EEN07 FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS
BSEE III

ENGR. JOEL ANTHONY L. SEVILLA

JANUARY 2025
Wireless Digital Communications
The transport of digital data over a wireless
medium

Wireless technologies can be divided into the

following three groups:
1. Fixed wireless: both transmit and receive
units are at fixed locations (wireless local
area networks / wLANs).
2. Mobile wireless: the transmit and/or receive
units are moving (cellular & mobile phones).

3. Infrared (IR) wireless: the transmit and

receive units use infrared light sources and
detectors to provide the communications
link (building to building communications
links)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
is a form of frequency modulation in which the
modulating wave shifts the output between two
predetermined frequencies –
usually termed the
mark and space
frequencies.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
It may be considered as an FM system in which the
carrier frequency is midway between the mark
and space frequencies and is modulated by a
rectangular wave. The mark condition causes the
carrier frequency to increase by 42.5 Hz, while the
space condition results in a 42.5 Hz downward
shift. The transmitter frequency is constantly
changing by 85 Hz as it is keyed.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
This 85 Hz shift is the standard for narrowband
FSK, while an 850 Hz shift is the standard for
wideband FSK systems.

For FSK the center or carrier frequency is shifted

(deviated by binary input signal)
FSK Modulated waveform
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

FSK frequencies
1. Mark Frequency or logic 1 frequency (fm)
2. Space Frequency or logic 0 frequency (fs)
3. Rest Frequency – falls hallway between space
& mark frequencies
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Bit Rate (fb)

The rate of change at the input to the modulator

Baud Rate (fbd)

The rate of change at the output of the modulator
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Fundamental Frequency (fa)

The highest modulating frequency equal to ½ of
input bit rate.

𝑓𝑏
fa =
2
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Modulation Index (MI)

∆𝑓 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑠 /2 𝑓𝑚 −𝑓𝑠
MI = = =
𝑓𝑎 𝑓𝑏/2 𝑓𝑏

In binary FSK the MI is generally kept below 1.0

producing narrow band FM.
PLL FSK DEMODULATOR

Non continuous FSK waveform

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Is a double sideband, full carrier, amplitude
modulation where the input modulating signal is
a binary waveform.

Digital bit sequence

Carrier wave

ASK modulated wave

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
The amplitude of the resultant output depends
upon the input data whether it should be a zero
level or a variation of positive and negative,
depending upon the carrier frequency.

ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which

represents the binary data in the form of
variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Any modulated signal has a high frequency
carrier. The binary signal when ASK is
modulated, gives a zero value for LOW input and
gives the carrier output for HIGH input.

Also know as continuous wave modulation and

on off keying (OOK)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of
change of the binary input (bps)
The bit rate equals the baud. With ASK, the bit
rate is also equal to the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth.

𝑓𝑏 𝑓𝑏
B= = fb baud = = fb
1 1
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Is a form of angle modulated, constant
amplitude digital modulation similar to
conventional phase modulation except that
with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and
limited number of output phase are available.
The phase of the output signal gets shifted
depending upon the input. These are mainly
of two types, namely BPSK and QPSK,
according to the number of phase shifts.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
The other one is DPSK which changes the
phase according to the previous value.
PSK is the digital modulation technique in
which the phase of the carrier signal is
changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs
at a particular time. PSK technique is widely
used for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless
operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Two output phases are possible for a single
carrier frequency.
This is also called as 2-phase PSK (or) Phase
Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave
carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and
180°.
BPSK is basically a DSB-SC (Double Sideband
Suppressed Carrier) modulation scheme, for
messages being the digital information.
BPSK modulated output wave
BPSK phasor and constellation diagram
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
This is the phase shift keying technique, in
which the sine wave carrier takes four phase
reversals such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.
If this kind of techniques are further extended,
PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement. The following
figure represents the QPSK waveform for two
bits input, which shows the modulated result for
different instances of binary inputs.
QPSK MODULATOR
QPSK modulated output wave
QPSK phasor and constellation diagram
QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a
DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier)
modulation scheme, which send two bits of
digital information at a time, called as dibits.
Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a
series of digital stream, it converts them into
bit-pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to
half, which allows space for the other users.
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
In DPSK (Differential Phase Shift Keying) the
phase of the modulated signal is shifted
relative to the previous signal element. No
reference signal is considered here. The signal
phase follows the high or low state of the
previous element. This DPSK technique
doesn’t need a reference oscillator.
DPSK modulated output wave
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
The mark and space frequency are selected such
that they are separated from the center
frequency by an odd exact multiple of one half
of the bit rate.

MSK signal
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
It is a form of modulation based on frequency
shift keying that has no phase discontinuities
and provides efficient use of spectrum as well as
enabling high efficiency radio power amplifiers.
The tone frequencies are separated by exactly
half the bit rate. It has high spectral efficiency.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
It is a modified form of QPSK where the bit
waveforms on the I and Q channels are offset or
shifted in phase from each other by one half of a
bit time.
Changes in the I channel occur at the midpoints
of the Q channel bits and vice versa, there is
never more than a single bit change in the dibit
code and there is never more than a 90° shift in
the output phase.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
In conventional QPSK, a change in the input dibit
from 00 to 11 or 01 to 10 causes a
corresponding 180° shift in the output phase.
An advantage of OQPSK is the limited phase shift
that must be imparted during modulation.
A disadvantage of OQPSK is that changes in the
output phase occur at twice the data rate in
either the I or Q channels.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
With OQPSK the baud and minimum bandwidth
are twice that of conventional QPSK for a given
transmission bit rate. OQPSK is sometimes called
Offset-Keyed QPSK.
OQPSK transmitter block diagram

Block diagram Constellation diagram

8 Phase Shift Keying (8 PSK)
Three bits are encoded, forming tribits and
producing eight different output phases.
With 8-PSK, n = 3, M = 8, and there are eight
possible output phases. To encode eight
different phases, the incoming bits are encoded
in groups of three, called tribits.
8 PSK transmitter block diagram
The incoming serial bit stream enters the bit
splitter, where it is converted to a parallel, three-
channel output (the I or in-phase channel, the Q
or in-quadrature channel, and the C or control
channel).
The bit rate in each of the three channels is fb/3.
The bits in the I and C channels enter the I
channel 2-to-4-level converter, and the bits in
the Q and channels enter the Q channel 2-to-4-
level converter.
The 2-to-4-level converters are parallel-input
digital-to-analog converters (DACs). The I or Q
bit determines the polarity of the output analog
signal (logic 1 V and logic 0 V), whereas the C or
C̅ bit determines the magnitude (logic 1 = 1.307 V
and logic 0 = 0.541 V). With two magnitudes and two
polarities, four different output conditions are
possible.
 a b

c d

I- and Q- channel 2-to-4-level converters: (a) I-channel truth

table; (b) Q-channel truth table; (c) PAM levels (d) 8 PSK
truth table
8 PSK Phasor & Constellation Diagram

Phasor diagram Constellation diagram

The angular separation between any two
adjacent phasors is 45°, half what it is with
QPSK. An 8-PSK signal can undergo almost a
22.5° phase shift during transmission and still
retain its integrity.
Each phasor is of equal magnitude; the tribit
condition (actual information) is again contained
only in the phase of the signal.
The PAM levels of 1.307 and 0.541 are relative
values. Any levels may be used as long as their
ratio is 0.541/1.307 and their arc tangent is
equal to 22.5°.
For example, if their values were doubled to
2.614 and 1.082, the resulting phase angles
would not change, although the magnitude of
the phasor would increase proportionally.
The tribit code between any two adjacent
phases changes by only one bit. This type of
code is called the Gray code or, sometimes, the
maximum distance code. This code is used to
reduce the number of transmission errors.
If a signal were to undergo a phase shift during
transmission, it would most likely be shifted to
an adjacent phasor. Using the Gray code results
in only a single bit being received in error.
Output phase-versus-time relationship for an 8-PSK modulator
16-PSK
Is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 16;
there are 16 different output phases possible.
With 16-PSK, four bits (called quadbits) are
combined, producing 16 different output
phases. With 16-PSK, n = 4 and M = 16;
therefore, the minimum bandwidth and baud
equal one-fourth the bit rate ( fb/4).
16-PSK truth table and constellation diagram

16 PSK truth table Constellation diagram

16-PSK
With 16-PSK, the angular separation between
adjacent output phases is only 22.5°. Therefore,
16-PSK can undergo only a 11.25° phase shift
during transmission and still retain its integrity.
QUADRATURE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK
except the digital information is contained in
both the amplitude and the phase of the
transmitted carrier.
With QAM, amplitude and phase-shift keying are
combined in such a way that the positions of the
signaling elements on the constellation diagrams
are optimized to achieve the greatest distance
QUADRATURE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION
between elements, reducing the likelihood of
one element being misinterpreted as another
element. This reduces the likelihood of errors
occurring.
8-QAM
Is an M-ary encoding technique where M = 8.
Unlike 8-PSK, the output signal from an 8-QAM
modulator is not a constant-amplitude signal.
The only difference between the 8-QAM
transmitter and the 8-PSK transmitter as shown
in the figure is the omission of the inverter
between the C channel and the Q product
modulator.
8 QAM transmitter block diagram & truth table
The incoming data are divided into groups of three
bits (tribits): the I, Q, and C bit streams, each with a
bit rate equal to one-third of the incoming data rate.
Again, the I and Q bits determine the polarity of the
PAM signal at the output of the 2-to-4-level
converters, and the C channel determines the
magnitude. Because the C bit is fed as is to both the
I and the Q channel 2-to-4-level converters, the
magnitudes of the I and Q PAM signals are always
equal. Their polarities depend on the logic condition
of the I and Q bits and, therefore, may be different.
In 8-QAM, the bit rate in the I and Q channels is
one-third of the input binary rate, the same as in
8-PSK.
The highest fundamental modulating frequency
and fastest output rate of change in 8-QAM are
the same as with 8-PSK.
The minimum bandwidth required for 8-QAM is
fb/3, the same as in 8-PSK.
8 QAM Phasor & Constellation Diagram

Phasor diagram Constellation diagram

8 QAM truth table Output phase-versus-time
relationship for an 8-PSK modulator
16-QAM
The input binary data are divided into four
channels: I, I’, Q, and Q’. The bit rate in each
channel is equal to one-fourth of the input bit
rate ( fb/4). Four bits are serially clocked into the
bit splitter; then they are outputted
simultaneously and in parallel with the I, I’, Q,
and Q’ channels. The I and Q bits determine the
polarity at the output of the 2-to-4 level
16-QAM
converters (a logic 1 = positive and a logic 0 =
negative). The I’ and Q’ bits determine the
magnitude (a logic I 0.821 V and a logic 0 0.22
V). Consequently, the 2-to-4-level converters
generate a 4-level PAM signal. Two polarities and
two magnitudes are possible at the output of
each 2-to-4-level converter. They are 0.22 V and
0.821 V.
16-QAM Transmitter block diagram
 a b

c
16-QAM truth tables for the I- and Q-channel 2-to-4 level
converters: (a) I channel; (b) Q channel (c) truth table
16 QAM Phasor & Constellation Diagram

Phasor diagram Constellation diagram