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The document is a promotional excerpt for the 7th edition of 'The Economics of Women, Men, and Work,' providing links to download the book and other related eBooks. It includes a detailed table of contents outlining various chapters that discuss historical perspectives, labor market outcomes, and the economics of family dynamics. Additionally, it pays tribute to Marianne A. Ferber, acknowledging her contributions to the field.

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20257

The document is a promotional excerpt for the 7th edition of 'The Economics of Women, Men, and Work,' providing links to download the book and other related eBooks. It includes a detailed table of contents outlining various chapters that discuss historical perspectives, labor market outcomes, and the economics of family dynamics. Additionally, it pays tribute to Marianne A. Ferber, acknowledging her contributions to the field.

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For

Lawrence M. Kahn
Daniel Blau Kahn
Lisa Blau Kahn

and
Bob Ferber
Don Ferber
Ellen Ferber Rogalin

and
Michael Joseph Kowalkowski
Henrik Francis Kowalkowski
Andrew Joseph Kowalkowski

With Love

In Memoriam

Our dear colleague, friend, and collaborator,


Marianne A. Ferber, January 30, 1923 – May 11, 2013.

The Economics of Women, Men, and Work,


both the textbook and the field of study,
have been deeply enriched by her contributions.

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 7 07/06/13 10:40 AM


A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 8 07/06/13 10:40 AM
Brief Contents

Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv

Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1

Chapter 1 Introduction 3

Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14

Part II  The Allocation of Time between the Household and the Labor Market 33

Chapter 3 The Family as an Economic Unit: Theoretical Perspectives 35

Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58

Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76

Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91

Part III  Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 133

Chapter 7 Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes 135

Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory


and Evidence 163

Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market


Outcomes: On-the-Job Training, Family Gaps, Psychological Attributes,
and Math Test Scores 196

Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings


and ­Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market
Discrimination 221

Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253

Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271

Part IV The Economics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 291

Chapter 13 Changing Work Roles and Family Formation 293

Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family


Well-Being 317

ix

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 9 07/06/13 10:40 AM


x Brief Contents

Chapter 15 Government Policies Affecting Family Well-Being 330

Chapter 16 Balancing the Competing Demands of Work and Family 351

Part V The Economic Status of the World’s Women 373

Chapter 17 Gender Differences around the World: An Overview 375

Chapter 18 Gender Differences around the World: Specific Countries


and Regions 395

Author Index 425


Subject Index 435

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 10 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Contents

Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv

Part I Introduction and Historical Perspectives 1


Chapter 1 Introduction 3
What Economics Is About 4
Uses of Economic Theory 5
The Scope of Economics 6
Individuals, Families, and Households 7
A Note on Terminology 8
Outline of the Book 9
Appendix 1A: A Review of Supply and Demand in the Labor Market 9
Questions for Review and Discussion 13

Chapter 2 Women and Men: Historical Perspectives 14


The Source of Gender Differences: Nature versus Nurture—
The Ongoing Debate 14
Factors Influencing Women’s Relative Status 18
Women’s Roles and Economic Development 19
The U.S. Experience 21
Colonial America: The Preindustrial Period 21
Period of Industrialization 22
The Evolution of the Family and Women’s Labor Force Participation 24
Occupations and Earnings of Women in the Nineteenth and Early
­Twentieth Century 28
Conclusion 31
Questions for Review and Discussion 31
Suggested Readings 32

Part II The Allocation of Time between the Household


and the Labor Market 33
Chapter 3 The Family as an Economic Unit: Theoretical Perspectives 35
The Simple Neoclassical Model: Specialization and Exchange 36
Comparative Advantage 37
Specialization and Exchange: Numerical Examples 38
Case 1: Each Individual Has An Absolute Advantage
in One Activity 38
Case 2: One Individual Has An Absolute Advantage
in Both Activities 40

xi

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 11 07/06/13 10:40 AM


xii Contents

Decreasing Gains to Specialization and Exchange and the Shift Away


from the Traditional Family 40
Disadvantages of Specialization 41
Lack of Sharing of Housework 42
Life Cycle Changes 42
Costs of Interdependence 43
Tastes and Bargaining Power 43
Domestic Violence 44
Advantages of Families beyond Specialization 44
Economies of Scale 45
Public Goods 45
Externalities in Consumption 45
Gains from Shared Consumption 45
Marriage-Specific Investments 46
Risk Pooling 46
Institutional Advantages 46
Transaction Cost and Bargaining Approaches 46
Conclusion 50
Appendix 3A: Specialization and Exchange: A Graphical Analysis 50
Questions for Review and Discussion 57
Suggested Readings 57

Chapter 4 The Family as an Economic Unit: Evidence 58


Time Spent in Nonmarket Work 58
Time Spent in Housework 59
Time Spent with Children 62
Time Spent in Volunteer Work 65
Estimating the Value of Nonmarket Production 67
The American Family in the Twenty-First Century 71
Conclusion 74
Questions for Review and Discussion 75
Suggested Readings 75

Chapter 5 The Labor Force: Definitions and Trends 76


The Labor Force: Some Definitions 77
Trends in Labor Force Participation 79
Broad Labor Force Trends by Gender: 1890 to Present 79
Labor Force Trends by Race/Ethnicity 81
Labor Force Trends over the Life Cycle 82
Trends in Labor Force Attachment of Women 84
Trends in Hours Worked 85
Trends in Gender Differences in Unemployment 86
Conclusion 88

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 12 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Contents xiii

Questions for Review and Discussion 90


Suggested Readings 90

Chapter 6 The Labor Supply Decision 91


The Labor Supply Decision 91
The Budget Constraint 93
Indifference Curves 93
Substitution in Consumption 95
Substitution in Production 96
Substitution Between Market Goods and Nonmarket Time 96
Tastes 97
The Labor Force Participation Decision 98
The Value of Nonmarket Time (w*) 100
The Value of Market Time (w) 104
The Hours Decision 108
Empirical Evidence on the Responsiveness of Labor Supply
to Wages and Income 108
Economic Conditions 112
Some Applications of the Theory: Taxes, Child Care Costs,
and Labor Supply 113
Taxes and the Decision to Work 113
Government Subsidies of Child Care and Women’s Labor Force
Participation 114
Other Factors Affecting Child Care Costs and Women’s Labor
Force Participation 115
Analyzing the Long-Term Growth in Women’s Labor
Force Participation 116
Factors Influencing the Value of Market Time (w) 116
Rising Qualifications: Education and Experience 117
The Demand for Female Labor 117
Overall Productivity Increases 117
Factors Influencing the Value of Nonmarket Time (w*) 118
Availability of Market Substitutes and Household Appliances
and the Role of Technological Change 118
Demographic Trends 119
Changing Role of Husband’s Income 119
Tastes 120
Recent Trends in Women’s Labor Force Participation: Has the Engine
of Growth Stalled? 122
Analyzing Trends in Men’s Labor Force Participation 125
Black and White Participation Differentials: Serious Employment Problems
for Black Men 127
Conclusion 130
Appendix 6A: The Income and Substitution Effects: A Closer Look 130

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 13 07/06/13 10:40 AM


xiv Contents

Questions for Review and Discussion 130


Suggested Readings 131

Part III Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 133
Chapter 7 Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes 135
Gender Differences in Occupations 135
Overview of Gender Differences in Occupations 136
Measuring Occupational Segregation 142
Hierarchies within Occupations 143
Evaluating the Extent of Occupational Segregation 143
Trends in Occupational Segregation by Sex 144
The Gender Pay Ratio 146
Gender Differences in Union Membership 155
Gender Differences in Self-Employment 157
Gender Differences in Nonstandard Work 159
Conclusion 160
Questions for Review and Discussion 161
Suggested Readings 161

Chapter 8 Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory


and Evidence 163
Supply and Demand Explanations: An Overview 163
What Is Human Capital? 165
Evidence on Gender Differences in Educational Attainment 165
The Educational Investment Decision 172
The Rising College Wage Premium 177
Education and Productivity 180
Gender Differences in Educational Investment Decisions: The Human
Capital Explanation 181
Gender Differences in Educational Investment Decisions: Social Influences
and Anticipation of Discrimination 184
Socialization 186
Biased Evaluations 187
Subtle Barriers: Role Models, Mentoring, and Networking 187
Policy Issues: Title IX—Sports, Academics, and the Status of Single-Sex
Education 189
Explaining Women’s Rising Educational Attainment 191
Conclusion 193
Questions for Review and Discussion 194
Suggested Readings 194

Chapter 9 Other Supply-Side Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market


Outcomes: On-the-Job Training, Family Gaps, Psychological
Attributes, and Math Test Scores 196

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 14 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Contents xv

On-the-Job Training and Labor Market Experience 196


Gender Differences in Labor Market Experience 197
The On-the-Job Training Investment Decision 198
General Training 198
Firm-Specific Training 199
Why Do Firms Pay Tuition Benefits? 201
Experience and Productivity 201
Gender Differences in Training Investment Decisions 202
Expected Work Life 202
Discrimination 205
Occupations and Earnings 205
Family-Related Earnings Gaps 207
Traditional Gender Roles and Gender Wage Gaps 207
Women’s Greater Responsibility for Housework
and Caregiving 207
Gender Differences in Quitting 208
Gender and the Location of the Family 208
Wage Penalties and Premiums Associated with Marriage
and Parenthood 208
Male Marriage Premium 209
Motherhood Wage Penalty 209
Gender Differences in Psychological Attributes 211
Attitudes toward Negotiating 213
Attitudes toward Competition 214
Attitudes toward Risk 214
Gender Differences in the “Big Five” Personality Traits 215
A Closer Look at Gender Differences in Math Test Scores 216
Conclusion 219
Questions for Review and Discussion 219
Suggested Readings 220

Chapter 10 Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings


and Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market
Discrimination 221
Labor Market Discrimination: A Definition 222
Analyzing the Sources of Gender Differences in Labor Market
Outcomes 222
Empirical Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in Earnings 223
Evidence from Statistical Analyses: Labor Market-wide Evidence 223
Biases in the Estimate of Discrimination 225
Evidence on Possible Sources of the Unexplained Gender
Wage Gap 226
Further Evidence from Statistical Analyses: A Look at Subgroups
of College Graduates, Lawyers, and MBAs 228

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 15 07/06/13 10:40 AM


xvi Contents

Evidence on Discrimination from Experiments 230


Evidence on Discrimination from Court Cases 231
Evidence on Discrimination: An Assessment 232
The Declining Gender Pay Gap 232
The Context: Widening Wage Inequality 232
Determinants of Trends in the Gender Wage Gap 233
Explaining the Decline in the Gender Wage Gap 234
Results of the Blau-Kahn Study 235
Understanding the Decline in the Unexplained Portion of the
Gender Pay Gap 235
Minorities Fared Less Well in Narrowing the Wage Gap
with Whites 237
Empirical Evidence on the Causes and Consequences of Gender
Differences in Occupations 238
Consequences of Occupational Segregation 238
Causes of Occupational Segregation 240
Is There a Glass Ceiling? 241
Conclusion 246
Appendix 10A: Regression Analysis and Empirical Estimates of Labor
Market Discrimination 247
Questions for Review and Discussion 251
Suggested Readings 252

Chapter 11 Labor Market Discrimination: Theory 253


Theories of Labor Market Discrimination: An Overview 253
Tastes for Discrimination 254
Employer Discrimination 255
Employee Discrimination 259
Customer Discrimination 261
Subtle Barriers 261
Statistical Discrimination 262
Perceptions of Average Gender Differences Can Result in a Pay
Gap 262
Statistical Discrimination and Feedback Effects 263
Empirical Evidence on Gender Differences in Quitting 264
The Overcrowding Model 264
Institutional Models 266
The Internal Labor Market 267
Primary and Secondary Jobs 267
Feedback Effects 268
Conclusion 269
Questions for Review and Discussion 270
Suggested Readings 270

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 16 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Contents xvii

Chapter 12 Government Policies to Combat Employment Discrimination 271


Rationales for Government Intervention 271
Equal Employment Opportunity Laws and Regulations 272
Equal Pay Act 273
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 273
Executive Order 11246 and Affirmative Action 273
Major Court Decisions and Legislation That Have Shaped the Equal
Employment Laws and Regulations 274
Exceptions to Title VII Due to Bona Fide Occupational
Qualifications 274
Rulings Regarding Sex Plus Another Characteristic 275
Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact 275
1991 Civil Rights Act 276
Sexual Harassment 276
Sexual Orientation 277
The Lilly Ledbetter Case 278
The Failed Walmart Class Action Suit 278
Effectiveness of the Government’s Antidiscrimination Effort 279
Affirmative Action 281
Comparable Worth 285
Conclusion 288
Questions for Review and Discussion 289
Suggested Readings 289

Part IV The Economics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy 291
Chapter 13 Changing Work Roles and Family Formation 293
Economic Explanations for Family Formation 293
The Role of Gains to Specialization in Production 293
Declining Gains from Specialization in Production 294
Other Benefits from Marriage Remain and Some May
Be Increasing 295
Marriage 296
Divorce 300
Cohabitation: Opposite-Sex Couples 303
Cohabitation: Same-Sex Couples 306
Fertility 307
Trends in Fertility Rates: World War II to Present 309
Timing of Fertility by Educational Attainment 312
Births to Unmarried Mothers 313
Teen Births 315
Births to Older Mothers 315
Conclusion 315

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 17 07/06/13 10:40 AM


xviii Contents

Questions for Review and Discussion 316


Suggested Readings 316

Chapter 14 The Changing American Family and Implications for Family


Well-Being 317
Changing Family Structure 317
Dual-Earner Families 317
Single-Parent Families 319
Poverty: Incidence and Measurement 321
Implications for Children’s Well-Being 324
Maternal Employment, Child Care, and Children’s Outcomes 324
Family Structure and Children’s Outcomes 327
Conclusion 328
Questions for Review and Discussion 329
Internet-Based Data Exercise 329
Suggested Readings 329

Chapter 15 Government Policies Affecting Family Well-Being 330


Policies to Alleviate Poverty 330
Aid to Families with Dependent Children: The Former U.S. Welfare
Program 331
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families: The Current U.S. Welfare
Program 333
The Earned Income Tax Credit 337
Employment Strategies 339
Child Support Enforcement 340
Taxes, Specialization, and Marriage 341
Federal Income Tax 342
Social Security 345
Conclusion 348
Questions for Review and Discussion 349
Suggested Readings 349

Chapter 16 Balancing the Competing Demands of Work and Family 351


The Competing Demands of Work and Family 351
Rationales for Government and Employer Policies to Assist Workers 355
Rationales for Government Policies 355
Rationales for Employer Policies 357
Government and Employer Family-Friendly Policies 357
Family Leave 358
Child Care 361
Other Family-Friendly Policies 366
Alternative Work Schedules 366
Flexible Benefits 368
Policies to Assist Couples 368

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 18 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Contents xix

Conclusion 371
Questions for Review and Discussion 372
Suggested Readings 372

Part V The Economic Status of the World’s Women 373


Chapter 17 Gender Differences around the World: An Overview 375
Indicators of Women’s Economic Status 375
Labor Force Participation 376
Occupations 382
Earnings 383
Educational Attainment 383
Fertility 386
Housework 386
Women’s Role in Government and Their Standing Before the Law 387
Cultural Factors 388
Women’s Status: An Assessment 390
Economic Development, Globalization, and Women’s Status 391
Conclusion 393
Questions for Review and Discussion 394
Suggested Readings 394

Chapter 18 Gender Differences around the World: Specific Countries


and Regions 395
A Comparison of the United States to Other Economically Advanced
Countries 395
Overview of International Differences in Policies 396
Labor Force Participation 399
Occupations 402
The Gender Wage Ratio 403
Demographic Trends 407
Challenges Facing Women in Developing Countries 410
The Benefits of Educating Girls 411
Fertility and Population Control 413
Microcredit for Women: Lifeline or Mirage? 415
Countries of the Former Soviet Bloc 417
Countries of the Middle East and North Africa 419
Conclusion 422
Questions for Review and Discussion 422
Suggested Readings 423
Author Index 425
Subject Index 435

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 19 07/06/13 10:40 AM


A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 20 07/06/13 10:40 AM
Preface

We wrote The Economics of Women, Men, and Work because we saw a need for a text that
would acquaint students with the findings of research on women, men, and work in
the labor market and the household. We are extremely gratified on the publication of
the seventh edition to reflect that this belief was justified, and hope that this fully re-
vised and updated edition will serve as effectively as the earlier ones.

Overview of the Text


The book is written at a level that should both utilize and enhance students’ knowledge
of economic concepts and analysis but do so in terms intelligible to those not versed in
advanced theory. Even though we assume a knowledge of introductory economics on
the part of the reader, an interested and determined individual wanting to learn more
about the economic status of women as compared to men could benefit considerably
from the material offered here. The book also draws upon research in the other social
sciences. The text, used in its entirety, is primarily intended for courses specifically con-
cerned with the economic status of women. However, this book could be used to good
advantage in interdisciplinary women’s studies courses, as well as introductory-level
courses in economic problems. Selected readings would also make a useful supplement
to round out a general labor economics course or a course in the economics of the fam-
ily. In addition, this book would serve as a useful reference work for those not familiar
with the rapidly growing body of literature on women, men, and work as well as for
practicing economists looking for a single volume on this topic.
For instructors, in a recent chapter written by two of us, Blau and Winker, entitled
“Women, Men, and the Economy” in the International Handbook on Teaching and Learn-
ing Economics, we offer a discussion of how this course can enhance student learning.1
As discussed in our handbook chapter, courses like this offer an opportunity for stu-
dents to apply their microeconomic knowledge to gender-related policy issues and can
be used to motivate useful discussions about data, research methods, and interpreting
mixed research findings. Our handbook chapter also points to ways to fully engage
students in the course material and offers suggestions about how to teach more dif-
ficult concepts as well as provides ideas for supplementary assignments, in addition to
the end-of-chapter questions.

Significant Features of the Seventh Edition


The seventh edition reflects the numerous changes in the labor market and in the family
that have occurred in recent years. All data and tables have been updated, and discus-
sions and references take into account the most recent research on each subject covered.
As in the recent prior editions, questions are provided at the end of each chapter to
review major concepts and to stimulate further discussion among students and instruc-
tors. As this edition was being prepared, the United States was recovering from the
most serious recession it had experienced since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The
Great Recession, which began in December 2007 and lasted until June 2009, was fol-
lowed by a period of prolonged high unemployment. For example, the unemployment

1
Francine D. Blau and Anne E. Winker, “Women, Men, and the Economy,” in International Handbook on Teaching
and Learning Economics, edited by Gail M. Hoyt and KimMarie McGoldrick, (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar,
2012) pp. 693–702.

xxi

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 21 07/06/13 10:40 AM


xxii Preface

rate still hovered in the 8 percent range through 2012. We discuss the considerable im-
pact it has had on the lives of women, men, and families in a number of sections. At
the same time, throughout the book, we continue to emphasize long-run changes and
developments, as we have done in previous editions.
Key features of the seventh edition include the following:
• While the coverage and order of the content largely remains the same, the book
is now divided into five major parts: (I) Introduction and Historical Perspec-
tives; (II) The Allocation of Time Between the Household and the Labor Market;
(III) Labor Market Outcomes: Theory, Evidence, and Policy; (IV) The Econom-
ics of the Family: Theory, Evidence, and Policy; and (V) The Economic Status
of the World’s Women. In addition, we have increased the number of chapters
from 12 to 18, and so chapter length is correspondingly reduced. The purpose
of this change is to provide additional flexibility to instructors and to break
the material into smaller units for students. Some material has been relocated
across chapters. The material covered in Chapter 8 in the sixth edition has been
relocated as follows: The analysis of the narrowing of the gender pay gap has
been moved to Chapter 10 (“Evidence on the Sources of Gender Differences in
Earnings and Occupations: Supply-Side Factors versus Labor Market Discrimi-
nation”); the material on the rising college wage premium has been moved to
Chapter 8 (“Gender Differences in Educational Attainment: Theory and Evi-
dence”). The material covered in Chapter 9 of the sixth edition on unionism,
self-employment, and nonstandard work has been shortened and moved to
Chapter 7 (“Evidence on Gender Differences in Labor Market Outcomes”).
• We highlight recent developments in the labor market and their consequences
for women and men. These developments include the increasingly divergent
outcomes for individuals and families by level of educational attainment, as
well as the implications of the Great Recession for both individuals and families.
• This edition includes several new topics: a section examining why the engine of
growth in women’s labor force participation has stalled (Chapter 6); a section
on the role of gender differences in psychological attributes (attitudes toward
negotiation, competition, and risk, and personality traits) in explaining the
gender difference in earnings (Chapter 9); a consideration of corporate board
quotas for women (Chapter 12); and a discussion of the relationship between
women’s status, globalization, and economic development (Chapter 17).
• Chapter 2 has been fully revamped. The first section provides a substantially
­revised discussion on the ongoing debate about nature versus nurture in explain-
ing gender differences. The latter part of the chapter, which provides a historical
context, introduces the theory behind the U-shaped female labor force function
to explain the relationship between women’s role in production and women’s
status across countries and over the course of U.S. economic development.
• In keeping with changing demographics, the book incorporates additional dis-
cussion of same-sex marriage and its changing legal status. Chapter 13 also
points to changing dimensions of fertility, including the rise in serial cohabita-
tion and multipartner fertility, and the decline in teen birth rates.
• New material has been included on “hot topics” in the news. New to this edi-
tion are discussions of the recent Supreme Court ruling in the Walmart discrim-
ination case; the finding reported in the press that young women earn more
than young men in large cities; the ongoing debate about whether women can,
indeed, “have it all” (both a career and a family); and the extent to which gen-
der differences in math test scores are influenced by social factors, gender dif-
ferences in competition, and “stereotype threat.”

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 22 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Preface xxiii

• The international chapters point to dramatic changes occurring across the


globe, including rapid declines in fertility in nearly all countries, as well as dra-
matic increases in women’s education in developing countries. While the ratio
of boys to girls at birth remains high in many East Asian countries, we point
to substantial declines in this ratio in South Korea, which is a very promising
development.

A01_BLAU2817_07_SE_FM.indd 23 07/06/13 10:40 AM


Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Baudelaire et
Sainte-Beuve
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
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are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
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eBook.

Title: Baudelaire et Sainte-Beuve

Author: Fernand Vandérem

Release date: January 30, 2014 [eBook #44807]


Most recently updated: October 24, 2024

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BAUDELAIRE ET


SAINTE-BEUVE ***
Note sur la transcription: Les erreurs clairement
introduites par le typographe ont été corrigées.
L'orthographe d'origine a été conservée et n'a pas été
harmonisée. Les numéros des pages blanches n'ont pas
été repris.
BAUDELAIRE
ET

SAINTE-BEUVE
Imprimé à 235 exemplaires
dont
10 sur papier de Hollande.
FERNAND VANDÉREM

BAUDELAIRE
ET

SAINTE-BEUVE

NOUVELLE ÉDITION
AUGMENTÉE DE NOTES ET D'UN CHAPITRE INÉDIT

PARIS
LIBRAIRIE HENRI LECLERC
219, RUE SAINT-HONORÉ, 219

et 16, rue d'Alger.

1917
C étude, publiée d'abord dans le Temps Présent, a paru en
ette

1914 sous forme d'une brochure à tirage restreint et depuis


longtemps épuisé.
Il m'a semblé que le cinquantenaire de Baudelaire pouvait prêter
quelque intérêt à une réédition.
Je n'ai rien changé au texte primitif, que j'ai seulement complété par
des notes indiquant les sources des textes invoqués et quelques
particularités nouvelles.
J'y ai joint en outre un appendice où j'ai tenté de mieux élucider les
sentiments de Baudelaire pour Sainte-Beuve.
On aura ainsi, avec toutes références utiles, un résumé des relations
entre le grand poëte et l'illustre critique.
BAUDELAIRE ET SAINTE-BEUVE

L
es relations de Baudelaire et de Sainte-Beuve prêteraient à un
curieux chapitre d'histoire littéraire, dont j'offre ici un aperçu.
Les sentiments de Baudelaire envers certains de ses contemporains,
comme les sentiments qu'il leur inspirait, présentent parfois des
contradictions. Ainsi, extérieurement, qui douterait de son culte pour
Gautier et de l'estime où Gautier le tenait? Cependant on a retrouvé
un article de Baudelaire où il traitait Gautier en poète verbal, en
enfileur de phrases [1], et, d'autre part, Maxime du Camp nous conte
que, dans l'intimité, Gautier prédisait à Baudelaire la faillite finale
d'un Pétrus Borel [2].
Entre Baudelaire et Sainte-Beuve, pas trace de ces fluctuations. De
son extrême jeunesse à sa mort, Baudelaire ne cessa de ressentir et
de marquer pour Sainte-Beuve son admiration. C'est à Sainte-Beuve
qu'en 1844 il adresse respectueusement une de ses premières
poésies de collège [3]. Et en 1866, à quelques mois de la paralysie
générale, une de ses dernières lettres ne sera qu'un long
panégyrique des poésies de Sainte-Beuve [4].
Les Consolations, Joseph Delorme, les Pensées d'Août, partout il
trouve à louer et à s'enflammer. Notamment les Rayons Jaunes (ce
poème parti d'une impression heureuse, mais développé d'une façon
si méthodique et si dénuée d'ingénuité) lui semblaient un chef-
d'œuvre dont il ne se lassait pas de redire les beautés. Baudelaire a
subi là une emprise de jeunesse dont il ne devait plus se défaire.
On s'étonnera chez lui d'une admiration si constante pour un poète
qui lui était si sensiblement inférieur, tant par l'inspiration et par la
forme que par l'originalité. Et on pourrait être tenté d'y voir, sinon
une flagornerie envers le critique tout-puissant, du moins la
gratitude d'un obligé. Mais les faits s'opposent à cette hypothèse.
Car Sainte-Beuve ne fit jamais rien pour Baudelaire, ou ce qu'il fit en
sa faveur se réduit à l'impondérable.
Feuilletez d'ailleurs cet immense Larousse que constitue l'œuvre
critique de Sainte-Beuve. Alors que tant de poètes subalternes, tant
d'écrivains quelconques y bénéficient de longs articles, vous n'y
découvrez pas un seul Lundi consacré à Baudelaire. Puis contrôlez
par la correspondance des deux écrivains et vous aurez vite établi le
relevé de ce que Sainte-Beuve accorda à son jeune ami, à celui qu'il
appelait paternellement «son cher enfant».
1856.—Baudelaire publie sa première traduction de Poe: Histoires
extraordinaires. Lui qui ne sollicitait jamais pour son compte n'hésita
en aucun cas à quémander pour Poe. Il s'était institué le barnum,
l'impresario de Poe, le cultivateur acharné de sa gloire en France. Le
silence sur Poe, la moindre critique contre son œuvre, meurtrissait
Baudelaire au plus vif [5]. Pour une insignifiante réserve sur le
conteur américain, il faillit se brouiller avec d'Aurevilly.
En 1856 donc, il écrit à Sainte-Beuve pour lui recommander le
volume [6]. Nous avons la réponse de Sainte-Beuve. Il promet ferme
un article. En bas, une note naïve de l'éditeur ajoute: «Cet article n'a
jamais été fait.» Et d'un! [7]
1857.—Les Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires. Nouvelle lettre de
Baudelaire à Sainte-Beuve [8]. Même silence de Sainte-Beuve. Et de
deux!
Les Fleurs du Mal. Sainte-Beuve en connaît, avoue en connaître
plusieurs morceaux. Entre autres, il doit avoir lu les vingt pièces
publiées dès 1855, dans la Revue des Deux Mondes [9]. Voici
l'ouvrage complet. Occasion unique de lancer un jeune poète qui se
détache avec éclat de la cohue courante, se donne et est reçu par
Sainte-Beuve comme un disciple. Le critique s'en tient pourtant à
une longue lettre embarrassée, où ne sont pas oubliées les Pensées
de Joseph Delorme ni les Consolations et où les éloges sans chaleur
se mâtinent de gronderies vieillottes. Quant à un article, néant. Et de
trois!
Mais arrive le procès: Baudelaire en danger. Concédons que, critique
officiel, Sainte-Beuve se trouve en délicate posture pour intervenir.
Au moins pourrait-il autoriser Baudelaire à publier sa lettre dans le
recueil d'articles adressé aux juges. Pas question. Tout juste s'il
donnera quelques extraits de cette lettre trois ans plus tard, en
1860 [10]. Et il ne la publiera complète que neuf après, le poète mort,
en 1869, dans un furtif appendice des Lundis.
Il est vrai que, sous main, il glisse à Baudelaire des: «Petits moyens
de défense.» Effectivement bien petits. «Tout était pris dans le
domaine de la poésie. Lamartine avait pris les cieux. Victor Hugo
avait pris la terre(?) et plus que la terre(??). Laprade avait pris les
forêts. Musset avait pris la passion et l'orgie éblouissante (sic).
Théophile Gautier avait pris l'Espagne (!). Ce que Baudelaire a pris.
Il y a été comme forcé [11].»
Et cela finissait par un coup de dent à Musset, dont la vogue
torturait Sainte-Beuve—Musset dont il conseillait de souligner les
côtés obscènes et pornographiques. Ainsi nuls risques et tout profit.
Baudelaire n'en garda pas moins de ces conseils une éternelle
reconnaissance.
1858.—Gordon Pym. Nouvelle lettre de Baudelaire à Sainte-Beuve en
faveur de Poe [12]. Pas d'article. Et de quatre!
1859.—Un petit scandale. Hippolyte Babou moins patient que
Baudelaire a dénoncé dans un article le silence obstiné de Sainte-
Beuve sur l'auteur des Fleurs du Mal, et flétri nettement les
réticences cauteleuses du grand critique qui ne se répand en copie
que sur les ouvrages de second ordre [13].
Affolement de Baudelaire à l'idée d'être rendu responsable, quoique
innocent. Lettre à Sainte-Beuve pour se disculper [14]. Réponse
indignée de Sainte-Beuve, furieux de se voir dévoilé [15].
«Vous ne pouvez vous faire une idée de ce que c'est que la lettre de
Sainte-Beuve, écrit Baudelaire à Malassis. Il paraît que, depuis douze
ans, il notait tous les signes de malveillance de Babou. Décidément,
voilà un vieillard passionné avec qui il ne fait pas bon se
brouiller... [16].»
Vraisemblablement Sainte-Beuve tint toujours rancune à Baudelaire
de cet incident. Du moins, pour se taire, le ressentiment lui
fournissait là une espèce d'excuse.
La même année, Baudelaire publiait son étude sur Théophile
Gautier. Il va de soi que, selon l'usage, Sainte-Beuve n'en souffla pas
mot. Et de cinq!
1860.—Les Paradis artificiels. Lettre de Baudelaire à Sainte-Beuve
indiquant discrètement que M. Dalloz, directeur du journal où opère
le critique, lui a dit: «Le livre est digne de Sainte-Beuve. Faites une
visite à Sainte-Beuve à ce sujet.» Baudelaire ajoute: «Je n'aurais osé
y penser. Cependant j'ai plus que jamais besoin d'être soutenu.» Le
post-scriptum fait allusion à un morceau de pain d'épice qu'en
passant il avait porté à Sainte-Beuve, fort gourmet [17]. Nous avons la
réponse de Sainte-Beuve. Evasive, ajournant l'article, alléguant des
arriérés, ne promettant rien. Par contre il daigne remercier du pain
d'épice. Et de six! [18]
A la vérité, il se croyait largement quitte envers Baudelaire. Car,
piqué quand même par l'article de Babou, comprenant la nécessité
de rompre le silence, il s'était enfin décidé à nommer Baudelaire
dans une Causerie du Lundi, en date du 20 février [19]. Il y revenait
sur l'article de Babou, accusait son accusateur d'envie, et finalement,
comme un chien qu'on fouette, arrivait à Baudelaire. Oh! sans se
fouler, sans se donner grand mal, recopiant simplement entre
guillemets des fragments de la lettre qu'il lui avait adressée en 1857.
On trouvera cette lettre à la suite des Fleurs du Mal dans l'édition
définitive. On la rapprochera de l'article que, dans le même temps,
Barbey d'Aurevilly consacrait au livre [20]. Et on pourra mesurer toute
la distance artistique qui sépare un Sainte-Beuve d'un Baudelaire, un
Sainte-Beuve d'un d'Aurevilly.
Pour Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire est «un esprit fin», un talent «habile
et curieux». Mais «Baudelaire se défie trop de la passion(?), de la
passion naturelle(?)». Il «accorde trop à l'esprit, à la combinaison».
«Laissez-vous faire, conseille Sainte-Beuve, ne craignez pas tant de
sentir comme les autres, n'ayez jamais peur d'être trop commun.»
Toutefois, il convient aimer quelques pièces dont certaines lui
semblent dignes de l'Anthologie. Enfin «il tient compte surtout à
Baudelaire» (comme à Bouilhet et à Soulary) «de ce qu'ils viennent
tard, quand l'école dont ils sont a déjà tant donné et tant produit,
quand elle est comme épuisée... Ils soutiennent avec honneur, ils
décorent le déclin et le coucher de la Pléïade».
On possède ici, presque au complet, le sentiment de Sainte-Beuve
sur Baudelaire, la cote qu'il lui attribue: un petit poète de troisième
ou quatrième ligne, un de ces humbles glaneurs à la suite, qui
viennent quand les maîtres ont fauché le meilleur du champ, esprits
fins, bizarres, distingués, mais qui ne peuvent ramasser que les épis
de surcroît, les déchets de grande moisson, ce qui reste...
Rappelez-vous plus haut les moyens de défense: «Lamartine avait
pris les cieux, Hugo avait pris la terre... etc.»
Sainte-Beuve à ce moment, comme on voit, était loin du jugement
porté vingt ans plus tard par Banville et que la postérité ne cessera
de confirmer:
«Il faut admirer en Baudelaire un des plus grands hommes de ce
temps et qui, si nous ne vivions pas sous le règne intellectuel de
Victor Hugo, mériterait que nul poète contemporain ne fût mis au-
dessus de lui. De tous les artistes modernes du vers, l'auteur des
Fleurs du Mal est le seul qui n'ait rien dû à l'auteur de la Légende
des siècles. Il ne procédait ni de lui ni de personne... [21]»
1861.—Richard Wagner et Tannhaüser. Nul article de Sainte-Beuve.
Et de sept.
Les Fleurs du Mal, seconde édition augmentée. Cette fois,
Baudelaire, comme tout le public littéraire, doit attendre son tour de
Lundi. Plus de procès à invoquer. Un recueil classé, consolidé,
abordant presque déjà la gloire. Evidemment le père Sainte-Beuve
va y aller de son article, donner son impression d'ensemble sur
l'homme et sur l'œuvre. Mais non. Pas une ligne, pas un mot, pas
une allusion. Et de huit!
1862.—Un coup de tonnerre. Baudelaire, en manière de
manifestation artistique, d'affirmation personnelle, se présente à
l'Académie. Fâcheux contre-temps pour Sainte-Beuve qui s'apprêtait
à faire campagne dans cette élection et à peser publiquement les
titres des candidats [22]. Arrivé à Baudelaire, comment s'en tirer?
Impossible de passer sous silence, ou de malmener son «jeune
ami». Et d'autre part, pas moyen de s'associer à cette gaminerie
sans nom: Baudelaire, le petit Baudelaire candidat! Sainte-Beuve ici
n'a pas trop de toute son adresse, pour ne pas dire plus. Il écrit:
«On s'est demandé d'abord si M. Baudelaire en se présentant voulait
faire une niche à l'Académie et une épigramme; s'il ne prétendait
point l'avertir par là qu'il était bien temps qu'elle songeât à
s'adjoindre ce poète et cet écrivain si habile et si distingué dans tous
les genres de diction, Théophile Gautier, son maître [22 bis]. On a eu à
apprendre, à épeler le nom de M. Baudelaire à plus d'un membre de
l'Académie qui ignorait totalement son existence. Il n'est pas si aisé
qu'on le croirait de prouver à des Académiciens politiques et
hommes d'État comme quoi il y a, dans les Fleurs du Mal, des pièces
très remarquables vraiment pour le talent et pour l'art...; et qu'en
somme M. Baudelaire a trouvé moyen de se bâtir, à l'extrémité d'une
langue de terre réputée inhabitable et par delà les confins du
romantisme connu, un kiosque bizarre, fort orné, fort tourmenté,
mais coquet et mystérieux, où on lit de l'Edgar Poe, où l'on récite
des vers exquis, où l'on s'enivre avec le haschich pour en raisonner
après, où l'on prend de l'opium et mille drogues abominables dans
des tasses d'une porcelaine achevée. Ce singulier kiosque, fait en
marqueterie, d'une originalité concertée et composite, qui, depuis
quelque temps, attire les regards à la pointe du Kamtchatka
romantique, j'appelle cela la folie Baudelaire. Est-ce à dire
seulement, et quand on a tout expliqué de son mieux à de
respectables confrères un peu étonnés, que toutes ces curiosités,
tous ces regards et ces raffinements leur semblent des titres pour
l'Académie, et l'auteur lui-même a-t-il pu sérieusement se le
persuader? Ce qui est certain, c'est que l'auteur gagne à être vu,
que là où l'on s'attendait à voir entrer un homme étrange,
excentrique, on se trouve en présence d'un candidat poli,
respectueux, exemplaire, d'un gentil garçon, fin de langage et tout à
fait classique dans les formes...»
J'ai souligné quelques-uns des traits les plus protecteurs, les plus
dédaigneux dans ce certificat de bonnes lettres et bonnes façons.
Quel ton, en effet, pour parler de Baudelaire! Quelle différence avec
les accents déférents d'un Barbey d'Aurevilly, d'un Asselineau, d'un
Edouard Thierry!
N'empêche que de la part de Sainte-Beuve, si gros Monsieur, juché si
haut, un tel acte de condescendance, un tel présent de publicité
pouvaient paraître exceptionnels. Baudelaire, évidemment, sentit
plus l'honneur que les réserves. Il écrivit à Sainte-Beuve une lettre
débordante de gratitude [23].
Dès cet instant, il était à sa merci, suivit tous ses conseils
académiques, n'insista plus, se désista. Sainte-Beuve le félicita de
cette renonciation. «Quand on a lu votre dernière phrase de
remerciement conçue en termes si modestes et si polis, on en a dit
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