I

Period
----
AP Biology Date _r;.,--+-/_2-_<3_/_1._~_
LAB(/\ : PROTEIN SYNTHESIS -TRANSCRIP TION AND TRANSLATION

DNA is the molecule that stores the genetic information in your cells. That information is coded
in the four bases of DNA: C (cytosine), G (guanine), A (adenine), and T (thymine). The DNA
directs the functions of the cell on a daily basis and will also be used to pass on the genetic
information to the next generation. Because of its critical role in all the functions of the cell, DNA
is kept protected in the nucleus of your cells.
DNA is organized in sections called genes. Genes code for proteins, and it is proteins that do
all the work in the cell. They function as structural proteins - serving as the building blocks of
cells and bodies. And they function as enzymes - directing all the chemical reactions in living
organisms.
Proteins are made in the cytoplasm by ribosomes. Since DNA cannot leave the nucleus, tl1e
information from DNA must be transmitted from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. During
transcription, each gene on the DNA is read and codes directly for a messenger RNA
(mRNA) molecule. The mRNA is made by matching its complementary bases - C, G, A, and U
(uracil) - to the DNA bases. This process is called transcription, because the message is
going from one version of nucleic acid language (DNA code) to another version of nucleic acid
language (RNA code), so it is like transcribing from the key of G to the key of C in music. Before
leaving the nucleus, this primary mRNA transcript is modified in several ways. Intrans
(intervening non-coding units) are edited out and exons (expressed coding sequences) are
spliced together. In addition, a 5' GTP cap and a 3' poly-A tail are added to the mRNA to
protect it from RNase enzymes in the cytoplasm. This mature mRNA transcript then leaves the
nucleus and carries the code for making the protein from the DNA gene in the nucleus to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm.
During translation, the ribosome reads the sequence of bases on the mRN/l, in'.:.(;'..._; Jf tne~ -
the triplet codons. Another type of RNA - transfer RNA (tRNA) - brinns t~,- :,:·:;t•:'1: r1.1i!n.rg
blocks - amino acids - to the ribosome as they are needed. The ribc~~Gmt.: '. ·,. , -:, 1 • • c:Jn11r.~)
acids together to build the protein coded for by the gene back in tho nu(.1:.•:.,~·. • , ·1-- •• •: •
called translation, because the message is going from nucleic acid IRn~u:~; ..-; '.'- : •... ••• 1·:,:.._ . ,,i··· •
to the completely different amino acid language (protein code), so 1t 1.~ 111,1 _. :i ·:·.: •• ,·",: 1 • •
English to Chinese.

PROCEDURE

1. Obtain the cardstock with 4 sections of DNA. Cut the strips out along straight Imes and tape
them together to make a long one-sided DNA molecule. Each section 1s numbered. Lay
them out on the desk from left (#1) to right (#4 ). See the diagram below. This will form one
long strand of DNA and will serve as the template strand of our gene.

2. We are going to use this section of our DNA as a gene to be transcribed and then translated
into a protein the cell needs. Remember it used to be part of a double-stranded DNA

1 of 11
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h ,,., r , ';, 'f: ,, CJf ✓ • 1

'; , ' ♦r 'c, r r
::.,
br• ur r-rl ::J",, tme 11.J d'J
~-
i od an d r,OII NI I' , se en z I
RN A po lym era
e.:idy bo on u~ 7 ~Or, n .:in
111t1luculo. Gui It hos cJlr So firs t o.~
ot tlm o. ~-c~ • :::-•
rnl {NA, ono IJ:Jco
D
Rr JA mo f13 cul 0 cr,t.:: t✓ c:: ~ - -
!;ynt11oslsjub. . ~• lo c,r '1 ,...._, t&r:
de s. Bu rld am Do , , f _ rr:1.
. h RN A nu cle oti ON A tem pla tB. n t org -
trar,::;CT V :.-
n sup plie d w,t m_ . se qu en ce As yo.,u are s~
3. You hav e also boe ge ne by transcrrbrng you r t
- • b , 1'~ ~,:::.r t?.
- ~ <
a time from this ~ th TA TA bo x pro mo t erthe co l/a len t t,on CJ5 e,
f . 0rr e r;"
m rom e DI JA to the nb os
transcribing do wn str ea ule alo ng its len gth to s,m ula e d ff of the ~
c '
it ha s to lisc :.
tape this mR NA mo lec Re me mb er
sta ble mo lec ule an d can be mo ve ho DN A! ll0 :1 U-s o a- ;ra ~
Th is way, it will be a m. Fo
mR NA t_o \hee cyt op las
asm . Do no t tap e th~
translation in the cyt opl and tra vel to the nb os om e ,n
the DN A in the nu cle us
bel ow .

:o
su cc es sfu lly rra , e's
ry tra ns cri pt. It mu st be pro ce sse d so it ex on $;J I c,r :J
Yo u ha ve jus t ma de a
pri ma int ron an d
4.
las m. Alt ho ug h we wil l no t be sim ula tin g NA to p'o tec l tre
op mR
the rib oso me in the cyt d a 3' po ly- A tai l to the
to ad d a 5' GT P ca p an ine ba se s for \ ou r
in this lab, you do ne ed be 20 -10 0 ba ses lon g, ad d 6 ad en
•
A tail s ma y
mR NA . Alt ho ug h po ly-
sim ula ted po ly- A tail.

to us e
m, de sig n a rib os om e
To be rea dy for the mR NA in the cyt op las sm all an d lar ge ribo som e
5. ish the
Be sur e to dis tin gu
i~ you r simulat_ion. E site s of the rib os om e.
d ma rk the A, P, an d
rib oso ma l sub un its an

s wh ich
a pe nci l to dra w line
6 - T_o. he lp the rib oso me do its job , us e ule s an d \\'r ita in
th
trip let co do ns . No w ob tai n tRN A mo lec bri ng th _:
i~v id~ you r mR NA int
o tha t the tR NA s e corre1....,.
ticodons to ma tch yo ur mR NA co do ns so
~P em ~n tar y an_ me .
am ino ac,d to the rib oso

h R . . us e the
the am ino aci d tha t e To he lp yo u wit h thi s,
7. La be l the na me of an d the am in .d ac t NA is ca rry ing . er. Sta , t rea d,n .J
mR NA cod on cha rt c~~he c;~ rt su pp lie d by yo ur tea ch -
T co do n aid ac, d dia gra m be lo\ \
the mR NA at the ST AR en a e OP co do n. Fo llo w the
-
2 of 11
D I 00 8
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 Name AP Biolo gy

( amino acid
v'~t fl;u ,
l amino acid
!eud,H ,& )
grow ing prote in
- tRNA
~

~ ~
,t~~ l~~ l~~ lr.~i!
-~~--

m~RN :JJjj~j ~\ "ribosome

~ ~ ~. ~ (~i°-0-1\'-._._ •.-0
'-· --~ ~
them
A codon s, cut off the amin o acid and bond
8. As the tRNA molec ules match the mRN coval ently bond ing the amin o
of the riboso me -
toget her in a chain to simul ate the action
leted mRN A and your polyp eptid e to your
acids in a polyp eptide chain. Show your comp
teach er for credit.

amino acid amino acid

amino acid amino acid ■ aa ■ a
amino acid
y-r<,etn,i,Q fU/1&

Teac her's Initia ls -- -- -- -- --

eptid e to answ er the Summ ary Ques tions.
9. Use your DNA, your mRN A, and your polyp

3 of 11
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logy.c om

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 ---=-=-=-=-=-=---=~~~..::-_:::-_::-_::-_-_--_-~---::::==-->'Kl

Name
--------------- AP Biology

SUMMARY QUESTIONS ~
~
1. Record the gene sequence (downstream from the TA TA box) of the DNA strand (from 3' to 5') that coded for your mRNA.
3' 5'
1 1 I 1 2- 'l'~'"'
I 1 1I I 1 2 2f2 2 2 -2 3 j J 3 ·i ~ .! .J • 1 ~ 4 j 4 .1 1 , 4 •l
C ~
I I I I ~ " I
:: .1 _, (' I 0 • 2 I 3 ~ 5 6 7 ~ 1 0 1 I '2 6 7 8 9 0 I L 3 --i 5 0 7?, :.llQ 1 2 .;; 6
3 4 5 4 '.i 7
~
1

t--1\ bl~lblL Al;hl tl1'lb/l /~fol A/&IL lt/~IA/:_ ~

Al &I cl i/C IL ~
2. Record the sequence of the mRNA strand (from 5' to 3') that you built from the DNA in this lab.
5' 3'
- - - i-- 1 i- ~ 1 1 r - I - I i 1 2 -.2 2 2 '2 2 21· 2 - 2- 2 ·- J 3 3 3 3 3 • 3 -;- ·3 3 ; 3 4 ..! - 4 ---1 I 4 ~ "=i I ---1-/ - -1 1

1 1~ ~ •I :-. r , 8 9 G : ·1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 --i O 1 12 3 ,1 , 5 6 7 3 CJ O I 2 3 4 'j 6 7 -ls S () 1 2 .1 l S L I ..,

/&l1rlt/ul~b/ f\l u/b/ A/l I\J /L/b/ A/LI• Il Jr- /i•JLJ~ U/l /·11/l/f?/r;;/L)b/l/bJAJ~ f /A/,~/,;/ ~I~ u/ v/Y /&/A/~l<-1
3. Divide the mRNA sequence into the triplet codons and list them in order below.
~~
5' 3'
2? 313 3 -~ ~ 3 , .. J 1 j J •
1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1,? 2 2 ~•J'2•? • ' J I
J4 r- () {I 1 I '; (
)
.• 0 9 ~ 1 2 3 ~ ,.r 2 ..; .J ::.> I 6 7 :~ I 0 , CJ , 1 ~ M ' •J ' 1 L ~ ' i ;",
~•
C
• • I •
. . - -
I I b I

~t (7 bl.v c...bA tb.. ~, I f,L A lJt. \/ bA "'L

bA(_ \Jl& AVb ~tlJ l.c:~ llll {'J /'1 { (-( ~

4. Record the amino acid sequence that this mRNA coded for.
'
~·~ •j
/ -I <
"

[/hr ~ /fu.+ '\hr Prro Lo.; /f\ 'f' \{/\\ (., (.£ A· ,'F· (?l\J IT~r ~
Al"- fI\ ftl
5. Record the tRNA anti-codons that carried the amino acids to the ribosome.
-~
~
►
r i •
1 l.Jvt, ,!.\-bL/ 'vfc·l
I <1r~ I t, ~v I bl\~ il.u h 1:'~ll (.&4 r~tu I(L( I ~~·l.,t. / JiAll t ._,b
I _ _j
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.,. - ~ ,,.-
.,

~
-, ~

< . ~--:,
<
~ --.., ~

-- -
>

-- ...-
-- -
- ;.
-,,
..
r <
z
3 - -- >
-
.......

. -- ---
......_
Iii,

" =-
- ....._
""-
....._
f...
..
~
;;;
-
X

-- ---
--
-
""
-
'
.>
..........
(
~
--
-:::-

~ L

- -' <
>-

- ~

"
--- --
_, -
-
- -
--
----- 3
-.... .._

-
- ----7 >

""
>
---... -
-- -- - --
.- -<:..
~

!:.
r:: --- 5
-
-:"I'
~
......

..
~

-- r:

- - ..
=
-
-:.

~
~

<
- - - -....
-:: s =
-<
41'
~

- -
..,,,.
~
z ... ........ '\
C
... ~
<
'""
- 7

-
....,

-
~
; .. r

... ......
,-.;
~
'l
Name _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ AP Biology

c. What is the name of this type of point mutr1tlon and why is it referred to by this terminology? .

__S_·, «t L'. VVl /1n.~<;>v, ~ V\<'2_ V< ...;,,' ~k , tn--v; c (( .. ' ( ~~~r-f_) _

7. POINT MUTATION 2: Here is your original DNA sequence from this lab and the amino acid sequence that was translr1tr1rl rrom it:
3' 5'
1 , ' 1 1
• : I 1 1 I I 1 ). ' "J / J l ; ;, I I / ;., ' { 'i .I 1 'l J ~ s ,1 J I I
I I

l er TttG~[ Gj cj ~1. Al cl ~j ~l ~j· ~J ~j ~1~r:i :j ~I ;1 ~ ~r~I ~ ~I ~I ~:j ~I :1 :· ~I ~I~ ~I ~I~· ~j ~I ~·;1 ~I~ ~I ~I~ Tl G
1 _.,, ~ ,;,,,.,,,- MET THR ARG LEU ASP VAL SER ALA ARG GLY HIS ILE STOP .
Le ' -- - , . . - - - -

LI. Now, let's simulate a point mutation al lhe 1i 11 base. ll was accidentally changed during replication rrom a G to rin A. Now
transcribe this new DNA strand into mRNA, and then translate it into ils amino acid sequence.
3'
5'
I 1 I I I ) ;,, ' I
-, 1 •1 I • 1 ' I ' I ' ,' ' ' tJ I 'I 1 ', t- , ,
1
I '

, c_ T G A_J GjclT/A clT GIA cl Tl_ cf A/ G _c/ T G c A G A G G A G c T c_ cj : G T/ Al Al A

G T_J- <
cc c!TI TIG
b1AIL ~l~IPJtJ_- b ft_. rl
/A/~1 I' if7 1/•;1~ {~ ll (_ ~ '~ 1: & ~ v 1 ,, .• ~ -~- c. Ai( r f.J ~~If,
-=><-l ~I f-'\Li J} ~ l?'i/ir, A~ 1:,1, tiI~ - Ile,, Jv-f t:_

b Did this r,hangc in !hf! DNA sr1quc:.:ncr:J r,;wsr~ r1ny s1onifir_:r111l ch::ingc lo lhtJ r,mlcin prorlur;cd? Explriin.

Gj-cs -:) C,"\r-t_ 6•..,,r "'l' LJ t •t ~• \ t l , , " "' \

,; n/ 11
01•,, I( ,,,rJ 1, '·,. •: ··.,,• •• • 1,v•J1• 1,' I 1nlrir1 :f31CJIOfJY uJn1 •,,,;.,()(JI~

-~
 ~
~ ·~

.
Name ____________ ___ AP Biology ·-

c. What is the name of this type of poinl mutalion and why is il referred lo by this terminology?

/V\~<, ~ (,.rli,LJ .,: dV\ '-'--_ j t C k,_".J'½ \ <>\ ~ •q;. c,,.t\ ...A
, cj , ? \."'
'-"7 ~ ' !»1 ~~- ..

8. POINT MUTATION 3: Here is your original DNA sequence from this lab and the amino acid sequence that was translr1ted from it:
3' 5'
1 i I 1 • 1 I I 1 ·1 l I I "/ I i' j j> 'J. / .t' I? ? ~ ? :~ I '\ I :i :i :1 J 'I • :: I '\ ' ,_; t, I 4 ,! •I •I •i .\ I
' J 1
k..::_..__..__,- k '· F ~• : ~~~ : ~' ~I ~~ ~I ~• ~•
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~1-~1 ~ ~ ~ ~Gt~ ~ ~ ~ ~i ~ ~1 ~i Ii ' 1 ' , I ' ~~
• MET THR ARG LEU ASP VAL SER ALA ARG G~IS ILE STOP TI
t
a. Finally, let's simulate a point mutation at the 21s base. It was accidentally changed during replication from a G to an T. Now
transcribe this new DNA strand into mRNA, and then translate it into its amino acid sequence.
3' 5'
. ., ,.,
., V _, j I I
I I 1 2 :_, I !. I. 2 ) 2. ~'. t. I JI .::, ' I
'"'· I ,..., f • 1 I) i ., I ~ . 7 ~
r_l f'\ j ; I ') (J 1 I / ·1 1 Gl7 I', • 'l 1

c Tl GIAIGICITIAICITIGIA IGI CITIGIAIGI C ,_, _,_ _c o[~ G cl T c1~ T GI T G T A/ A Al c/ ~[ Tl G

(lfo!G ~~lbb 6 I~~~~~· '~-~ ~£¥IA
~~ Ii,k1W~l(?l'1t<:IY ~ ~lt'l!-l~ K . "
:_;,(..C' I Ml~ A· ( •i. __( J ,, ~i µ___!.s ~i£ ~{·>6:_(:_

b. DirJ this change in the Dl'JA S'-?'-J'Jer,r1-:; c~Ji.-:,r· '.'::-.✓ sign,fir::c:int r:h~rnu<J lo 1118 prntoin producud? [xplain

,, ~ 1',}
t·~ :.. (IJ;. -l \, L- t••~ \/) - - - l ~ t J(. lr~".r';J-~~<
· - - - - - - - - r ~ ~r,_;J__~ __CJr .S:.J~'"'-·i-.l"':1-~

/ ,,1 11
rJ (; i, ,, _; [ : .,, • ,// NW l::.Yplnrr:li1nlD(JY r;r,,r, • ,,,,20011

_,
 Name _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ AP Biology

c. What is the name of this type of point mutation and why is it referred to by this terminology ?
11
, d\....'i. LIJa~( ~( ~ c~, 1). l. ty,,. ·v,~:, 1-1-_,_
,,/S)L.if" L(... ~• Jo
cell?
d. Why could a mutation in a gamete have more profound biological consequences than a mutation in a somatic

A\\ 1~l-'-"l:_ l-L\ls ;r/\ oftf1lt~r• ~;V\•}i <avt:--( ~~ t~n.+· r.w-1-~·C> l

,II

9. Sickle cell anemia is an example of a genetic disease caused by a point mutation.

a. Describe the specific DNA changes that produce the abnorm<i!I sickle cell hemoglobin.
1.l f\.. -=) L J lt,,_t,, ..,-/~\..,J
l
· 0 -r.{_ i ~ (j ~.... 'S •
6.{J. r I

'
,
b. Explain the structural effect that this point mutation has on the hemoglobin protein.

Jl'"tV1·'\()( 4ii]:.,; '''- ;-... s i ' k i< f"_ t-,,~ru <'. j A:~ / 1;e~.. J,.. (. t!. I r

c. Explain why the sickle cell mutation is selected for in certain areas of the world.
t:,. t ~
·p:!--i~ q J' ,6' 46 (.,:=\; 1,
~ ... " c· t~r ~ ("J' ~u I~,~, <=1' VI ; vr1lrr., ~'\ !' cc:-~
~

'~ r,
a 9;.~-~-J~r"--~-~

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -· ----- ---:::--~:---------------------------
8 or 11
110.velopea ':IV f.<.im 3 Foglia • www.ExploreBiology.com • ©2008
 Name ________ _______ AP Biology

10. FRAMESHIFT MUTATION 1: Another group of mutations is called frameshift mutations where at least one base is either
added to or deleted from the DNA as it is copied during DNA replication. Let's investigate the effects of these.

a. Here is your original DNA sequence from this lab and the amino acid sequence that was translated from it:
1 • 1 , , 1 1 1 1 , 2 ~
- --
1
--,-
2 l2 ?l 2 . ? . 2 : 2 : 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 • 3 3 3 c 4 , 1 Lt .1
-a
7 l ?I.:,• 1 5 G 7 81) U 3
1 ;> ~ 5'•1 - a~ J 1 ? 1 J r '3 7 31; 0 ) ) --1 ~ F, 1

CIT\G\AIGICITIAICITIGIAIGIC\T\G\A\G\ C\T\G\C\A\G\A \G\C\ c\GIAIGI CITIC! cl Tl GI TIGI TIA\A\AI Cl Tl Tl G

MET THR ARG LEU ASP VAL SER ALA ARG GLY HIS ILE STOP

b. Lel's simulate a frameshift mutation by adding an additional base between the 36 1h & 3th bases. The base A was
accidentally added to the sequence of the gene. Now transcribe this new DNA strand into mRNA, and then also translate it
into its amino acid se.9.uence.
1 i I i 1 1 : i T7""" ~ I 1 "> "J
-
1 I 2 2 2 2 2 L 2 2 L ~ ., j J ~~ :J ~ .... I _,,
·" I ,'1- •I •1
' ,) •1 - I..\ ·, 1 ? < l I CI - f\ CJ ('\ 1 I 2 3 A S ~ - 8 9 0 1 2 r_ :l 5 f; 7 (.
- 13 9 Cl 2 3 I S
C T G A G C T A C T G A G C T G A G C T G C A G A G C C G A G C T C C Ta G T G T A A A C T T
G
. I,,., , ;,r r
b ~ ( l- ....... .J I i.::, (, I !'
f,: '- L l- :~ iJ G A- t ,, (_ u' ,. 0 ;,- ( '-- ., (_ b ~ b & ~ u~ ~ ~ C.
;· . ' l.,,_r • , lj
tLV '-1t'-\ ; 1~ i.Lv
ir-J • L \
- ~ \J u vs~b A-
X X /V\l-\ tV' r /¥>p £.--\~ A-·<'1
. ~, S,£ V "'\
rJ . ll
V
c. Did this change in the DNA sequence cause any significant change to the protein produced? Explain.

v)~ ""? c\~~ e\ l\ r...\1 \ \ ~, ,:;,L,' "l5 ~,..C~ R~ ~~V'~-J.-.-- .__

,

d. Why are insertions and delchJ:1 . c:::>l!ed "lrarneshift" mutations, and what is meant by the "reading frame" of a gene?

§,,..fl.-- h ow--. ""° _t t;;'.J / ~_.. c~-:,.:_J \(41'1 or r' ; ~ '1-1"' r~ 4,...., 6J <.ch' ,, ,, 'l e-r .,L_ I(.. t,',, H:J
. J' ' ·- p
~,Oc-

9 of 11
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~~ - ......,,,,...
 r'

Name
---- ---- ---- ---- AP Biology

11. FRAME SHIFT MUTATI ON 2: Here is your original DNA sequenc e from
this lab and the amino acid sequenc e that was translate d
from it:
I
-· --~· ,.
1 1 i 1 1 1 1 I 1 I 2 2 ? ,, ,.,
. ., -
') I "L 2 2 2 2
2'2 3 3 3 3 3 3 ."') ..,.I
~
' 3 4 ~ l) ' 7 8 9 I O .,
..)
-· 3 ~ - 4 : ,1 4
I ~. 2 4 5 I 6 7 8 0 0 I 1 2, 3 , ..., .!r:1
415 6i7ls 1 glo11 2 3'4,5 6 I 7 I 8 9 0 2 ..., .! s 6 I

Tl ACT GA G CT GA G CT G CAG AGC CGA G CT CC

T GTG T Al A ACT T G,
MET THR ARG LEU ASP VAL SER ALA ARG GLY HIS ILE I STOP
a. Now let's simulate a framesh ift mutation by deleting the 10 th base. Now transcrib
e this new DNA strand into mRNA, and then
also translate it into its amino acid seguen ce.
I 1 1~ 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 2 I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2i2 2 3 3 3 3 3 '.) • 3 •l 4 --1- ! -
- J J "i 0 7 8 3 3 T3 -+ ~ .114
9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 7 3 ~ 0 I 2 J ~ 5 6 7
CITIGIAIGI CITIA GIAIGI CITIGIAIGI CITIGICIAI GIAIGICICIGIAIGICITICICITIGITIGITIAIAIAIC
I TITIG
Llvlc_lGI~ L:,lvll IUIU
:t ~~,rl L~· ~I~ k.u
~
b. Did this change in the DNA sequenc e cause any significa nt change to the ''
protein produce d? Explain.
Y,4 , l,VV""f {,':> G=\ \\ tw, e-,, t-lc..-
; .,,{..::, '>
J-,___- ~ oJ +k V""""+-"":f-"'n--

c. Which do you think would cause a more profound biologica l impact: (1) a
deletion/ insertion near the beginnin g of a gene, or
(2) a deletion /insertio n towards the end ,:i~ a qane? Explain.

T~ \?~ ~~ t'"W'\ ~ -1_{_:~_1'._~~ ~,/:~:-~? (

C, ,,
/-}-i_l.- {. /- ~ 11t.- lul,~ "s ~Cr- Wo.Jt. J...
~L-- Dy s~ : f-1;::_d - _ l -< ". • ~- , ___________
__ _____________
__

---------------------------· - • ---- -·

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i.
 ~

- ~
~/
Name ___ ___ ___ ___ __
AP Biolog y ~
12. Cystic fibrosis is an example of a genetic disease caused by
a frameshift mutation.
a. Describe the specific DNA changes that produce the abnorm
al cystic fibrosis protein (the delta F508 mutation).

~.k h err \t-\ 1'k l f -r-t2- ~t,VC. , ud- 12-0 (. ,t t' cY "-"' ~o~

b. Explain the structural and functional effects that this frames

hift mutation has on lung cells.
~~~s ~~c .s l~'b,h_-~. J--
+~: <:> e,fc lh {c,\.,Ls -IJ,
Jl6~ +~ \.(;- l- h\~ ; k \OV\ bv~ t J. , . 2 \'

c. Explain why cystic fibrosis shortens life span.

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13. Are mutations always deleterious? \Nhat is the evolutionary
value of mutations? Explain.

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,·:'·)::i:·,' i'•,- I, ,rn B. Foglia · www.ExploreBiology.com • ©2008

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