. Atm. Solar-Terr. Phys. 65, 1035e1052. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6826(03)00136-6.
8 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

Because the main energy source for the ionospheric production is the radiation from the
Sun, the ionosphere demonstrates a strong temporal variability depending on the position
and intensity of the Sun. Thus, the density of the ionosphere at noon is more than 10 times
larger than the density in the same location during local midnight. The daytime density of
the ionosphere during the solar maxima can be 10 times more than the daytime density dur-
ing the solar minima. Moreover, the nighttime F2-region density during the solar maxima can
be more than the daytime density during the solar minima.
The amount of solar radiation used to ionize the neutrals also depends on the latitude, and
therefore, the ionosphere at low and middle latitudes is “denser” than the ionosphere at high
latitudes. At the same time, at high latitudes (particularly, in the auroral zone), the precipi-
tation of energetic electrons from the plasmasheet is an important source of the ionization.
This source strongly depends on the geomagnetic activity in the magnetotail (e.g., sub-
storms). As a result, the ionospheric density can be very high in the auroral zone and change
significantly over relatively short time intervals and spatial scales.

1.5.2 Ionospheric conductivities

One very important distinction of the dynamics of the ionospheric plasma below 400 km
altitude from the dynamics of the magnetospheric plasma is that the ionospheric plasma is
embedded into the dense neutral gas. Collisions between neutral and charged particles signif-
icantly affect the electromagnetic processes occurring in the ionosphere. In particular, colli-
sions provide a finite conductivity of the ionospheric plasma, connecting currents and the
electric field in the ionosphere.
Expressions for the ionospheric conductivity are derived in a straightforward way from
the equations of motion for charged particles

dvs
ms ¼ qs ðE þ vs  BÞ  ms ns ðvs  vN Þ (1.3)
dt

Here, index s indicates the species of the charged particles (e for electrons and i for ions), nS
is the collision frequency between species s and neutrals, and yN is the velocity of the neutrals.
Let us consider electrons moving without acceleration ðd =dt h0Þ parallel to the magnetic
field ðve jjBÞ or without any magnetic field ðB ¼ 0Þ. Also let us assume that neutrals are sta-
tionary ðvN ¼ 0Þ. In this case, Eq. (1.3) gives

m e ne me ne me ne 1
E¼  ve ¼  2 neve ¼ je ¼ j: (1.4)
e ne ne 2 sjje e


Here, sjje ¼ ne2 me ne is the parallel electron conductivity. The total parallel conductivity,
sjj , includes a contribution from electrons and ions. In the plasma consisting of electrons and
one species of ions only, it is
 
1 1
sjj ¼ sjje þ sjji ¼ ne2 þ (1.5)
m e n e m i vi
 1.5 Ionosphere 9
If the plasma consists of multiple ion species with different masses and charges, then the
parallel conductivity is

ne2 Xni q2
sjj ¼ þ i
(1.6)
me ne i
mi n i

P
Here, index i marks different ion species and n ¼ i ni .
If one will consider electrons moving without acceleration ðd =dt h0Þ under some angle to
the background magnetic field, and assume that neutrals are stationary ðvN ¼ 0Þ, then Eq.
(1.3) gives

m e ne m e ne 1
E¼  ve  ve  B ¼ j þ j B (1.7)
e ne2 e ne e

It is convenient to analyze Eq. (1.7) by introducing an orthogonal coordinate system with

the z axis aligned with the ambient magnetic field B. In this case, components of Eq. (1.7)
become

me n e m e ve B m e ne B
Ez ¼ jez ; Ex ¼ jex þ jey ; Ey ¼ jey  jex (1.8)
ne2 ne 2 ne ne 2 ne

or

jez ¼ sjje Ez ; jex ¼ sPe Ex  sHe Ey ; jey ¼ sPe Ey þ sHe Ex (1.9)

Here,

n2e ne uce
sPe ¼ sjje and sHe ¼ sjje (1.10)
n2e þ u2ce n2e þ u2ce

The relations between the electric field and the total current carried by the electrons and
multiple ion species can be obtained in a similar way:

jz ¼ sjj Ez ; jx ¼ sP Ex  sH Ey ; jy ¼ sP Ey þ sH Ex (1.11)

Here, sjj is given by Eq. (1.6), sP is called Pedersen conductivity, and sH is called Hall
conductivity

n2e X n2i ne uce X ni uci

sP ¼ sjje þ sjji ; sH ¼ sjje 2  sjji 2 ; (1.12)
ne þ uce
2 2
i
ni þ uci
2 2
ve þ uce 2
i
ni þ u2ci

The relation between the current and the electric field in the ionosphere in the matrix form is
0 1
sp sH 0
!
 !  B C
j ¼ s ,E; where s ¼ B @ sH sp 0C A (1.13)
0 0 sjj
10 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

The Pedersen conductivity is responsible for the Pedersen currents flowing in the iono-
sphere in the direction of the electric field. This current is carried mostly by ions. It causes
dissipation of the electric field energy in the ionosphere and the ionospheric heating. The
Hall conductivity is responsible for the Hall current flowing in the ionosphere in the direction
perpendicular to the electric field and mostly carried by electrons.
Both conductivities result from the fact that collisions with neutrals demagnetize ions in
the ionosphere, and they start to move in the direction of the electric field instead of partici-
pating in the E  B drift. Electrons remain magnetized, and they continue to move perpendic-
ular to E with the velocity of the electric drift. Thus, collisions effectively separate electrons
from ions, the ions carry Pedersen current in the direction of the electric field, and the elec-
trons carry Hall currents in the direction perpendicular to E.
The Hall and Pedersen currents arise from the peculiarities of the electric drift motion
in the collisional media. They both depend on the orientation of the background magnetic
and electric field relative to each other. These fields are oriented differently at high and
low latitudes. At high latitudes, the magnetic field has a large angle with the ionosphere
and with the electric field produced in the ionosphere. At low latitudes, the magnetic field
in the southenorth direction is parallel to the ionosphere and, if there is an electric field in
the eastewest direction in the ionosphere, then the E  B drift pushes electrons in the ver-
tical direction and creates a vertical component of the electric field. By considering the
contribution from this field, one can get the relation between the eastewest
electric field
and current in the ionosphere, jEW ¼ sC EEW , where sC ¼ sP þ s2H sP is called Cowling
conductivity.
Fig. 1.3 shows “typical” profiles of sP , sH , and sC with an altitude reproduced from Jursa
(1985). It should be noticed here that all three conductivities are proportional to the plasma
density in the ionosphere, particularly in the D and E regions, as well as on the temperature of
electrons and ions. This fact has been used in many active ionospheric experiments based on
changing ionospheric conductivity by heating electrons in the D and E regions with HF
waves produced by powerful ground transmitters, like the High-frequency Active Auroral
Research Program (HAARP) facility in Gakona, Alaska.

1.6 Electric currents

Interactions between the plasma and magnetic field carried by the solar wind with plasma
and the magnetic field of the Earth’s origin distort the dipole geometry of the Earth’s mag-
netic field, and these distortions of the magnetic field generate a system of electric currents
threading different near-Earth space regions. The interactive visualization of the currents in
the near-Earth space is shown on the website http://meted.ucar.edu/hao/aurora/txt/x_
m_3_1.php. These currents include dayside magnetosphere or ChapmaneFerraro currents,
nightside magnetosphere or tail currents, cross-tail or neutral sheet current, ring current,
field-aligned or Birkeland currents, and the ionospheric currents, as depicted in Figs. 1.1
and 1.4. Let us consider those in some detail.
• Dayside Magnetosphere or ChapmaneFerraro Currents. These currents occur on the
dayside magnetopause. They are carried by the solar wind particles experiencing the
magnetic field curvature and gradient drifts. Both these drifts cause the motion of
the electrons and ions in opposite directions and produce electric current flowing in the
 1.6 Electric currents 11

FIGURE 1.3 Example of distribution of Pedersen (sP), Hall (sH), and Cowling (sC) conductivities with altitude.
In general, these conductivities depend on the plasma density and temperature. Adapted from Jursa, A.S., 1985,
Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environment, AFRL, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 22161.

eastward direction in the ecliptic plane on the magnetopause. This current increases
the Earth’s magnetic field inside the magnetopause and decreases it outside. This effect
is consistent with a simple physical picture of solar wind compressing the magneto-
sphere on the dayside and increasing the magnetic field inside.
• Nightside Magnetosphere or Tail Current. This is a system of two “solenoid-like” currents
flowing around the magnetotail. The currents are the result of the geometry of the mag-
netic field in the tail, which is described by almost uniform and almost parallel magnetic
field lines. Because the magnetic field in the southern magnetosphere is pointing from the
Earth, and in the northern magnetosphere, it is pointing toward the Earth; the currents
around the southern and northern parts of the tail should flow in opposite directions.
• Cross Tail or Neutral Sheet Current. This current flows across the tail through the
neutral sheet providing the closure of the northern and southern tail currents.
Field-Aligned or Birkeland Currents. Field-aligned currents, named after their discoverer
Birkeland currents, are different from other currents in the magnetosphere in several
ways. First, they are carried mostly by the electrons traveling along the ambient magnetic
field and originated from polarization charges at plasma boundaries and often driven by a
parallel voltage between the ionosphere and equatorial magnetosphere (e.g., Arnoldy,
1974). There exist several possible mechanisms producing potential drops with different
spatial characteristics and temporal behavior (Baumjohann, 1982; Lyons, 1992). It is com-
mon to distinguish large-scale, quasi-stationary Region 1 and 2 currents (Iijima and
Potemra, 1978) and small-scale currents carried by Alfvén waves.
12 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

FIGURE 1.4 (A) A schematic illustration of the global magnetospheric current system in the Northern Hemi-
sphere: Region 1 and 2 currents, the magnetopause (ChapmaneFerraro, black), partial ring current (black dashed),
and the Pedersen currents (green). Red/blue lines indicate upward/downward current regions in the polar region
and Region 1 and 2 currents. (B) A global view of Region 1 and Region 2 currents. (C) Ionospheric closure of the field-
aligned currents. Adapted from (A) Carter, J., Milan, S., Coxon, J., Walach, M.-T., Anderson, B., 2016. Average field-aligned
current configuration parameterized by solar wind conditions. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 121, 1294e1307. https://doi.org/10.
1002/2015JA021567. (B, C) Pictures from the website http://meted.ucar.edu/hao/aurora/txt/x_m_3_1.php.

o Large-Scale, Region 1 and Region 2 Currents. The current system connecting the magne-
topause (and the solar wind) with the polar ionosphere is called the Region 1 current
system. The poleward boundary of R1 currents coincides with the polar cap boundary.
This region is z 100e200 km wide and the current density of this current is z 1 mA/m2.
The current system connecting the inner boundary of the plasmasheet with the equator-
ward part of the auroral ionosphere and the ring current with the subauroral ionosphere
is called the Region 2 current system.
o Small-Scale Alfvénic Currents. Ultra-low-frequency shear Alfvén waves, generated in
the magnetosphere by coupling between shear and fast MHD waves or waveeparticle
interactions, or by the different sources in the ionosphere, carry field-aligned currents
playing an important role in the exchange of the mass, energy, and momentum between
 1.8 Magnetosphere-ionosphere (MI) coupling 13
the ionosphere and the magnetosphere. These current systems have transverse sizes in
the ionosphere z10e100 km and oscillate with frequencies 0.5e100 mHz. Satellite and
ground-based observations suggest that these currents are closely related to the bright,
discrete auroral arcs, and other nonluminous wave and plasma phenomena in the
auroral and subauroral ionosphere.
Ionospheric Currents. The Pedersen and Hall currents are two main currents in the lower
ionosphere. They are localized in the ionospheric D and E regions, where the corresponding
Hall and Pedersen conductivities maximize. Fig. 1.4C show a schematic plot of these currents
in the ionosphere.
o Pedersen Current. The Pedersen current flows in the direction of the electric field in the
ionosphere. It is carried mainly by the bulk ions due to ion-neutral collisions that
demagnetize ions. That is, collisions disrupt ion gyrorotation around the magnetic field
thus making ions move in the direction of the electric field instead of E  B drift.
o Hall Current. The Hall current flows in the direction of the E  B drift. It is carried
mainly by the bulk electrons in the altitude range where ions are demagnetized but
electrons remain magnetized.

1.7 Aurora and auroral oval

Aurora, known as polar or northern lights (aurora borealis) or southern lights (aurora Aus-
tralis), is a natural airglow in the Earth’s sky. As auroras were formerly thought to be the first
light of dawn, the name “Aurora” came from the Latin word for “dawn, morning light,”
while “Borealis” was coined by Galileo in 1619 from the Roman goddess of the dawn and
the Greek name for the north wind (Siscoe, 1986). Auroral emission is produced when fluxes
of energetic electrons and protons precipitate along the magnetic field into the upper atmo-
sphere below w130 km. The region of the most frequent occurrence of aurorae is the auroral
or Feldstein oval (Feldstein, 2016). Fig. 1.5 presents examples of aurora and a snapshot of the
auroral oval taken from the Polar satellite over the Northern Hemisphere. Clearly, aurorae fill
in a continuous, oval-shape pattern around the geomagnetic pole replicating the shape of the
Earth’s magnetosphere: compressed on the dayside and stretched on the nightside. The oval
maps into the plasma domains of the Earth’s magnetosphere with precipitating 20 keV elec-
tron fluxes. The auroral oval is a natural system of reference for description of rapidly chang-
ing phenomena in the geospace.

1.8 Magnetosphere-ionosphere (MI) coupling

Magnetosphereeionosphere coupling includes many different subjects in the global study

of the near-Earth space physics, with many different complex and complicated phenomena to
explore. This coupling includes various linear and nonlinear mechanisms providing the ex-
change of energy, mass, and momentum between the ionosphere and the magnetosphere.
These mechanisms work in the same spatial domain but different geomagnetic conditions,
on different spatial scales, and with different timeframes. Several very different mechanisms
14 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

FIGURE 1.5 (Top) Examples of auroral displays: (A) Corona and (B) rayed arcs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Aurora). (Bottom) Ultraviolet (UV) image from the Polar satellite over the Northern Hemisphere. (Top) From Mishin,
E., 2019. Artificial Aurora experiments and application to natural aurora. Front. Astron. Space Sci. 6, 14. https://doi.org/10.
3389/fspas.2019.00014. (Bottom) From http://eiger.physics.uiowa.edu/wvis/examples.

can produce very similar observational effects, and the same physical mechanism can pro-
duce very different observational effects under different conditions. Fig. 1.6 (courtesy of
Joe Grebowsky, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) illustrates geophysical processes man-
ifesting coupling between different regions in the terrestrial magnetosphere, ionosphere, and
atmosphere.
Ultra-low-frequency (ULF) shear Alfvén waves and field-aligned currents carried by those
are the main participants in the electromagnetic coupling between the ionosphere and
magnetosphere in the auroral and subauroral zones. One of the main mechanisms demon-
strating the importance of magnetosphereeionosphere coupling for understanding the origin
and dynamics of intense ULF waves, currents, and density structures is the active feedback
from the density disturbances in the ionosphere on the structure and amplitude of the magne-
tospheric, field-aligned currents causing these disturbances.
The basic idea of this mechanism is that the ULF field-aligned current interacting with the
ionosphere changes the ionospheric conductivity by precipitating or removing electrons in the
E region, and these variations in the conductivity “feedback” on the structure and amplitude of
 1.8 Magnetosphere-ionosphere (MI) coupling 15

FIGURE 1.6 Schematic plot illustrating coupling between different regions in the terrestrial magnetosphere,
ionosphere, and atmosphere. Courtesy of Joe Grebowsky, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

the incident current. First, variations in the density change the reflection of the ULF waves from
the conducting bottom of the ionosphere. Second, if the large-scale electric field exists in the
ionosphere, the density variations change the Joule dissipation of this field and generate
some additional field-aligned current contributing to the current reflecting from this location.
If the ULF Alfvén wave, carrying the field-aligned current, is trapped in some resonator
cavity in the magnetosphere, then the ionospheric feedback can work in a constructive
way and increase the amplitude of the wave and the density disturbances in the E region,
which will lead to the development of the ionospheric feedback instability (IFI) suggested
first by Atkinson (1970).
IFI has been extensively studied in the global magnetospheric resonator, formed by the
entire magnetic flux tube with both boundaries in the ionospheric E-region and the iono-
spheric Alfvén resonator formed by the E region and a strong gradient in the Alfvén ve-
locity at the altitude 0.5e1.0 RE. It will be considered in this book in more detail in
Chapter 3.4.
16 1. Introduction: near-Earth space environment

References
Arnoldy, R., Lewis, P., Isaacson, P., 1974. Field-aligned auroral electron fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 4208.
Atkinson, G., 1970. Auroral arcs: result of the interaction of a dynamic magnetosphere with the ionosphere.
J. Geophys. Res. 75, 4746.
Bagenal, F., 1985. The terrestrial magnetosphere. In: Priest, E.R. (Ed.), Solar System Magnetic Field. D. Reidel Publ.
Co., Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Baumjohann, W., 1982. Ionospheric and field-aligned current systems in the auroral zone: a concise review. Adv.
Space Res. 2 (10), 55.
Barth, C., Lu, G., Roble, R., 2009. Joule heating and nitric oxide in the thermosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 114, A05301.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JA013765.
Carpenter, D., Anderson, R., 1992. An ISEE/Whistler model of equatorial electron density in the magnetosphere.
J. Geophys. Res. 97, 1097e1108.
Carter, J., Milan, S., Coxon, J., Walach, M.-T., Anderson, B., 2016. Average field-aligned current configuration param-
eterized by solar wind conditions. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 121, 1294e1307. https://doi.org/10.1002/
2015JA021567.
Duff, J., Dothe, H., Sharma, R., 2005. A first-principles model of spectrally resolved 5.3 mm nitric oxide emission from
aurorally dosed nighttime high-altitude terrestrial thermosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32, L17108. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2005GL023124.
Feldstein, Y., 2016. The discovery and the first studies of the auroral oval: a review. Geomagn. Aeron. Engl. Transl. 56,
129e142. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0016793216020043.
Grubbs, G., Michell, R., Samara, M., Hampton, D., Hecht, J., Solomon, S., Jahn, J.M., 2018. A comparative study of
spectral auroral intensity predictions from multiple electron transport models. J. Geophys. Res.: Space Phys.
123, 993e1005. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JA025026.
Iijima, T., Potemra, T., 1978. Large-scale characteristics of field-aligned currents associated with substorms.
J. Geophys. Res. 83, 599.
Jursa, A.S., 1985. Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environment. AFRL, National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA, p. 22161.
Kelley, M.C., 2009. The Earth’s Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics. Academic Press, Elsevier, ISBN 978-
0-12-088425-4.
Lui, A., Hamilton, D., 1992. Radial profiles of quiet time magnetospheric parameters. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 19325.
Lyons, L., 1992. Formation of auroral arcs via magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling. Rev. Geophys. 30, 93.
Mishin, E., 2019. Artificial Aurora experiments and application to natural aurora. Front. Astron. Space Sci. 6, 14.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2019.00014.
Paschmann, G., 1979. Plasma structure of the magnetopause and boundary layer. In: Battrick, B. (Ed.), Magneto-
spheric Boundary Layers. ESA SP-148, Paris, France.
Russel, C.T., 1981. The magnetopause of the Earth and planets. Adv. Space Res. 1, 67.
Schunk, R.W., 1983. The terrestrial ionosphere. In: Carovilano, R.L., Forbes, J.M. (Eds.), Solar-Terrestrial Physics: Prin-
ciples and Theoretical Foundations. D. Reidel Publ. Co., Dordrecht, Netherlands.
Schunk, R., Nagy, A., 2004. Ionospheres: Physics, Plasma Physics, and Chemistry. Cambridge, Cambridge, ISBN
9780521607704.
Siscoe, G., 1986. An historical footnote on the origin of ‘aurora borealis’. Hist. Geophys. 2, 11e14. https://doi.org/
10.1029/HG002p0011.
Smith, M., Lockwood, M., 1996. Earth’s magnetospheric cusps. Rev. Geophys. 43, 233.
Titheridge, J., 2003. Ionization below the night F2 layerdA global model. J. Atm. Solar-Terr. Phys. 65, 1035e1052.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6826(03)00136-6.
 C H A P T E R

2
Plasma waves and instabilities

C H A P T E R

2.1
Plasma waves

This chapter gives a brief synopsis of the linear theory of plasma waves, consecutively
moving from simple to complex. We start with general definitions of plasma electrody-
namics, dielectric permittivity, plane waves, waveeparticle resonances, and end up consid-
ering wave propagation in nonuniform plasmas and collisionless wave damping. As a
rule, we do not dwell on theoretical details giving only the basic derivations and concepts,
just enough for understanding theoretical and experimental results in subsequent chapters.
Nonetheless, the requirement for this text is a reasonable familiarity with the contents of a
typical undergraduate physics or engineering curriculum, including classical mechanics, vec-
tor algebra, and Maxwell’s and differential equations. Interested readers can find further de-
tails and rigorous derivations in comprehensive reviews and textbooks in Recommended
Reading.

2.1.1 Background

2.1.1.1 Plasma: the fourth state of matter

Conventionally, a plasma is an ionized gas whose properties are
determined by the collec-
tive interaction of particles via the long-range Coulomb force, fe2 e0 r2 . Here e is the elemen-
tary charge, r is distance, and e0 is the permittivity of vacuum. Charged particles in motion
generate electromagnetic fields that affect motion of other particles, thereby creating a fast-

Nonlinear Wave and Plasma Structures in the Auroral and Subauroral Geospace
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820760-4.00002-8 17 © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
18 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

remote response to local perturbations. Because of collective behavior of large particle ensem-
bles, plasmas are similar to solids, while interaction in fluids occurs only between neighbors
and in gases via accidental collisions. Thence, a macroscopic description of plasmas, the mag-
netohydrodynamic model, is similar to that of liquid metals. A symbiotic relationship be-
tween plasma particles and electromagnetic fields supports a great variety of collective
motionsdplasma waves. What distinguishes plasma from the other states of matter is that
the waves direct the plasma state.
The collective interaction implies that the interaction volume contains a large number of
charged particles. The distance beyond which electric charges are shielded is the Debye
length or radius, rD . It is the maximum distance of charge separation over which electrons
of the density, ne , can spontaneously move apart from ions. At larger distances, polarization
electric fields maintain the plasma quasineutrality, ne zni , with no net charge in unit volume
(the subscript “e” and “i” denotes electrons and ions, respectively). The Debye radius is found
as follows. Assume that electrons in the x
y plane layer move away from ions over the dis-
tance, dz. Poisson’s equation, VE ¼ ne e=e0 , determines the emerging electric field:


Ez ¼ ne edz=e0 . The resulting electron potential energy is edf ¼ ne e2 ðdzÞ2 e0 . As the potential
energy of electrons due to accidental charge separation cannot exceed their thermal energy,

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Te ¼ me v2Te 2, the sought-for separation distance is rD ¼ e0 Te =ne e2 . The characteristic life-
time of charge separation, u
1 pe wrD =vTe , determines the Langmuir or plasma frequency, upe ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ne e =e0 me .
2

So, the number of particles in the Debye sphere, rwrD , should be large:
ND ¼ ð4p =3Þne r3D [1. Another condition, which is important for weakly ionized plasmas,
is a secondary role of electron collisions. That is, the mean free path of thermal electrons, lT ¼
vTe =ne , should be greater than wrD . In fully ionized plasmas with the electroneion collision
frequency, ne ¼ nei wupe ND
1 lnðND Þ, this condition is satisfied automatically at ND [1.
However, in a weakly ionized plasma, the electroneneutral collision frequency, nen , can be
dominant. In this case, the condition upe [ne or rD  lT defines the critical density of neutral
particles, Nn*, which separates plasmas from ionized gases.
Further, unless noted, we use the density, mass, electric (magnetic) fields, and frequency,
f ¼ u=2p, in cm
3, kilograms, V/m (Tesla), and Hz, respectively. Temperatures are in elec-
tron volts (1 eV ¼ 11,605 K) to avoid repeated writing of Boltzmann’s constant. Useful ex-
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
pressions in these units are fpe ¼ upe =2pz9 ne kHz, vTe ¼ 2Te =me z5:9,105 Te m/s,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
and rD z7:4 Te =ne m. For simplicity, we assume that plasma consists of electrons and one
singly charged ion species. The electron-to-ion mass ratio, m ¼ me =mi , is about 13  10
4
and 16  10
4 in the F- and E-region ionosphere, respectively.
4
P Henceforth, tensors are denoted by the accent, “ a ” and vectors by the bold face, a ¼
j ej aj , where ej is the unit vector along the j axis. For brevity, sometimes the dot or scalar
product of two vectors, a,b, will be shown simply as ab or ðabÞ. The sign, “*,” means matrix
4 P
multiplication: e  E ¼ k ejk Ek or, omitting the summation sign, ejk Ek . Here the indices,
j

P systemPof coordinates, x1 ; x2 ; x3 .
j; k, denote the mutually orthogonal axes of an arbitrary
We use a standard notation: the nabla, V ¼ j ej Vj ¼ j ej v=vxj , and Laplacian,
 2.1.1 Background 19
P 2
DhV2 ¼ j Vj . Usually, the overline, XðtÞ, means averaging XðtÞ over the wave or gyration
period, while an angle bracket hJðvÞi denotes averaging JðvÞ over the ensemble of particles.

2.1.1.2 Maxwell’s equations and dielectric permittivity

Maxwell’s equations connect electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields with the electric charge
density, r, and current, j, in continuous media. In SI units, the Maxwell system reads
Ampere0 s law Poisson0 s equation
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{ zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{
ðaÞ V  B ¼ c
2 vE=vt þ m0 jðEÞ; ðbÞ V$E ¼ rðEÞ=e0 ;
Faraday0 s law Gauss0 s law for magnetism
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{ zfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflffl{
ðcÞ V  E ¼
vB=vt; ðdÞ V$B ¼ 0; (2.1.1)

Here m0 and c ¼ ðe0 m0 Þ
1=2 is the in free space permeability and speed of light. Substituting
Poisson’s equation (2.1.1b) into the dot product of V with Ampere’s law (2.1.1a) yields the
continuity equation

vr=vt þ V$j ¼ 0 (2.1.2)

Polarization charges emerge in a conducting medium under action of applied electric

fields. The charge density, r, can be expressedP as r ¼
V,P, with the dipole moment of
unit volume or the polarization vector, P ¼ j rj rj . Here the summation goes over all
charged j-particles in unit volume with displacements, rj . As follows from the continuity
P
equation (2.1.2), the electric current in unit volume, j, is simply j ¼ vP=vt ¼ j rj vj . For
weak fields, P connects to E through a linear integral relation (see Landau and Lifshitz, 1960).
ZN
4
Pðr; tÞ ¼ c ðsÞ  Eðr; t
sÞds (2.1.3)
0

4
where the dielectric response function, c ðtÞ, in an anisotropic medium is a tensor.
For a monochromatic wave, Eðr; tÞ ¼ Eu ðrÞe
iut , the relation (2.1.3) reduces to P ¼
4
c ðuÞ  E, with the electric susceptibility tensor
ZN
4 4
c ðuÞ ¼ c ðsÞeius ds (2.1.4)
0
20 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

As a result, we have the relation between j and the electric field (Ohm’s law) via the con-
4
ductivity tensor, s :
4 4
j ¼ vP=vt ¼
iu c ðuÞ  E ¼ s ðuÞ  E (2.1.5)

The electric induction, D, connects to the electric field via

4
D ¼ e0 E þ P ¼ e0 e  E (2.1.6)

4
Here we denote the dielectric permittivity tensor
 as e0 e . The dot product of V with Eq.
4
(2.1.6) gives the well-known equality, V$D ¼ V$ e0 e E ¼ 0.
The relations (2.1.5) and (2.1.6) determine the dispersion law for monochromatic waves
4 4 4 4 4
e ðuÞ ¼ I þ c ðuÞ=e0 ¼ I þ i s =e0 u (2.1.7)
or ejk ðuÞ ¼ djk þ cjk ðuÞ=e0 ¼ djk þ isjk ðuÞ=e0 u

4
Here I is the identity tensor or, in index notation, Ijk ¼ djk , where djk is the Kronecker
delta: djk ¼ 1 if j ¼ k or 0 if jsk.
Applying the cross product of V to both sides of Faraday’s law (2.1.1c) with the aid of Am-
pere’s law (2.1.1a) and equality (2.1.6) we arrive at the wave equation in the spaceetime
domain
4
V  ðV  EÞ þ c
2 e v2 E=vt2 ¼ 0 (2.1.8)

2.1.1.3 Plane waves

In the linear approximation in the wave amplitude, wave and plasma perturbations in an
unbounded uniform medium can be represented as a superposition of plane waves:
X Z
1
Eðr; tÞ ¼ ku
Eku expðikr
iutÞ/ Eku expðikr
iutÞdkdu (2.1.9)
ð2pÞ4

with angular frequencies, u, and wave vectors, k. Here Eku ¼ jEku jeij ¼ const is the com-
plex amplitude with the phase, j. The exponential notation means that the real part should
be taken as the measurable quantity, E
k
u ¼ Eku or

ReðEðr; tÞÞku ¼ ðEðr; tÞ þ E ðr; tÞÞku = 2 ¼ jEku jcosðkr
ut þ jÞ;

 2.1.1 Background 21
 
where E is the complex conjugate of E. As Aeiat  ¼ jAj, using E0 ¼ A0 cosðutÞ instead of
2 _ 0 j2 ¼ 2jAj2 . Here J means the averaging of a function,
E ¼ Aeiut with jE0 j ¼ jEj2 implies jA
JðtÞ, over the wave period.
The phase velocity, vph , is the speed of a point of the constant phase, kr
u t ¼ const

dr=dt ¼ vph ¼ uk=k2 ; (2.1.10)

which may exceed the speed of light. In any event, there is no violation of the theory of rel-
ativity, since plane waves do not carry information, unless being modulated. Modulations
travel at the group velocity

vg ¼ vu=vk (2.1.11)

As follows from the Fourier representation (2.1.9), an electrostatic wave, E ¼
Vf, where
ðlÞ
f is the electric potential, has the longitudinal (“l”) polarization, Eku k k. However, electro-
ðtÞ
magnetic, V  Es0, waves with mainly the transverse polarization (“t”), Ek tk, may also
have the longitudinal component.

2.1.1.4 Dispersion and wave equations

With the aid of the identity, V  V  E ¼
DE þ VðV ,EÞ, the wave equation (2.1.8) can
be presented as
 4
DE þ u2 = c2 e ðuÞ  E ¼ VðV $ EÞ (2.1.12)

Although it is valid for both, “t” and “l,” waves, it is more convenient for potential waves
to substitute E ¼
Vf into the dot product of V with Eq. (2.1.8) to arrive at
4 
V e ðuÞ  Vf ¼ 0 (2.1.13)

For plane waves, Eqs. (2.1.12) and (2.1.13) become a system of algebraic equations
 
ðaÞ eab
N 2 dab
ka kb =k2 Eb ¼ 0
(2.1.14)
ðbÞka eab ðuÞkb f ¼ 0

Here N ¼ jNj ¼ jkc =uj is the refraction index. For potential waves, N[1.
In order to have nontrivial solutions of Eq. (2.1.14), the determinant of the matrix, eab


N dab
ka kb =k2 ), and the total of ka kb eab must vanish. The resulting dispersion relation
2

for the wave normal modes (eigenmodes) reads

 
ðaÞ det eab ðu; kÞ
N 2 dab
ka kb =k2 ¼ 0
(2.1.15)
ðbÞ eðu; kÞ ¼ k
2 ka kb eab ðu; kÞ ¼ 0
22 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

Here e (indicated by the wavy accent) is the scalar dielectric permittivity. For potential
waves, the contribution of each species to e can be easily obtained from Poisson’s equation
as follows. The perturbed charge density is rðe;iÞ ¼ Hedne;i . Then, from the continuity equa-
tion (2.1.2) and dispersion law (2.1.7) we have
dispersion
continuity zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
! ffl{
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{
  X
ðe;iÞ
rk;u
ðe;iÞ
¼ kjk;u =u ¼
ði=uÞka kb sab fk;u /k2 1

ðe;iÞ
eðe;iÞ ðk; uÞ e0 fk;u (2.1.15c)
e;i

ðe;iÞ ðe;iÞ ðe;iÞ ðe;iÞ

That is; rk;u ¼
k2 e0e fk;u or e fk;u ¼
k
2 rk;u =e0

We need the particles’ response to the applied field in order to determine the dielectric
tensor. For that, it is necessary to determine motion of particles under the action of the elec-
tromagnetic force. In general, the kinetic theory is most accurate for this task, whereas in
some specific cases thermal motion is unimportant and plasmas can be treated as fluids using
hydrodynamic equations.

2.1.1.5 Hydrodynamic approach

In the fluid or hydrodynamic approach the plasma response to applied fields is insensitive
to their individual velocities, vk . Thus, they can be replaced by the mean velocity, v, for each
species
X ðjÞ
drj dt ¼ vj ¼ uj ¼ N
1
j v
k k

Here Nj is the number of particles and j ¼ e or i.

Motion of nonrelativistic particles with the electric charge, q, and mass, m, under action of
external electric, E, and magnetic, B, fields obeys the Lorentz force

mdv=dt ¼ qðE þ v  BÞ (2.1.16)

The total derivative, dv=dt, is taken at the position of the particle, rðtÞ. Averaging over the
ensemble of particles replaces dv=dt, by du=dt, taken in the reference frame of the fluid
element (parcel) moving at the average speed, u.
In the laboratory frame, the variation, dF, of any function, Fðr; tÞ, during the time interval, dt,
comprises two parts. The first one is the time variation at the given point, ðvF =vtÞjr . The second
part is the spatial variation, ðdr ,VÞF, between two points at the distance, dr ¼ udt, traveled by
the fluid parcel during the interval, dt. Their total divided by dt gives the total or convective
derivative (the Euler equation), that is, the partial time derivative þ advective derivative
!
convective partial advective
zfflffl}|fflffl{ zffl}|ffl{ zfflffl}|fflffl{
¼ F (2.1.17)
dF=dt v=vt þ ðu$VÞ
 2.1.1 Background 23
Accounting for the kinetic pressure, Pj , gravity, mj g, and the frictional force,
mj nj v, leads
to the two-fluid hydrodynamic equations of motion for electrons (j ¼ e) and ions (j ¼ i)

v  
mj þ uj $ V uj ¼ qj E þ uj  B
n
1
j VPj
mj nj uj þ mj g (2.1.18)
vt

Here nj is the mean transport collision frequency obtained by averaging the collisional in-
tegral on the r.h.s. of the kinetic equation (2.1.21) over the j species. It determines the mean
free path:

l j ¼ v = nj ð e Þ
Maxwellian
w lTj ¼ vTj = nj Tj .

Finally, in the absence of the source (e.g., ionization) and loss (e.g., recombination) of
charged particles, the continuity equation for the electron or ion fluid reads
 
vnj = vt þ V $ nj uj ¼ 0 or dnj = dt ¼
nj V $ uj (2.1.19)

The set of equations (2.1.18) and (2.1.19) describes the response of the electron and ion
fluids. Together with Maxwell’s equations and equations of state, they constitute the basis
of the two-fluid magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) theory. It can be easily generalized to the
multifluid MHD model by adding continuity and momentum equations for multiple ion spe-
cies. If the difference between the ion and electron fluids has an insignificant effect, a plasma
can be treated as a magnetized conducting fluid in terms of the one-fluid MHD model (see
Section 2.1.6). The MHD approach satisfactorily describes large-scale, slow plasma processes,
such as ultra-low frequency (ULF) waves ubiquitous in space plasmas.

2.1.1.6 Kinetic approach

In general, the plasma response depends on the distribution of plasma particles over ve-
locities. The distribution function (DF), Fðr; v; tÞ, defines the density of particles with veloc-
ities between v and v þ dv at position r and time t or at each point (r, v) in phase-space
Z
dnðr; v; tÞ ¼ Fðr; v; tÞdv and Fðr; v; tÞdv ¼ nðr; tÞ

R RN RN RN
Hereafter, dv stands for dvx dvy dvz and dv for
N dvx
N dvy
N dvz . In general, the DF
is a function of the particle integrals of motion, i.e., variables that remain constant along the
particle trajectory. In thermal equilibrium with the temperature, T, the distribution of each
species is a Maxwellian distribution function (MDF)

1
FM ðr; 3; tÞ ¼ nðr; tÞ expð
3 = TÞ (2.1.20)
p3=2 v3T
24 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

Here 3 ¼ mv2 =2 is the kinetic energy of nonrelativistic particles. In a magnetized plasma,

the temperatures along and across the magnetic field may differ, i.e., Tk sTt . In this case, a

typical anisotropic distribution function, F 3t ; 3k , is a bi-Maxwellian distribution:
 n 
F2M 3k ; 3t ¼ exp
3k = Tk
3t = Tt
p3=2 v 2
Tk v Tt

Averaging over the ensemble of particles is achieved by multiplying by the DF and inte-
grating over velocities:
Z
hAðvÞi ¼ n
1 AðvÞFðr; v; tÞdv

For example, the E kinetic energy parallel and perpendicular to B in a bi-Maxwellian

D average
plasma is 3jj ¼ mv2jj =2 ¼ Tjj =2 and h3t i ¼ mv2t ¼ Tt , respectively. In cold (T/ 0)

plasmas, FM ðvÞ reduces to dðvÞ ¼ dðvx Þd vy dðvz Þ, where dðxÞ is Dirac’s delta function. In this
case, there is no distinction between individual particles, and the fluid theory is accurate. In
warm plasmas, the fluid approach may also work under certain conditions on the wave mo-
tion (see Section 2.1.4).
The DF variation under the influence of electromagnetic fields in a uniform plasma is
described by the kinetic (Vlasov) equation

d
ðv = vt þ ðv $ VÞ þ ðq = mÞðE þ v  BÞ $ v = vvÞF ¼ F (2.1.21)
dt

Here dtd F is the collisional integral. The physical meaning of the left-hand side (hereafter,
l.h.s.) of Eq. (2.1.21) becomes clear in the frame of particles moving in phase-space

d v dr dv v
F¼ þ $V þ $ F
dt vt dt dt vv

It is simply the continuity (Liouville) equation for the phase density of particles along the
six-dimensional phase-space trajectory.
A remark is in order concerning the procedure of taking moments of the kinetic equation.
That means multiplying the Vlasov equation by various powers of v and then integrating
over velocity. This procedure creates a system of differential equations for the mean
quantitiesdthe density, mean velocity, temperature, etc. However, the resulting system of
differential equations is not complete because the advective derivative, ðv ,VÞ, always yields
a higher moment, which requires its own equation. For example, the continuity equation
(zero order moment) includes the first-order momentdthe mean velocity. The momentum
equation (first order) includes the second-order moment via the pressure gradient, etc. In or-
der to truncate this sequence, sometimes it is sufficient to assume either the adiabatic (no heat
exchange) or the isothermal (fast heat exchange) equation of state and ignore the heat
 2.1.2 Drift in static magnetic fields 25
transport equation. Otherwise, the closure should be considered depending on the process
under consideration (see, e.g., Braginskii, 1965).
Next, we describe some typical cases of motion of individual (test) particles necessary for
derivation of the dielectric properties of plasmas (see more details in, e.g., Sivukhin (1965)
and Bellan (2008)).

2.1.2 Drift in static magnetic fields

2.1.2.1 Cyclotron rotation

We consider first a uniform and stationary magnetic field, B ¼ jBj ¼ const, parallel to
the z axis, b ¼ B=B ¼ ez . In the absence of the electric field, E ¼ 0, Eq. (2.1.16) becomes

d q
v ¼ v  B ¼ u c  vt (2.1.22)
dt m

Here uc ¼
signðqÞuc b, with the angular cyclotron (gyro) frequency, uc ¼ jqjB=m.

As follows from the equation of motion (2.1.22), the magnetic field does
no work on
charged particles, so their kinetic energy and speed remain constant. Indeed, dvk dth0, while


the perpendicular energy, 3t ¼ mv2t 2, is conserved as d3t ¼ mvt ,dvt fqvt ,ðv BÞ ¼
0. Thus, particles move on helical trajectories evenly rotating around B with the gyroperiod,
Tc ¼ 2p=uc ,

xc ðtÞ ¼ rc sinðuc ðt
t0 Þ þ 40 Þ; yc ðtÞ ¼ rq cosðuc ðt
t0 Þ þ 40 Þ; z ¼ z0 þ vk t;

vx ðtÞ ¼ vt cosðuc ðt
t0 Þ þ 40 Þ; vy ðtÞ ¼
vt sinðuc ðt
t0 Þ þ 40 ÞsignðqÞ; vz ðtÞ ¼ vz ;
(2.1.23)


Here rc ¼ vt =uc is the gyroradius or Larmor radius, 40 ¼ arctan x0 y0 , and rq ¼
signðqÞrc is the particle’s “spin” radius. The pitch-angle of the helix is q ¼ arctanðvt =vz Þ.
In the polar coordinate system, r ¼ ðrt ; 4; zÞ, cyclotron rotation or gyration is simply the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
phase cyclic variation, d4=dt ¼
signðqÞuc , with the constant radius, rt ¼ x2 þ y2 ¼ rc .
Here, the azimuth angle, 4 ¼ arccosðx =rt Þ, is counted counterclockwise from the x axis to-
ward the y axis. Electrons rotate about the gyration center counterclockwise in time, i.e., in
the right-hand sense, as viewed along B. Clearly, ions
rotate clockwise in the left-hand sense.
Gyrating particles experience the centrifugal, mv2t rt , and centripetal Lorentz, uc  vt ,
forces. Their balance yields the gyration radius, rt ¼ rc .
Averaging the particle orbit (2.1.23) over fast gyration shows no average motion (drift)
across uniform magnetic field lines:
Z Tc
dxc =dt ¼ Tc
1 xc ðtÞdt ¼ dyc =dt ¼ 0 / vt ðtÞ ¼ 0
0
26 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

2.1.2.2 E 3 B drift
If a perpendicular electric field, Et ¼ const, is imposed, the momentum equation reads

mdv = dt ¼ qðEt þ v  BÞ

Applying the cross product of b ¼ ez to both sides of this equation and using the vector
identity, A  ðB CÞ ¼ ðA ,CÞB
ðA ,BÞC, gives the E  B-drift velocity:

vt ðtÞ ¼ VE ¼ B
1
0 Et  b

The drift originates from the electric force acting on a gyrating particle. Assume that par-
ticles are accelerated by qEt during the first-half of the gyration period and then decelerated
during the second-half, or vice versa. Therefore, the average radius will increase during the
first-half of the gyration and then decrease during the second-half, or vice versa. As a result,
during each rotation the trajectory does not complete a closed circle but gradually moves
along Et  B (see Fig. 2.1.1A). The electric force and spin direction, uc , are determined by
the particle’s charge, q. Thus, the resulting drift direction does not depend on the charge
and hence the E  B drift produces zero electric current as electrons and ions drift alongside.

2.1.2.3 Polarization and Pedersen drift

However, any slowly varying, independent of the charge external force per one particle,
Ft , leads to a drift depending on the charge: VD ðFt Þ ¼ VE ðFt =qÞ. Such external forces pro-
duce electric currents. Let us assume that the electric field slowly varies in time,

FIGURE 2.1.1 A schematic of the drift motion and guiding center: (A) E  B drift due to an external electric field;
(B) Rg (r) is the radius vector of the guiding center of the ion, indicated by a gray circle; (C) magnetic gradient drift;
and (D) magnetic curvature drift. The coordinate system and the direction of the magnetic and electric fields and
magnetic gradients are shown.
 2.1.2 Drift in static magnetic fields 27
jdlnjEt j =dtjwU  uc , and also include the frictional force in Eq. (2.1.16). The resulting
equation

d
m v ¼ qðEt þ v  BÞ
mnv
dt

yields the Et  B drift in the zero order in U=uc  1 and n=uc  1. Then, substituting
VE þ vð1Þ for v in this equation yields in the first order in U=uc and n=uc the “external” force,
Ft ¼
mðd =dt þnÞVE on the r.h.s. This force results in the polarization, Vpol, and collisional,
Vn, drift speed
! !
polarizationt Pedersen
VD ðEt Þ ¼ VE þ Vpol þ Vn ¼ B
1
0 Et  b þ u
1
c signðqÞ d=dt þ n Et (2.1.24)

The polarization current is carried mostly by heavyweight ions:

n0 mi d 1 d
jpol ¼ Et ¼ Et
2
B0 dt m0 c2A dt


Here cA ¼ B0 ðm0 n0 mi Þ1=2 is the Alfvén speed. Therefore, for low-frequency, U  Uci ,
wave electric fields we have from the dielectric relations (2.1.5)e(2.1.7) the perpendicular


dielectric constant, et ¼ 1 þ n0 mi e0 B20 . The collisional drift current, neVn , is known as the
Pedersen current with the conductivity, sP ¼ ðne =B0 Þðn =uc Þ.
The convective derivative in Vpol indicates that the polarization drift is also created by a
weakly inhomogeneous, rc jVln Et j
1  1, electric field:

dEt =dt ¼ ðv = vt þ v $ VÞ Et

2.1.2.4 Guiding center

Now we introduce a guiding center, Rg ðtÞ, around which a particle with the radius vector,

rðtÞ, gyrates (Fig. 2.1.1B). Then, from the relation, vt ¼ uc  r
Rg , we get

signðqÞ
Rg ðtÞ ¼ rðtÞ þ vt  b ¼ rðtÞ
rq e2 (2.1.25)
uc

Here e1 ¼ vt =vt ¼ e2  b and e2 ¼ b  e1 are a pair of unit vectors gyrating about b ¼

e1  e2 . This pair is very useful in the case of nonuniform magnetic fields.
Another useful variable is the magnetic moment,

mt ¼
jqjTc
1 pr2c b ¼
ð3t = B0 Þb (2.1.26)

28 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

Indeed, the rotation of a charged particle creates a circular loop with the azimuthal electric
current, q=Tc , and the area, pr2c . The current loop-generated magnetic field is opposite to
external magnetic field, as follows from Lenz’s law. A quantitative measure of the plasma
diamagnetism is the diamagnetic correction, dBdia ¼ h
m0 ne mt i ¼
m0 P=B. The ratio,

b ¼ 2jdBdia j = B ¼ 2m0 P = B2 ;

specifies the relative role of the plasma and magnetic pressure.

2.1.2.5 Gradient-curvature drift

Let us now consider a nonuniform magnetic field, i.e., B ¼ BðrÞ, with the gradient scale
length, LB ¼ B=jVBj,

much greater than the Larmor radius, rc , and the parallel Larmor
length, rk ¼ rc vk vt . Therefore, the magnetic field in the location of a rapidly gyrating par-
ticle in the first order of Taylor’s expansion in rc =LB  1 is
  
BðrÞ ¼ B Rg þ r
Rg $ V B Rg z B0 þ rq ðe2 $ VÞB0 (2.1.27)

Henceforth, we designate any function at the guiding center location, J Rg , as J0 . A
smooth drift motion results from averaging over the fast gyration. The guiding center expe-
riences only small, wL
1
B , fast oscillations about its smooth average trajectory. Therefore,
averaging B0 gives B0 ¼ B0 in the first order in rc =LB  1. That is, the magnetic field at
Rg is a smoothly varying vector. The same is true for E0 ¼ E Rg , so that

1 2 1
EðrÞ z 1 þ rq ðe2 VÞ E0 ¼ 1 þ r2c V2t E0 (2.1.28)
2 4

The second-order term is the finite Larmor radius correction to the electric drift. That may
be important for short-scale waves, such as kinetic Alfvén waves discussed in Section 2.1.6.3.
Next we include the perpendicular gradient, VBtb. As the plasma is isotropic in the x
y
plane, we can take VB ¼ ey Vy BðyÞ without loss of generality. As the Larmor radius varies as


1/jBðrÞj, the net difference over the gyration period, Tc , from Eq. (2.1.27) is wr2c LB . By anal-
ogy with VD (2.1.24), particles will drift along q
1 Vy B  b (Fig. 2.1.1C).

Substituting BðyÞz B0 þyVy B0 b into Eq. (2.1.22) gives an “external force”



FVB ¼ qðvt bÞyVy B0 . With vt ¼ ex dxc dt þ ey dyc dt (2.1.23), averaging FVB over the gyra-
tion period yields
q
FVB ¼
vt rq0 VB0 ¼
mt VB0 (2.1.29)
2

Using VD ðFÞ ¼ VE ðF =qÞ (2.1.24), we arrive at

1
VVB ¼
m ðVB0  bÞ (2.1.30)
qB0 t
 2.1.3 Cold plasma 29
The magnetic moment, mt (2.1.26), is the (first) adiabatic invariant conserved in a weakly
varying magnetic field. Indeed, the total particle’s energy, 3, is constant, so d3k ¼
d3t .



Substituting d3t ¼ mt dB þ Bdmt and using d3k dt ¼
mt vk Vk B ¼
mt dB dt at the par-
ticle’s location, we get dmt =dt ¼ 0.
Let us calculate the drift speed using the guiding center. Taking time derivative of Rg
(2.1.25) with the aid of Eq. (2.1.22) yields

d 1 dv dB 1 VB
Rg ¼ v þ b
vb ¼ vk b þ E  b þ vt r q e1 $ e2 (2.1.31)
dt uc dt dt B0 B0

We accounted that the total derivative, dB=dt, is the convective derivative, ðv ,VÞB ¼
vt ðe1 ,VÞB, for a stationary field.
Averaging Eq. (2.1.31) over fast gyration gives Vg ¼ vk b þ VE þ VVB , which coincides
with the particle’s drift accurate to within ðrc =LB Þ2 . Here we used the relation
ðe1 ,At Þe2 ¼ 12 b  At valid for any vector, At , slowly varying in time and space relative
to fast gyration. It is obtained from the obvious equality ðe1 ,At Þe1 ¼ ðe2 ,At Þe2 as follows.
First, substituting the identity, At ¼ ðe1 ,At Þe1 þ ðe2 ,At Þe2 , into this equality we obtain

e1;2 ,At e1;2 ¼ 12At . Next, replacing At by b  At and using the identity, e1 ¼ e2  b
and e2 ¼ b  e1 , we get the sought for relation ðe1 ,At Þe2 ¼
ðe2 ,At Þe1 ¼ 12 ½b At .
Next, we consider curved magnetic field lines with the radius of curvature, Rc [ rc
(Fig. 2.1.1D)..Particles moving along B experience the (slowly varying) centrifugal force,


Fcf ¼ mv2k Rc R2c , which causes the curvature drift, Vc ¼ VE Fcf q . Summing it up with
VVB (2.1.30) gives the gradient-curvature drift
“vacuum” field
zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{
1 VB0 Rc 1  Rc
Vgc ¼
3t þ 23k 2  b/ 3t þ 23k 2  b (2.1.32)
qB0 B20 Rc qB0 Rc

In order to obtain the last term on r.h.s. of Eq. (2.1.32), we used the so-called “vacuum”
field approximation, V  B ¼ 0, for a cold plasma. In this case, the magnetic gradient and


curvature are related as Vt B0 ¼
B0 Rc R2c .
To conclude, we underscore that the drift approximation is valid in weakly inhomoge-
neous plasmas with the gradient scale lengths much greater than the gyroradius and with
external forces varying in time much slower than gyration.
Next, we derive the dielectric permittivity and describe typical waves in cold plasmas.

2.1.3 Cold plasma

Thermal motion is absent in cold plasmas so the fluid approximation is well justified.
30 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

2.1.3.1 Unmagnetized plasma

In isotropic, B0 ¼ 0 plasmas, the dielectric permittivity tensor, 3ab ðuÞ (2.1.7), reduces to
ec ðuÞdab , with
ec ðuÞ ¼ 1 þ cc ðuÞ=e0 ¼ 1 þ isc ðuÞ=e0 u (2.1.33)

Then, the dispersion relations (2.1.15) become

ðaÞec ðuÞ ¼ N 2 and ðbÞec ðuÞ ¼ 0 (2.1.34)

with ec ðuÞ calculated using the electric current

j ¼ en0 ðui
ue Þ ¼ sc ðuÞE (2.1.35)

Linearizing Eq. (2.1.18) with Pj ¼ g ¼ n ¼ 0 by disregarding the second-order terms, f

u  B and ðu ,VÞu, gives the fluid velocities

ue ¼
iðe = me uÞE and

ui ¼ iðe = mi uÞE ¼
ðme = mi Þue ¼
mue (2.1.36)

 .
Eqs. (2.1.35) and (2.1.36) yield sc ðuÞ ¼ ie0 u2pe þU2pi u with the ion plasma frequency,
Upi ¼ m1=2 upe . Henceforth, we will use UPPER CASE characters for frequencies and variables
wherever the ion motion is essential. The resulting scalar dielectric permittivity is
 
ec ðuÞ ¼ 1
u2pe þ U2pi = u2 (2.1.37)

Neglecting the ion contribution in the dispersion relation (2.1.37), one obtains from (2.1.34)
the eigenfrequencies of high frequency (electron) modes
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ðaÞut ¼ u2pe þ k2 c2 and ðbÞul ¼ upe (2.1.38)

The electromagnetic

wave frequency, ut , tends to the dispersion of light in free space, u ¼
kc, at kc upe [1. As plasma particles cannot respond to rapidly varying fields, the plasma
dispersion e0 ec ðuÞ tends to that of free space, e0 . The speed of light exceeds the group veloc-
ity, vg ¼ c,ec , and is smaller than the phase velocity, vph ¼ c=ec . At u/upe , the wave
1=2 1=2

approaches cutoff, k/0. Clearly, plasma is opaque, N 2 < 0, at u < upe .

The potential mode (2.1.38b) describes oscillations of the electron fluid with respect to
static ions, called Langmuir oscillations. Simply put, as soon as electrons depart from ions,
for example, in the x direction, the polarization electric field, dEx ; emerges to restore the
charge neutrality. As follows from Poisson’s Eq. (2.1.1b), dEx ¼ en0 dx=e0 , so the resulting
electron motion is a simple harmonic motion at the plasma frequency, upe
 2.1.3 Cold plasma 31

v2 edEx n0 e2
dx ¼
¼
dx ¼
u2pe dx
vt2 me e0 me
As usual for a harmonic oscillator, the mean kinetic energy is equal to the mean potential
energy. For electrons oscillating about ions, we have, respectively, 3kin ¼ 12n0 me ðvdx=vtÞ2 and
WE ¼ 12e0 jdEx j2 . That is, the total energy density of Langmuir oscillations, WL, is twice the
electrostatic energy. We give a more general expression for the wave energy after introducing
wave damping and complex permittivity.
It is useful for derivation of nonlinear wave equations (Chapter 2.3) to derive the differen-
tial wave equation directly in the spaceetime domain. Applying the time derivative, v= vt, to
the continuity equation (2.1.19) and using Eq. (2.1.18) after linearization, ne ¼ n0 ð1 þdne Þ,
gives

v2 dne = vt2 ¼
V $ vue = vt ¼
ðe = me ÞDf (2.1.39)

Note that dne is a dimensionless quantity. Henceforth, we will employ such substitution for
the density variation, unless noted. Using Poisson’s equation, Df ¼ en0 dne =e0 , we arrive at a
simple oscillator equation
ðcÞ
 
b
L l f h v2 = vt2 þ u2pe dne ¼ 0 (2.1.40)

Evidently, Fourier transform reduces Eq. (2.1.40) to the dispersion (2.1.38(b)). Vice versa,
replacing u by iv=vt and k by
iV in Eq. (2.1.38b) gives Eq. (2.1.40).

2.1.3.2 Magnetized plasma

The background magnetic field, B0, adds more complexity to particles’ motion, because of
two directions: k and B0. Henceforth, the terms parallel and perpendicular denote the vector
direction relative to B0. The terms longitudinal and transverse remain for the polarization,
i.e., Ejjk and Etk, respectively.
As the parallel motion of particles under action of the parallel field, ujjEjjB0 (jjez), does not
depend on B0, the dispersion remains the same as in an isotropic plasma, ek ¼ ec (2.1.37). For
perpendicular (EtB0 ) wave fields, the linearized equation of motion for the electron fluid
reads

vue = vt ¼
ðe = me ÞEt
uce ue  ez (2.1.41)

Substituting Ejjex into Eq. (2.1.41), we obtain i ux ¼ ðe =muÞEx þ ðuce =uÞuy and uy ¼
iðuce =uÞux . Calculating ja ¼
n0 eua ¼ sab Eb (a and b ¼ x, y), we get

uu2pe uce
sxx ¼ ie0  h st and syx ¼ i sxx h
s^ (2.1.42)
u2
u2ce u
32 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

Similarly, taking Ejjey yields syy ¼ sxx ¼ st and sxy ¼
syx ¼ s^ . In the general case,
Et ¼ Ex þ Ey , the electron current is

jt ¼ st Et þ s^ ez  Et (2.1.43)

Since sab ¼
iuðeab
dab Þ=e0 , we get exx ¼ eyy ¼ et and exy ¼
eyx ¼
ie^ , where

u2pe V uce upe

2
V
et ¼ 1
¼ 1
and e ^ ¼
¼
Y (2.1.44)
u2
u2ce 1
Y2 u u2
u2ce 1
Y2

Here we denote V ¼ u2pe =u2 and Y ¼ uce =u. Therefore, the dielectric permittivity tensor
in collisionless cold magnetoactive plasma reads
2 3 2 3
exx exy 0 et
ie^ 0
4 ðmÞ 6 7 6 7
e ¼6 e e
4 yx yy 0 7 ¼ 6
5 4 e^ et
i 07
5 (2.1.45)
0 0 ezz 0 0 ek

At high frequencies, u[uce , many oscillations occur during one gyration. Thus, the off-
4 ðmÞ
diagonal terms in e are small, while et zek ¼ ec (2.1.37). The same also occurs for small
propagation angles: sin2 q  1. That is, the cyclotron effects vanish and the isotropic
 case,
eab zdab ec , recovers. The absence of the ion contribution implies that u[max Upi ; Uci . In
general, the ion terms can be obtained by replacing the electron indices by those of the
ðmÞ ðm;eÞ ðm;iÞ
ions, so the permittivity tensor becomes ejk ¼ ejk þ ejk .

High- and low-frequency potential oscillations

ðmÞ ðmÞ
For parallel (kjjB0jjz) electron waves, the scalar dielectric permittivity, e ¼ k
2 ka kb eab ,
is ek ¼ ec (2.1.37) and hence uk ¼ upe . For perpendicular oscillations, kt ¼ kx þ ky , we
obtain e ¼ et , which tends to zero at V/Vuh ¼ 1
Y2 , hereby yielding the frequency
m

of the upper hybrid (UH) eigenmode called the upper hybrid resonance
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uk h uuhr ¼ u2pe þ u2ce (2.1.46)

It is greater than for Langmuir oscillations because of two restoring forces (electrosta-
tic þ magnetic) acting in the perpendicular direction. 
For oblique propagation, we can take k in the y
z plane, k ¼ k ey sin q þez cos q ,
where cos q ¼ kz /k. Since the parallel and perpendicular motions are independent, the scalar
dielectric permittivity becomes

u2pe u2pe
eðmÞ h ezz ðu; qÞ ¼ ek cos2 q þ et sin2 q ¼ 1
cos2 q
sin2 q (2.1.47)
u 2 u2
u2ce
 2.1.3 Cold plasma 33
The dispersion equation, ezz ðuÞ ¼ 0, can be written as follows:

u2ce u2
V ¼ VN ¼ 1
= 1
ce2 cos2 q (2.1.48)
u 2 u

It introduces the quantity VN the meaning of which will be explained shortly.

Eq. (2.1.48) is a biquadratic in u algebraic equation

u4
u2 u2uhr þ u2pe u2ce cos2 q ¼ 0.

which yields high- and low-frequency branches

1 2 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1=2
u2hf ;lf ¼ uuhr  u4uhr
4u2pe u2ce cos2 q (2.1.49)
2

At q/0, the HF and LF modes are Langmuir, upe , and cyclotron, uce , oscillations,
respectively. At q ¼ p=2, the HF mode becomes the upper hybrid resonance, uuhr (2.1.46),
while the LF branch vanishes: Ulf ðq /p =2Þ/0. In this case, the ion motion becomes essential.
Taking Uci  U  uce and adding to ezz (2.1.47) the contribution of unmagnetized ions,
U2pi =
U2 ¼
m V, we arrive at the dispersion equation for the lower hybrid (LH) mode

u2pe u2pe U2pi

ezzðlhÞ ¼ 1
cos2 q þ sin2 q
¼ 0
U2 u2ce U2
8 (2.1.50)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi < Ulhr ; cos q  m1=2
Uk ¼ Ulh ðkÞ ¼ Ulhr 1 þ m
1 cos2 qz
: u cos q; cos q[m1=2
ce

. . 1=2
Here Ulhr ¼ uce m1=2 1 þ u2ce u2pe is the LH resonance. At upe [uce , the LH resonance
is the geometric mean of the ion and electron gyro frequencies, Ulhr zm1=2 uce , while the HF
mode is nearly Langmuir oscillations,
 
uhf z upe þ u2ce = 2u2pe sin2 q

Oblique low-frequency oscillations at Uk ¼ uce cos q are termed the lower hybrid oblique
resonance (LOR) modes.
The differential wave equation for the LH-mode results from linearized continuity and mo-
tion equations (2.1.18) and (2.1.19) for unmagnetized ions and magnetized electrons. Alike
Langmuir oscillations, applying the time derivative, v=vt, to the continuity equation
(2.1.19) for ions with Ni ¼ n0 ð1 þdNi Þ and using Eq. (2.1.18) gives

v2 v e
dNi ¼
V$Ui ¼ DF (2.1.51)
vt2 vt mi
34 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

Here F is the electric potential of LH oscillations. Recall that capital letters denote low-
frequency variables. In turn, the drift approximation for electrons, Ute ¼ VE þ Vpol
(2.1.24), results in

v2 v e
2 v
2
dn ¼
V U ¼
u V2 þ V2k F (2.1.52)
vt2 t
e $ e
vt2 vt me ce

The second-order time derivative of Poisson’s equation (2.1.1b), with Eqs. (2.1.51) and
(2.1.52), gives

b ðcÞ v2 2
L lh F h V þ U2lhr V2 þ u2ce V2k F ¼ 0 (2.1.53)
vt2 t

That results directly from U2lh (2.1.50) with (U, k) replaced by i(v=vt;
V).

Electromagnetic modes
 ðmÞ
In the general case of oblique propagation, k ¼ k ey sin q þez cos q , substituting eab
(2.1.45) into Eq. (2.1.14a) gives the matrix equation
2 3 2 32 3
Ex e
N2
ie^ 0 Ex
4ðbÞ 6 7 6 t 76 7
e ab 6 7 6
4 E y 5 ¼ 4 i e^ et
N 2 cos2 q 2 7 6
N sin q cos q 54 Ey 75¼0 (2.1.54)
Ez 0 N sin q cos q
2
ek
N sin q Ez
2 2

4ðbÞ
Taking determinant of the matrix, e ab , zero, after straightforward calculations one arrives
at a biquadratic in N algebraic equation (e.g., Budden, 1985):

AN 4 þ BN 2 þ C ¼ 0 with
A ¼ ezz ðu; qÞ ¼ ek cos2 q þ et sin2 q
  (2.1.55)
B ¼ e2^
e2t sin2 q
et ek 1 þ cos2 q

C ¼ ek e2t
e2^

This equation has an obvious solution

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

B  B2
4AC
2
N1;2 ¼ (2.1.56)
2A

Two independent solutions indicate that magnetized plasmas support two electromag-
netic modes with different polarizations: “ordinary” (O) and “extraordinary” (X) waves.
The subscript “1” (“þ”) and 2 (“
”) denotes the X and O mode, respectively. At a ¼ p=2,
the O-wave dispersion and cutoff are the same as in unmagnetized plasma. Thus, these
waves are called “ordinary” waves. The term “extraordinary” underscores more complicated
 2.1.3 Cold plasma 35
characteristics of the X wave (see shortly). The O-mode electric field is in the k
B0 plane,
while that of the X-mode is perpendicular to B0.
Some general wave properties follow directly from Eqs. (2.1.55) and (2.1.56). Straightfor-


ward calculations give B2
4AC ¼ X Y2 V 2 1
Y2 with

X ¼ Y2 sin4 q þ 4ð1
VÞ2 cos2 q (2.1.57)

Since B2
4AC in the solution (2.1.56) must be positive, N 2 is either positive (propagating
waves) or negative (evanescent waves). From Eq. (2.1.56) it follows that cutoffs, N1;2 ¼ 0,
occur at C ¼ 0 for either ek ¼ 0 (O mode) or et ¼ e^ (X mode). Further, A ¼ ezz ðaÞ
(2.1.47) vanishes at V ¼ VN (2.1.48). At that point N2 tends to infinity, thus indicating that
the waves reach the resonance with the high-frequency potential branch (2.1.49).
Between the upper hybrid and plasma resonances, 1
Y2 < V < 1, we can express a as a
function of V and Y from VN ðq; YÞ (2.1.48)

tan2 qres ¼ ð1
VÞ 1
Y2 = ðV
Vuh Þ (2.1.58)

Extraordinary waves propagating near the resonance cone, q/qres , become quasi-
electrostatic because A ¼ 3zz ðqÞ/0. These slow extraordinary waves in the ionosphere are
called the Z-mode waves.
As follows from Eq. (2.1.54), the parallel and perpendicular electric components of the
waves are connected

Ez = Ey ¼
N 2 cos q sin q = ek
N 2 sin2 q (2.1.59)

The obvious exceptions occur for the parallel and perpendicular propagation. For a ¼ p=
2 or k ¼ key , we still have two choices for polarization: either Ez jjB0 or Ex,ytB0. The trans-
verse polarization corresponds to the O mode with NO2 ¼ ek . The X wave has both trans-
verse, Ex , and longitudinal, Ey , components. As follows from Eq. (2.1.54), they connect to


each other via the polarization coefficient, K ¼ Ey Ex

K1 ¼ Ey =Ex ¼
ie^ =et ¼ et
N12 =ie^ with
  (2.1.60)
¼ et
e2^ =et ¼ ð1
VÞ
Y2 = 1
V
Y2
2
N12 ¼ Nt
2

This dispersion relation yields two cutoff frequencies, N12 ¼ 0, at VR;L ¼ 1HY, with the
right-hand (R, “
”) and left-hand (L, “þ”) polarization
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1 upe [uce 1
uR;L ¼  uce þ u2pe þ u2ce z upe  uce (2.1.61)
2 4 2

Our choice of Fourier representation (2.1.9) determines that at ImK > 0 (ImK < 0) the vec-
tor, Efe
iut , rotates counterclockwise (clockwise) in time or in the right-hand (left-hand)
sense as viewed along k. In general, the X mode is elliptically polarized, jK1 js1. Near the
36 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

upper hybrid resonance,

 2 V/Vuh ¼ 1
Y2 (u/uuhr ), we have et /0 so that


   
jK1 j ¼ Ey Ex f Nt /N. It means that the X wave becomes nearly electrostatic.
For waves propagating parallel to B0 (kjjB0 or q ¼ 0), substituting E ¼ Ex þ Ey into
Eq. (2.1.54) yields
 
K ¼
i et
N 2 = e^ ¼
ie^ = et
N 2 (2.1.62)

From Eq. (2.1.62) we obtain

V u2pe
2
NR;L ¼ et  e^ ¼ 1
¼ 1
(2.1.63)
1HY uðuHuce Þ

with the same cutoff frequencies (2.1.61). As follows from Eq. (2.1.62), both waves are circu-
larly polarized, KR;L ¼ i, near the cutoff. For k k B0 , the vector ER ðEL Þ rotates exactly as
gyrating electrons (ions). Left-hand polarized O waves can propagate (NL2 > 0) only at u >
uL . Right-hand X waves have two propagation bands: u > uR (NR2 < 1) and u < uce (NR2 > 1).
We note that a typical representative of the low-frequency band is the whistler (“w”) mode
at
 
Uw ¼ uce k2 c2 = k2 c2 þ u2pe < uce

Whistlers effectively interact with energetic electrons in space plasmas including radiation
belts and deserve a special description to be presented in Chapter 5.4. The name is coined
from a “whistle”ethe signal descending tone, as exemplified in https://www.youtube.-
com/watch?v=ZVlZ5ikvet8.
At arbitrary q, taking N 2 ¼ 1 þ h and rewriting Eq. (2.1.56) for h
1 results in the
AppletoneHartree dispersion relation

2ðA þ B þ CÞ 2Vð1
VÞ
2
N1;2
1 ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼
pffiffiffiffi (2.1.64)
2A þ B  B
4AC
2 2ð1
VÞ
Y2 sin2 aHY X

At small q << 1 and Y < 1, the first term in X (2.1.57) is negligible at

sin4 q
zp ¼ Y2 2
1 (2.1.65)
4ð1
VÞ cos2 q

This is the case of quasi-parallel, historically known as quasi-longitudinal (QL), propaga-

tion. In the QL limit (2.1.65), the refraction index is similar to that in Eq. (2.1.63)

V u2pe
2
N1;2 ¼ 1
¼ 1
(2.1.66)
1HY cos q uðuHuce cos qÞ

That is, Y is replaced by Y cos q. In particular, the frequency of oblique whistler waves
becomes
 
Uw zuce cos q = 1 þ u2pe = k2 c2 (2.1.67)
 2.1.3 Cold plasma 37
QL-propagating X/O waves are right/left-hand elliptically polarized in the xey plane and
have the parallel component, Ez (2.1.59). At small angles, the polarization is close to circular
and changes after crossing the plasma resonance, V ¼ 1. That is, at q/0, the polarization
coefficient K1 at V < 1 becomes K2 at V > 1 and vice versa.
The QL approximation (2.1.65) breaks near the plasma resonance, V ¼ 1. The opposite
case, zp [1, is called the quasi-transverse (QT) approximation. For X waves, N12 reduces to
Nt2
(2.1.60), with Y replaced by Y sin q. For O waves, expanding X1=2 in z
1p , yields

1
V V/1 1
V
N22 ¼ ! (2.1.68)
1
V cos2 q sin2 q

with the cutoff at the plasma resonance as in an isotropic

. plasma. Fig. 2.1.2 illustrates the vari-

ation of the refraction indices, Re N1;2 , with V ¼ upe u2 . It can be seen that at qs 0 the X-
2

mode refraction coefficient, N1 , changes rapidly near VN , i.e., jdN1 =dVj[1. The wave above
the plasma resonance is a slow, left-hand polarized extraordinary wave known as the Z mode
in the geophysical literature.

Substituting N22 (2.1.68) into Ez Ey (2.1.59) gives

Ez =Ey z
sin q=ð1
VÞcos q ¼
2zp1=2 =Y sin q (2.1.69)

That is, an oblique ordinary wave near the plasma resonance is nearly aligned with B0 , while
the group velocity becomes as that in an isotropic plasma, vgk ¼ ce0 /0.
1=2

.
FIGURE 2.1.2 Variation of the O- and X-mode refraction indices with V ¼ u2pe u20 for Y ¼ uce =u0 ¼ 1=3 and
the incidence angle q ¼ 0 and 30 degrees. Above the plasma resonance, electromagnetic waves propagate as slow,
left-hand polarized extraordinary Z-mode waves.
38 2. Plasma waves and instabilities

2.1.4 Warm plasma waves

As for cold plasmas, we start with potential waves in an unmagnetized plasma to intro-
duce first the effect of thermal motion in the hydrodynamic approximation and then wavee
particle resonances and wave damping.

2.1.4.1 Unmagnetized plasma

Langmuir waves
In the fluid theory of electron oscillations, thermal motion comes into play by means of the
electron pressure, VPe , in the r.h.s. of the equation of motion (2.1.18) for electrons. For a one-
dimensional (1D), ujjEjjk, electron adiabatic motion, the equation of state is Pe fn3e . Substitut-
ing E ¼
Vf and ne ¼ n0 ð1 þdne Þ, we have VPe ¼ 3n0 Te Vdne in the first order in jdne j  1
and

je ¼
n0 eue ¼ ðn0 e = me uÞkðef
3Te dne Þ

In other words, the thermal correction “replaces” f by fTe ¼ f
3Te dne =e. Substituting
dne ¼ e0 Df=n0 e from Poisson’s equation (2.1.1b), we get
 
fTe ¼ 1
3r2D D f ¼ 1 þ 3k2 r2D f (2.1.70)

As a result, the “cold” permittivity, ec ðuÞ (2.1.37), transforms into el ðu; kÞ and electron os-
cillations (2.1.38b) become Langmuir waves (the BohmeGross dispersion relation)

u2pe Te
el ðu; kÞ ¼ 1
1 þ 3k2
u2 m e u2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (2.1.71)
3
and ul ðkÞ ¼ upe 1 þ 3k2 r2D zupe 1 þ k2 r2D
2
pffiffiffi
with the group velocity vg zð3 = 2 ÞkrD vTe and wave equation (cf. Eq. (2.1.40))
 
b
L l f h v2 = vt2 þ u2pe
3v2Te D f ¼ 0 (2.1.72)

At short wavelengths, krD w1, we have vph wvTe and ul wkvTe , which means charge fluctu-
ations related to thermal fluctuations. It is intuitively clear that this process is not sustainable
because chaotic thermal motion washes out the wave orderly motion. Such perturbations do
not persist and thus are not normal modes. At the same time, motion in the long-scale waves,
krD  1, that move much faster than thermal electrons, ul =k[vTe , is driven entirely by the
self-consistent electric field. This is an obvious example of the applicability of the fluid
approach when the wave moves much faster than the bulk of particles.
Next, we consider low frequency waves, U  upe , when motion of the ion fluid is
important.
 2.1.4 Warm plasma waves 39
Ion sound waves
Now we have two moving fluids, with different temperatures, Te sTi . The condition vTi 
U=k  vTe ensures that thermal particles are not the main drivers of charge fluctuations.
Now, we include the pressure term,
n
1 0 ge=i Te=i Vne=i on the r.h.s. of the electron and ion fluid
equations of motion (2.1.18). Since thermal electrons have enough time to make their motion
isothermal, the ratio of specific heats is ge ¼ 1. However, one-dimensional, U k E k k, mo-
tion of slow ions is adiabatic, gi ¼ 3, as for electrons in Langmuir waves.
The electron inertia term, wme UUe , in (2.1.18) is negligible so that fluctuations in the elec-
tron density (pressure) are balanced by the self-consistent electric field: en0 VF ¼ Te Vne . This
results in Boltzmann’s relation
eF=Te 1
ne ¼ n0 ð1 þ dNe Þ ¼ n0 expðeF = Te Þ ! dNe zeF = Te (2.1.73)

Similar to Langmuir waves, the ion current,

ji ¼ n0 eUi ¼ ðn0 e = mi UÞðef þ 3Ti dNi Þk;

can be expressed via the wave potential, F, and the ion density fluctuation, dNi ¼ k,Ui =U,
from the ion continuity equation. Then, Poisson’s equation,

V2 F ¼
eðdNi
dNe Þ = e0 ;

gives the scalar dielectric permittivity, eis , and eigenfrequency of ion sound (S) or ion acoustic
(IA) waves

u2pe U2pi
es ¼ 1 þ
¼ 0
k2 Te =me
U2
3k2 Ti =mi
8 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
! kcs ¼ k ðTe þ 3Ti Þ=mi ; k2 r2D  1 (2.1.74)
<
2 Te Ti 1
U ¼ k
2
3 þ /Uk ¼ Us ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
mi Te 1 þ k2 r2D :
Upi 1 þ 3k2 r2Di ; k2 r2Di  1  k2 r2D

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Here cs ¼ ðTe þ 3Ti Þ=mi is the ion sound speed and rDi ¼ ðTi =mi Þ1=2 =Upi is the ion
Debye radius. At krD  1, one has Us ¼ kcs and dNe zdNi , as electrons shield out slowly
changing ion charges. The long-wavelength dispersion resembles acoustic waves in neutral
gas, Ua ¼ kðgn Tn =mn Þ1=2 . The short-wavelength waves involve mainly ions, dNe  dNi . Their
dispersion is similar to that of Langmuir waves (2.1.71), so they are called ion Langmuir
waves. At Te /0, charge fluctuations are carried by thermal ions (ion quasimodes) whose
chaotic motion quickly destroys the orderly motion in the wave. To the contrary, for Ti /
0, we have Us =k ¼ cs [vTi . That is, ion sound waves persist only in nonisothermal, Te [
Ti , plasma. Fig. 2.1.3 illustrates the dispersion of the unmagnetized plasma eigenmodes: elec-
tromagnetic (“t”), Langmuir (“l”), and ion sound (“s”) waves.
Other documents randomly have
different content
the mean time the grandmother, and Barbe Girot, Marie Prévol's
servant, were interrogated.
Madame Lemarque stated that her daughter was an actress at the
Porte-Saint-Martin. She was very beautiful, and was more renowned
for her grace and beauty than for her acting. She danced and sang
and acted in fairy scenes. She was only three-and-twenty years of
age at the time of her death.
Upon being asked by the judge whether her daughter led a strictly
moral life, Madame Lemarque replied that her conduct was purity
itself as compared with that of many ladies who acted in fairy
pieces.
"But there was some one, perhaps," insinuated the judge, "there is
always some one. So beautiful a woman must have had many
admirers. I have her photograph here. It is an exquisite face, a
beauty quite out of the common, refined, spiritual. Surely among her
many admirers there must have been one whom she favoured above
all the rest?"
"Yes, there was one, and it was that one who murdered my
daughter and Monsieur de Maucroix. No one can doubt it."
"But you have no actual knowledge of the fact? You speak upon
conjecture?"
"Who else should murder her? Whom did she ever injure, poor child?
She was amiability itself—the kindest of comrades, charitable, good
to everybody."
"What do you know of this person whom you suspect?"
"Nothing except that which I heard from my daughter."
"Did you never see him?"
"Never. If he had been the Emperor he could not have been more
mysterious in his goings to and fro. I was never allowed to see him."
"Was he often at your daughter's apartment?"
"Very often. He used to go there after the theatre. He was devoted
to her. There were some who believed that he was her husband,
that he loved her too passionately to deny her anything she might
ask. When she was not acting he took her abroad, to Italy—to Spain.
If it were only for a holiday for a fortnight, he would carry her off to
some remote village in the Italian Alps or the Pyrenees. I used to tell
her that he was ashamed of his love for her, or he would not have
hidden her in those distant places. He would have taken her to
Dieppe or Arcachon, where she would have been seen and
admired."
"Did you ever find out who this person is?"
"Never."
"But you must know something about him and his circumstances.
Was he a nobleman, or did he belong to the mercantile class?"
"I know nothing except that he was rich. He showered gifts upon my
daughter. He would have taken her off the stage if she would have
allowed him. He would have given her a house and gardens at
Bougival instead of her little apartment on a third floor in the Rue
Lafitte; but she loved the theatre, and she had a proud spirit, poor
child—she had not the temper of la femme entretenue."
"What was the name of this person?"
"Monsieur Georges. I never heard of him by any other name."
"Did your daughter reciprocate his passion?"
"For a long time she seemed to do so. They were like lovers in a
story. That lasted for years—from the time of her first appearance at
the Porte-Saint-Martin, which was four years before her death. And
then there came a change. Monsieur de Maucroix fell in love with
her, followed her about everywhere, worshipped her. And he was
young and handsome and fascinating, with the style, and manners
of a prince. He had spent all his life in palaces; had been attached to
the Emperor's household from his boyhood; had fought bravely
through the war."
"Had you reason to know that Monsieur Georges was jealous of
Monsieur de Maucroix?"
"Yes, my daughter told me that there had been scenes."
"Had the two men met?"
"I think not."
"How long had Monsieur de Maucroix been an avowed admirer of
your daughter?"
"Only a few months—since Easter, I think. My granddaughter used to
see him when she was staying with her aunt."
"Could you reconcile it to your conscience to allow your grandchild to
live in the house of an aunt who was leading—well, we will say a
doubtful life?"
"There was no harm in my daughter's life that I knew of. Monsieur
Georges may have been my daughter's husband. There is no reason
that he should not have been. At her lodgings she was known as
Madame Georges. It was under that name she travelled when she
went abroad."
"But you had never heard of any marriage—at the Mairie or
elsewhere? And, again, your daughter could not be married without
your consent."
"I do not say that she had been married in France. She may have
been married abroad—in England, perhaps. He took her to England
soon after they became acquainted. It was the first time she left
Paris with him; and until then I know she had been as distant to him
as if she had been the Empress. In England there are no obstacles
to marriage; there is no one's consent to be asked."
"We will admit that a marriage in a foreign country would have been
possible. But this Maxime de Maucroix, this second admirer——"
"Was only an admirer. My daughter's life was not a disreputable life.
I have nothing to reproach myself with upon that score."
"Can you help us to find this man Georges, whom you suspect as
the murderer? Do you know where he is to be found?"
"If I did, the police would have known before now. I tell you I know
nothing about him—absolutely nothing. I have seen and heard
nothing of him since the murder. He has not been to my daughter's
apartment since her death—he was not at her funeral. He who
pretended to adore her did not follow her to her grave. All Paris was
there; but he who was supposed to be her husband was not there."
"How can you tell that he was not there, since you do not know his
appearance?"
"Barbe Girot knows him. It is on her authority that I say he was not
there."
"I will trouble you with no further questions to-day, madame. I will
take Barbe Girot's evidence next."
Barbe Girot's evidence was to the effect that for nearly four years
this Monsieur Georges had been a constant visitor at her mistress's
apartment. He had come there after the theatre, and it had been
Barbe's duty to leave the supper-table laid, and the candles ready on
the chimney-piece and table, before she went to bed. Madame
Georges let herself in with a latch-key, and Barbe rarely sat up for
her. Madame did not always return to the Rue Lafitte for supper.
There were occasions when she supped on the Boulevard, or in the
Bois, and returned to her apartment at a very late hour. Barbe saw
Monsieur Georges occasionally, but not frequently. He was a
handsome man, but not in his first youth. He might have been five
or six and thirty. He was generous, and appeared to be rich.
Whatever his fortune may have been, he would have given Madame
the whole of it if she had asked him. There was never a man more
passionately in love with a woman. After the Baron de Maucroix's
appearance on the scene there were storms. Barbe had seen
Monsieur Georges cry like a child. She had also seen him give way to
violent passion. There had been one night when she thought that he
would kill Madame. He had his hands upon her throat; he seemed as
if he were going to strangle her. And then he fell on his knees, and
grovelled at her feet. He implored her to forgive him. It was
dreadful.
Did Barbe Girot think that Monsieur Georges was Madame's
husband?
She had never presumed to form an opinion upon that subject. Her
mistress wore a wedding-ring, and was always known as Madame
Georges in the house where she lived. Madame's conduct was
altogether irreproachable. Until the Baron de Maucroix began to visit
her, no other man than Monsieur Georges had crossed her threshold.
And the visits of Monsieur de Maucroix were such visits as any
gentleman in Paris might pay to any lady, were she the highest in
the land.
"Did your mistress ever go out with Monsieur de Maucroix before
that fatal visit to Saint-Germain?"
"Never. And on that occasion Madame took the little girl with her.
She refused to go alone with the Baron."
"Is it your opinion that your mistress was inclined to favour Monsieur
de Maucroix' suit?"
"Alas, yes! He was so young, so fascinating, so handsome, and he
adored her. If she had not been in love with him she would hardly
have permitted his visits, for they were the cause of such agony of
mind to Monsieur Georges."
"It is your belief, then, that she had transferred her affection from
the older to the younger lover?"
"I fear so."
"You have not seen Monsieur Georges since the murder?"
"No."
"Are you sure that he was not at the funeral?"
"Quite sure."
"But there was a great crowd at the cemetery. How can you be sure
that he was not in the crowd?"
"I cannot be sure of that; but I am sure that he paid my mistress no
honour. He was not among those who stood around her grave, or
who threw flowers upon her coffin. I stayed by the grave after all
was over and the crowd had dispersed; but Monsieur Georges never
came near to cast a look upon the spot where my poor mistress was
lying. He has not been at her apartment since her death; he never
came to look upon her corpse when it was lying there."
"And he has not written—he has given no orders as to the disposal
of your mistress's property?"
"No. Madame Lemarque has taken possession of everything. She is
living in my mistress's apartment until the furniture can be sold."
"Do you know of any photograph or portrait of Monsieur Georges
among your late mistress's possessions?"
"I never saw any such portrait."
"You would know Monsieur Georges wherever you might happen to
see him?"
"Yes. I do not think I could fail to recognise him."
"Even if he had disguised himself?"
"Even then. I think I should know his voice anywhere, even if I could
not see his face."
"Will you describe him?"
"He is a tall man, broad-shouldered, powerful-looking. He has fine
features, blue eyes, light-auburn hair, thick and flowing, and worn
much longer than most people wear their hair. He is not so
handsome or so elegant as Monsieur de Maucroix, but he has a
more commanding look."
"That description would apply to hundreds of men. Can you mention
any peculiarity of feature, expression, gait, manner?"
"No, I can recall nothing peculiar."
"And in moments of confidence did your mistress never tell you
anything about this Monsieur Georges, his profession, his
belongings, his place of residence?"
"Nothing."
"He did not live at your mistress's apartments, I conclude?"
"No, he did not live there."
"Did you never hear how he was occupied during the day, since you
say he was never at your mistress's apartment in the daytime?"
"Never. I was told nothing about him except that he was rich and a
gentleman. I asked no questions. My place was comfortable, my
wages were paid regularly, and Madame was kind to me."
"Where did Léonie Lemarque sleep when she stayed in the Rue
Lafitte?"
"She occupied a little bed in my room, which is inside the kitchen."
"Were you long in Madame's service?"
"Nearly four years. From the beginning of her engagement at the
Porte-Saint-Martin, when she took the apartment in the Rue Lafitte.
Her salary at the theatre justified her in taking such an apartment.
Before that time she had been living with her mother on the other
side of the Seine."
"Is it your opinion that Monsieur Georges was the murderer?"
"That is my fixed opinion."
This concluded the examination of Barbe Girot. The little girl's
examination was not resumed until ten days later. She had been
very ill in the mean time, and seemed altogether weak and broken
down when she was brought before the Juge d'Instruction. She
burst out crying in the midst of her evidence, and the grandmother
had great difficulty in calming her.
"We had a nice dinner, and Monsieur de Maucroix was very kind, and
gave me grapes and a big peach, and he promised to buy me a doll
next day in the Passage Jouffroy. My aunt was sad, and Monsieur de
Maucroix begged her to be gay, and he talked about taking her to
Italy with him, just as he had talked in the train. And then we went
out in a carriage and drove along a terrace, where there was a
beautiful view over a river and a great green valley. My aunt seemed
much gayer, and she and Monsieur de Maucroix were talking and
laughing all the time; and afterwards, when we all got out of the
carriage and walked in the forest, they both seemed very happy, and
my aunt rested her head on Monsieur de Maucroix's shoulder as they
walked along, and said it was like being in heaven to be in that
moonlit forest with him; and then, just at that moment, a man
rushed out from the darkness under the trees, like a wild beast out
of a cave, and shot, and shot, and shot, again and again and again.
And first Monsieur de Maucroix fell, and then my aunt, and she was
all over blood. I could see it streaming over her light-blue gown, first
one stream and then another. I can see it now. I am seeing it
always. It wakes me out of my sleep. O, take it away; take away the
dark forest; take away the blood!"
At this point, said the report, the child again became hysterical, and
had to be carried away. After this she had an attack of brain-fever,
and could not again be interrogated formally.

END OF VOL. I.
WYLLARD'S WEIRD
A Novel

BY
 M. E. BRADDON
THE AUTHOR OF

"LADY AUDLEY'S SECRET," "VIXEN,"

"ISHMAEL," ETC.

IN THREE VOLUMES

VOL. II.

LONDON

JOHN AND ROBERT MAXWELL

MILTON HOUSE, SHOE LANE, FLEET STREET

AND

35 ST. BRIDE STREET, E.C.

1885

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

I. LÉONIE'S MISSION
II. A STUDENT OF MEN AND WOMEN
III. BOTHWELL BEGINS TO SEE HIS WAY
IV. THE HOME OF THE PAST
 V. A FACE FROM THE GRAVE
VI. STRUCK DOWN
VII. THE GENERAL RECEIVES A SUMMONS
VIII. WIDOWED AND FREE
IX. TWO WOMEN
X. ROSES ON A GRAVE

WYLLARD'S WEIRD

CHAPTER I.

LÉONIE'S MISSION.

The report of the interrogatory before the Juge d'Instruction was

followed by a page of notes written by the police-officer Drubarde.
The child Léonie Lemarque was not again in a condition to give her
evidence. A violent attack of brain-fever succeeded her second
appearance before the Juge d'Instruction, and on her recovery from
the fever it was found that her mind had suffered seriously from the
shock she had undergone. Memory was a blank. The Juge
d'Instruction visited her in her own home when she was
convalescent, and tried to recall the impressions made upon her at
the time of the murder, in the hope of identifying the murderer; but
she had forgotten the whole circumstances of her aunt's death, and
yet she suffered agonies from a vague terror associated in her
enfeebled mind with the very name of that aunt.
As soon as she was well enough to travel she was taken to the
Ursuline convent at Dinan by a good priest who had befriended her
grandmother for many years. After this transference to the convent
the police lost sight of the child Lemarque.
Throughout the evening, even amidst the distractions of a finely
acted comedy by Augier, and in the wakeful intervals of a somewhat
disturbed night, Edward Heathcote brooded over the details of the
evidence which he had read, not once, but several times, before he
closed the volume of reports.
The detective instinct, which is a characteristic of every well-trained
lawyer's mind, had been suddenly developed into almost a passion.
He no longer limited his desire to the unravelling of the web of
Léonie Lemarque's fate; he ardently longed to discover the mystery
of Marie Prévol's murder—to succeed where one of the most
accomplished Parisian detectives had ignominiously failed. His
eagerness to hear more about Drubarde's efforts and failures in this
particular case led him to the Quai des Grands Augustins at an early
hour, in time to surprise the worthy Félix in the act of breakfasting
temperately upon café au lait and boiled eggs.
Monsieur Drubarde gave his new friend a cheery welcome. It was a
lovely morning, balmy as midsummer, and the little garden on the
leads was bright with gaily-coloured asters, nasturtiums, and
geraniums, and agreeably perfumed with mignonette.
"Do you perceive the exquisite odours?" asked Drubarde.
"Your mignonette is delicious."
"My mignonette!" cried the police-officer scornfully. "Why, when the
wind blows straight from the flower-market, as it does to-day, I can
sit in my garden and enjoy all the perfumes of the Riviera. I can
revel in orange-blossoms, drink my fill of tube-roses and stephanotis,
Maréchal Niel and Jacqueline roses. And look what a view! Not a
touch of the sculptor's chisel that I cannot see yonder on the old
kings of Notre Dame; not a cornice or a column in the new hospital
that does not stand clear in the morning light! And yet Paris is
peopled with fools who do not make gardens on their housetops!"
"Perhaps every landlord would not be so complaisant as yours,
Monsieur Drubarde, nor every housetop so adapted to horticulture."
"True, your Parisian landlord is a churl and a niggard, and a good
many of our housetops are no doubt impracticable. But the inventive
mind, the love of the beautiful, is more often wanting. I see you
have been good enough to bring back my volume. You have read
the report, I suppose?"
"Every line, every syllable, three times over."
"And you are interested?"
"Deeply. I was never more intensely interested in any case that has
come within my knowledge: yet as a lawyer I have become
acquainted with many strange stories. Yes, I am more interested
than I can say in the fate of that unhappy actress, in the character
of her mysterious lover: and yet I doubt if this former crime has any
bearing upon the murder of Léonie Lemarque."
"It would certainly be going somewhat far to suppose a link between
the death of a girl travelling alone in Cornwall—a death which may
after all have been accidental—and the murder of her aunt ten years
before in the forest of Saint-Germain. However, it is only by the
minutest scrutiny of Léonie's past life that you can arrive at the
motive which took her to England, and discover whether she had an
enemy in that country—that is to say, if she was lured across the
Channel in order to be made away with by that enemy. A very wild
and far-fetched supposition I think you will admit, Monsieur, and one
which our talented friend Mr. Distin would not entertain for five
minutes."
"Professional acumen like Mr. Distin's is apt to run in grooves—to be
too intent upon following the practical and the possible, to shut out
the romantic element, to strangle the imagination, and to forget that
it is very often by following the apparently impossible that we arrive
at the truth."
"I see you are an enthusiast, Monsieur."
"I have never tried to subjugate my imagination. As a lawyer I found
ideality the most useful faculty of my brain. Now, I have been
thinking about Léonie Lemarque's fate from every possible point of
view, from the standpoint of imagination as well as from the
standpoint of common sense; and it has occurred to me that if the
murderer of Marie Prévol were living, he would be Léonie's natural
enemy."
"Why so?"
"Because she was the only witness of his crime. She alone would
have the power to identify him as the murderer."
"You forget that it is just that power which the poor girl lost during
her illness. The fever deprived her of memory."
"That effect of the fever may not have been permanent. The
agitation which she showed at the mention of her aunt's name—
when Sister Gudule questioned her about the silk handkerchief given
to her by Marie Prévol—would indicate that memory was not a
blank. And again, if she had forgotten the person of the murderer, or
even the fact of the murder, he would not know that, and would
regard her existence as a source of danger to himself."
Félix Drubarde smiled the superior smile of experience reproving
folly.
"And you think that after having allowed this one witness of his
crime to exist unmolested for ten years, the assassin all at once took
it into his head to murder her; that with this view he carried her to
your barbarous province of Cornuailles, and there flung her over an
embankment. I am tempted to paraphrase the Scripture, Monsieur,
and to exclaim, 'Are there not viaducts and embankments in this vast
France of ours, that a man should go to the remote west of your
little England in order to commit murder in that particular fashion!'"
Heathcote felt that the police-officer had the best of the argument.
"I grant that it would have been a clumsy method of getting rid of
the girl," he said, "but murder has been clumsily done before to-day,
and imagination can conceive no crime so improbable as not to be
paralleled by fact. However, it is perhaps too soon to speculate that
the murderer of Marie Prévol was also the murderer of Léonie
Lemarque. What we have to do is to find out the reason of the girl's
journey to England. But before we set about that task, I should like
you to tell me what steps you took in your endeavour to trace the
murderer after the examination before the Juge d'Instruction."
"I looked over the case in my note-book last night, as I was
prepared for you to ask for those details," replied Drubarde. "It was
a case that interested me profoundly, all the more so, perhaps,
because I made so little headway in my investigations. My first
endeavour was to trace the murderer's proceedings immediately
after the crime. He must have made his escape from Saint-Germain
somehow, unless he had killed himself in some obscure corner of the
wood. Even then the finding of the body would have been a
question of so many days, weeks, or months. Alive, it would have
been impossible for him to remain in hiding in the forest for a week,
as the wood was searched thoroughly during the three days
immediately succeeding the murder. On the third day a hat was
found in a boggy bit of ground, ever so far from the scene of the
crime. The hat was a gentleman's hat, but it had been lying three
days and nights in a bog. It had been rained upon for two days out
of the three—there was no maker's name—no indication by which
the owner of the hat could be traced. That it had been found so far
off seemed to me to prove that the murderer had been roaming the
wood in a wild and disordered frame of mind, and walking at a
tremendous pace, or he could never have got over the distance
between the time when he was seen by the waiter at the Henri
Quatre, to turn the corner of the terrace, and the period of the
murder."
"You believe, then, that the man seen by the waiter was actually the
murderer?"
"I have no doubt of it. That spasmodic walk, that hesitancy, the
looking back, and then hurrying on—all these indicated a mind
engaged upon some agitating theme. The man was seen watching
the window inside which Marie Prévol and her admirer were seated.
He moved away when he saw himself observed. He had disguised
himself as much as he could by turning up the collar of his coat; and
who can doubt that this was the same man who had been seen by
Léonie in the railway-station, watching Marie Prévol and her lover
from behind the door of the waiting-room? The dark spectacles were
part of a disguise. These are all details that point to one conclusion.
The finding of the hat induced me to visit every shop in Saint-
Germain where a hat could be bought. It was clear that the
murderer could not have gone far from the forest bare-headed,
without attracting attention. He must have procured a hat somehow;
and it was not long before I ascertained that a hat had been bought
late on that very evening. At a shop in an out-of-the-way corner of
the town I was told that a boy, a gamin, had come in on the night of
the murder, and had asked for a cloth travelling-cap. He had chosen
one with flaps to protect the ears, a form of cap intended to give the
utmost protection from cold. He paid for his purchase with a
napoleon, and seemed in a great hurry to be gone, not even
stopping to count his change. The shopkeeper had wondered at
such a little ragamuffin being intrusted with a purchase of the kind.
The man had been on the point of closing his shop, and therefore
was quite positive as to the hour. It was his invariable habit to put
up his shutters at nine o'clock, and the clock was striking as the boy
came to the door of the shop, breathless and heated, as if he had
been running for some distance."
"And you conclude that this travelling-cap was bought for the
murderer?"
"Hear the sequel, and judge for yourself. I went from the hatter's to
the railway-station, and there, after having been bandied about from
pillar to post, I succeeded in finding a tolerably intelligent official
who remembered the night of the murder—now ten days past—and
who could recall most of the passengers who had left for Paris by
the half-past nine o'clock train upon that particular night. The news
of the murder had not been brought to the station before the
starting of the train: a most criminal neglect on the part of the local
police. No suspicious-looking person had been observed to enter the
train; but upon my questioning him closely, the man remembered
having noticed a traveller who wore a cloth cap with flaps over the
ears—a seemingly needless protection upon a mild September
evening. 'There is one who takes care of himself,' the railway official
had thought. For the rest, this passenger had looked like a
gentleman, tall, erect, well-built, a bigger man than the majority of
Frenchmen—what the railway official permitted himself to call un bel
homme. Had he appeared agitated, breathless, in a hurry? No, the
official had noticed nothing extraordinary in his manner. He wore
smoke-coloured spectacles, which concealed the expression of his
eyes. He had a return-ticket for Paris. The train was scarcely out of
the station when the police came to make inquiries. The murder had
been known of at the police-station at a quarter past eight, and it
was not until after half-past nine that the police thought of setting a
watch upon the railway-station. That is how your rustic police favour
the escape of a criminal."
"Did you trace your gentleman in the cloth cap any further?"
"Not an inch. No one had observed him at Saint-Lazare, nor at any
intermediate station where the train stopped. I wearied myself
during the next six weeks in the endeavour to trace the man called
Georges, who must have had some local habitation in Paris besides
Marie Prévol's apartment. In vain. In no quarter of Paris could I hear
of any apartment occupied by a man answering to the description of
this man who called himself Georges—rich, independent, handsome,
in the prime of life. I could trace no such man among the prosperous
classes of Paris, and my machinery for tracking any individual in the
wilderness of this great city had hitherto proved almost infallible.
This man baffled me. I 'touched on him' now and again, as you
English say of your hunted fox, but I could never get upon a scent
strong enough to follow; and in the end I gave up all hope of finding
him. He must have sneaked out of France under the very noses of
the police; for I had set a watch upon every probable exit from this
country."
"No doubt he was clever enough to choose the most improbable
point of departure. Did you see much of Madame Lemarque after
the murder?"
"No. My interest in her ceased when I gave up the case as hopeless.
I had fresh cases—new interests; and the murder of Marie Prévol
remained in my mind only as a tradition, until you recalled the story
of the crime."
"I telegraphed yesterday to the principal of the Ursuline convent at
Dinan," said Mr. Heathcote, "and I have obtained from her the
address at which Madame Lemarque was living two years ago, when
her niece was sent back to Paris in company with other pupils. After
leaving you I shall go to that address, and try to find Madame
Lemarque. I may have the painful duty of informing her of her
granddaughter's death; and yet I can but think that were the
grandmother still living she must have heard of the girl's death, and
would have communicated with the Cornish police."
"That is to suppose her more intelligent than the average
Frenchwoman," said Drubarde, as if he belonged to another nation.
"Suppose I accompany you in your search for Madame Lemarque?
That ought to be interesting."
"I shall be delighted to secure your aid."
Monsieur Drubarde and his guest descended the ladder. The
detective put on a gray overcoat, which concealed and subjugated
the airiness of his summer attire. He put on the hat of sober
commonplace existence, and contrived to give himself an almost
patriarchal aspect before he left his lodging.
The street in which Madame Lemarque had been living when the
nuns of Dinan last heard of her was a narrow and shabby little street
between Saint-Sulpice and the Luxembourg. The house was decently
kept, and had a respectable air, and was evidently not one of those
caravanserais where lodgers come and go with every term. It had a
settled sober appearance, and the brass plates upon the door told of
permanent residents with reputable avocations. One of these plates
informed society that Mesdames Lemarque and Beauville, Robes et
Modes, occupied the third floor. The staircase was clean and quiet,
and the first sound that saluted Mr. Heathcote's ears as he went up-
stairs was the screech of a parrot, which became momentarily louder
as the visitors approached the third floor.
On the door on the left of the landing appeared another brass plate
—Mesdames Lemarque et Beauville, Robes, Modes, Chapeaux.
Heathcote rang the bell. He felt curiously agitated at the thought
that in the next minute he might be face to face with the dead girl's
grandmother.
The door was opened by an elderly woman in black, very sallow,
very thin, with prominent cheekbones and hungry black eyes. She
was neatly clad, her rusty silk gown fitting her fleshless form to
perfection, her linen collar and cuffs spotlessly clean, her iron-gray
hair carefully arranged; but poverty was stamped upon every fold of
her gown, and written in every line upon her forehead.
"Madame Lemarque?" inquired Heathcote, while the ci-devant
police-officer looked over his shoulder.
"No, I am not Madame Lemarque, but I am her business
representative. Any orders intended for Madame Lemarque can be
executed by me. I am Mademoiselle Beauville."
"Alas, Mademoiselle, it is not a question of orders," replied
Heathcote, in his most courteous tones. "I have come on a painful
errand. I have to impart very sad news to Madame Lemarque."
Madame Beauville sighed and shrugged her thin shoulders.
"Madame Lemarque is taking her rest in a place where all the events
of this earth are alike indifferent," she said. "Take the trouble to
enter my humble apartment, gentlemen. Madame Lemarque was my
partner and my friend."
Heathcote and his companion followed the dressmaker into her little
salon, where a dilapidated old gray cockatoo was clambering upon a
perch, seemingly in danger of doing himself to death head
downwards at every other minute. The salon was like the
appearance of Mademoiselle Beauville, scrupulously neat, painfully
pinched and spare. A poor little old-fashioned walnut table, polished
to desperation, a cheap little china vase of common flowers, a carpet
which covered only a small island in an ocean of red tiles, an old
mahogany secrétaire with materials for writing, and by way of
decoration the fashion-plates of Le Follet neatly pinned against the
dingy wall-paper. There was a work-basket on the table, and
Mademoiselle Beauville had apparently been busily remaking a very
old gown of her own, in order to keep her hand in during the dead
season.
Heathcote discovered later that Mademoiselle Beauville cherished
one bitter and unappeasable hatred, and that was against Messrs.
Spricht, Van Klopen, and the whole confraternity of men-milliners.
"Then Madame Lemarque is dead, I apprehend, Mademoiselle?"
"Madame Lemarque died last June."
"Suddenly?"
"No, she had been ailing for some time. But the end came more
quickly than she expected. My poor friend had but a short time in
which to arrange her affairs."
"Was her granddaughter Léonie living with her at the time of her
death?"
"She was. But what do you know about Léonie?"
The ex-detective laid his hand hastily upon Heathcote's wrist before
he could answer.
"Answer nothing until we have heard what she can tell us," he
whispered.
"I know very little about her, but I am anxious to know more; and if
you should be a loser by the waste of your time in answering my
inquiries, I shall be most happy to recompense you for that loss,"
said Heathcote.
The spinster's hungry eyes sparkled. Decent poverty has depths
unknown to the professed pauper. Mademoiselle's larder would have
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