Environ Dev Sustain (2018) 20:1627–1649

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-017-9957-1

The personal, social and environmental sustainability

of Jainism in light of Maharishi Vedic Science

Lee Fergusson1 · Geoffrey Wells1 · David Kettle1

Received: 30 October 2016 / Accepted: 20 April 2017 / Published online: 8 May 2017
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2017

Abstract The Jain tradition of ecological awareness and sustainability has been well doc-
umented over the last 25 years, although its roots lie deep in Indian history, specifically in
texts such as the Tattvārtha Sūtra and Ācārāṇga Sūtra. This traditional body of knowledge
includes a long-standing theory and practice of personal, social and environmental sustain-
ability, addressing such views as the interconnectedness of humans and the laws of nature,
the interdependence of everything in the universe, the responsibility of humans to conserve
and preserve natural resources, the avoidance of wanton and unnecessary waste generation,
and a general aversion to mistreating or abusing the environment. These views encapsulate
the lifestyles of some ten million people, including both mendicants and laity. Similarly,
Maharishi Vedic Science, the systematic exploration and practical application of the Veda
and Vedic Literature as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, makes a compelling case for
establishing the unity of human life with nature and for promoting actions which guarantee
both the protection of nature and protection by it. The purpose of this paper is to examine
the relationship between the principles of sustainability in Jainism and the corresponding
viewpoint of Maharishi Vedic Science, including supporting scientific evidence of its
application, and to posit their contribution to a sustainable world future.

Keywords Sustainability · Jainism · Maharishi Vedic Science · Principles · Research

1 Introduction

Twenty-six years ago under the auspices of the Institute of Jainology, the late L.M. Singhvi
(1990, 2006), former High Commissioner of India to the UK, issued his “Jain Declaration
on Nature”. In it, Singhvi (2006) made some remarkable claims, including “the Jain tradi-
tion…enthroned the philosophy of ecological harmony and non-violence as its lodestar”

* Lee Fergusson
[email protected]
1
Maharishi Vedic Research Institute, Oxenford, QLD, Australia

13
1628 L. Fergusson et al.

(p. 217), “the ecological philosophy of Jainism, which flows from its spiritual quest, has
always been central to its ethics, aesthetics, art, literature, economics and politics” (p. 217),
and Jain philosophy maintains “that the greatest work of humanity could not match the
smallest wonder of nature” (p. 218).
Singhvi’s declaration triggered two primary reactions, both of which have been enunci-
ated and discussed widely during the past two and half decades. On the one hand, Western
environmentalists, scholars and sustainability scientists were awakened to, and stimulated
by, the rich vein of traditional Jain knowledge which dates back hundreds of years and
which apparently speaks intimately about the environment, ecology and sustainability. (As
a general point of orientation, we use the term “sustainability” to simply mean some-
thing—for example, a process, system or practice—that can be maintained or kept going
without depleting itself or damaging its surroundings; however, we also recognise that the
term has many meanings, and multiple types and levels of usage are possible in different
contexts. We use the term “principle” to mean a foundational or fundamental “truth” or
axiom.)
This view, encouraged by Singhvi’s (2006, p. 219) statements on Jain cosmology and
nature, recognises “the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual depend-
ence, which forms the basis of modern-day science of ecology” and maintains that “the
ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopragraho jivinam (all life is bound together by
mutual support and interdependence) is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and per-
spective. It defines the scope of modern ecology while extending it further to a more spa-
cious ‘home’”.
Moreover, scholars have as a consequence also investigated some of the main scriptural
sources of Jainism to better understand its position with respect to ecological thought. For
example, Dundas (2006, p. 100) analysed the Ācārāṇga Sūtra as it pertains to the behav-
iour of bees (i.e., Mādhukaryā vṛttyā) and Tatia (2006) analysed the writings of Jain phi-
losopher Haribhadra and texts such as the Tattvārtha Sūtra and Ācārāṇga Sūtra (particu-
larly because the latter concerns trees and plants). Tatia (2006, p. 14) concluded that many
of these ancient sources “serve to remind the world of the power and complexity of nature
as well as the moral advantage of living simply”. As a result, a significant corpus of litera-
ture on Jain ecology and sustainability has emerged in the last 15 years (e.g., Chapple
2006a, 2006b; Jain 2011; Kumar and Narayan 2003; Tobias 2008).
On the other hand, some commentators argue that, while of academic (and possibly
even practical) interest, no such link between Jainism and modern ecology can be made,
and therefore referring to a Jain sustainability ethic being “refreshingly contemporary”
may be misleading (e.g., Dundas 2006). Cort (2006, p. 65) points out that while there is
evidence of a degree of environmental justice and even deep ecology in Jainism, a disjunc-
tion exists between “how nature and the environment have been portrayed in classical Jain
literature” and modern sustainability principles; he questions the proposition (adopted by
Singhvi and subsequently others) that “Jainism is an inherently environmental religious
tradition”. Dundas (2006, p. 111) also suggests that contemporary sustainability scientists
and environmentalists have “co-opted” Indian traditions simply because they “appear con-
sistent” with modern sensibilities, despite these traditions having “highly ambivalent pre-
suppositions about nature and the world”. Therefore, some commentators argue that “as of
the early 2000s there is no Jain environmental ethic per se” and that statements which sug-
gest “Jainism has always ‘enthroned the philosophy of ecological harmony’ are largely
untrue as statements about history” (Cort 2006, p. 65).
Similarly, Chapple (2006a, p. 138) emphasises that while Jain philosophy may “approx-
imate an environmentally friendly ideal”, the primary Jain pursuit “focuses on personal,

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1629

spiritual advancement, not on a holistic vision of interrelatedness of life”, particularly

when one considers the fact that Jainism’s most fundamental precepts are only comprehen-
sively practiced by a few hundred thousand mendicants rather than a wider laity which has
had to make significant compromises in regard to finding its place in the modern environ-
ment. Moreover, the global nature of contemporary environmentalism and sustainability
(including issues such as global warming and ozone depletion) and the currently held inter-
connected worldview of global ecology (i.e., related to the biosphere) are not topics to
which traditional Jains would (or could) have turned their attention, preferring to more gen-
erally focus their attention on local or regional matters.
These contrary views about Jain ecology and its “declaration on nature” rest on an indis-
putable fact: disciplines such as “ecology” and “sustainability science” are relatively new
epistemes (an argument also made by Vannucci [1999] in the context of Vedic knowledge
and ecology, although first to use the word “episteme” in the context of knowledge “char-
acteristic of a historical period” rather than “true” or “correct” intellectual knowledge was
Foucault 1970) and therefore cannot relate directly to ancient knowledge. For example, the
concept and practice of “environmentalism” has “arisen [according to Cort 2006, pp.
65–66] out of a set of physical, technological, and increasingly moral and intellectual chal-
lenges of the past several centuries, but has attained its position as a distinct field of
inquiry—an episteme—only within the past several decades”. Thus, questions raised by
such disciplines are not issues Jains have, or could have historically, thought about or acted
upon. In this sense, Cort (2006, p. 66) argues that “without the episteme of environmental-
ism, it is not possible to develop a conscious response in thought, speech and deed to the
questions raised by that episteme”, and therefore to “speak of ‘Jain environmentalism’
before the recent past is meaningless”.
However, we conclude that while it may not be possible to directly or seamlessly associ-
ate traditional Jainism with contemporary sustainability science for the reasons given
above, and while we do not wish to unnecessarily elevate the merits of one position over
the other, enough data do exist to suggest it is not unreasonable to identify a tentative link
between Jain philosophy and the contemporary understanding of sustainability science,
particularly as it (i.e., Jainism) is practiced at the local or regional level by both mendicants
and laity. This determination will inform the following overview of personal, social and
environmental sustainability in Jainism, a position not unreasonable given the significant
amount of research presented elsewhere which supports this view.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi—founder of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi pro-
gramme and Maharishi Vedic University in Europe, Maharishi University of Management
in the USA, and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Vedic Vishwavidyalaya University in India—has,
like representatives of the Jain tradition, similarly made declarations about nature, the envi-
ronment and sustainability. These declarations have been made in the context of his Vedic
Science and in the contexts of 40 aspects of the Veda and Vedic Literature, with particu-
larly emphasis on the relation of Vedic Science to the growth of human consciousness. For
example, in 1972 Maharishi (1973, p. 3) established seven goals for his worldwide activi-
ties (what he called his “World Plan”) of which Goal #3 was “to maximise the intelligent
use of the environment”, and in 1978 he said that
concern for [the] environment is a legitimate worry in almost every country and
among responsible people everywhere. Men have for too long treated nature and its
resources as either enemies or slaves to be exploited at will and without regard to the
after-effects. The all-pervasive imperatives of greed and desire to accumulate more
and more wealth left no alternative other than to plunder nature. For a while, man

13
1630 L. Fergusson et al.

even saw himself as the subduer of nature and treated nature’s resources so ruthlessly
that today he is faced with the collapse of society’s political, social, economic, and
environmental structures (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p.
9).
Maharishi has even spoken about energy consumption and the risk of nuclear technology
to the environment, pointing out that “man has…succeeded in devastating his environment
in terms of flora and fauna, and entire lakes, rivers, and forests have become the dealers of
disease rather than refreshment, health, and pleasure” (World Government of the Age of
Enlightenment 1978, p. 9). As a consequence, Maharishi declared his message and method
encourage the “oneness of human beings with nature and the environment—attunement
with natural law” (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p. 9). It is in this
context, and against the background of this message and method, that the present paper
will discuss Jainism and sustainability.
Preliminary research has been conducted on Maharishi Vedic Science and its relation to
sustainability science. For example, Fagan (2011) has discussed renewable fertilisers, crop
rotation and diversification, soil conservation and natural means of pest control in the con-
text of genetically engineered horticulture and in light of Maharishi’s Vedic agricultural
methods, Scaroni-Fisher and Fisher (2011) have considered Vedic knowledge in the light
of sustainable forestry and architecture, and Wallace (2011) has examined Vedic technolo-
gies in the context of organic agriculture. More recently, these authors have identified the
foundational principles and practices of sustainability in Maharishi Vedic Science, as well
as its relation to indigenous sustainability (Fergusson et al. 2017a, b).
Of interest also is the “spiritual quest” of Jains to obtain both “happiness and personal
peace” (Bhaskar 2006, p. 173) and Maharishi’s (1957, p. 3) desire to “root out [mankind’s]
suffering” and to secure personal and collective peace through Vedic Science; indeed,
Maharishi (1966, p. 80) maintained from the beginning of his teaching in the late 1950s
that the “expansion of happiness is the purpose of life” and removing “misery and peace-
lessness” are central to his mission (1957, p. 3). Heaton (2016) has investigated the rela-
tionship of Maharishi Vedic Science to sustainable architecture, and many of the principles
and applications of sustainability in the literature present a prima facie case for alignment
with those enunciated in the literature on Jainism; however, any such linkages, should they
exist, have yet to be explored. Moreover, Maharishi has described the tradition of Vedic
wisdom as foundational with respect to world religions (Maharishi 1969, pp. 255–262).
We therefore conclude that a parallel set of sustainability principles may exist between
Jainism and Maharishi Vedic Science but these have yet to be identified. For this reason,
the present paper asks the following two research questions: (1) what are the principles of
personal, social and environmental sustainability in Jainism; and (2) what are the princi-
ples of Maharishi Vedic Science which illuminate these fundamental Jain principles?

2 Sustainability in the Jain tradition

2.1 Overview

The 1500-year Jain tradition represents one of the most comprehensive and detailed inves-
tigations into the nature and continuous application of what can be called an “ethics of sus-
tainability”, and the benefits of adhering to its principles are today enjoyed by about 10
million people, most of whom are in India but also includes many in the Indian diaspora.

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1631

At the core of Jain teaching is the principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence. However, the appli-
cation of Ahiṃsā is highly complex, and any attempt to superficially explain it in the con-
text of sustainability will not succeed. Therefore, the following represents an attempt
briefly to contextualise Jainism within the broader framework of what has been called “Jain
ecology and sustainability” in order to answer research question 1.
An authoritative analysis of the relationship of Jainism to sustainability has been pro-
vided by Chapple (2006a) and can be summarised in the following way: we have to learn
from nature. Kumar (2006) presents this central Jain principle through an example. Con-
sider the honeybee: she goes from flower to flower taking only small amounts of nectar
from each flower, but never takes away too much nectar from any one flower; bees then
transform the nectar into a sweet resource with nutritious and healing properties. In con-
trast, Kumar observes, humans see something beautiful or useful in nature, and “take it and
take it until it is depleted and exhausted; if we would learn from and follow the honeybee
we would only take a little and be contented” (Kumar 2006, p. 181). Kumar expands this
principle in terms of interdependence, using a dialogue with his mother as the vehicle for
his explanation:
The honeybee does not know how to create waste! The bee not only teaches the way
to transformation, but also the way to pollination. We do not find the fulfilment of
our potential by ourselves; we depend on each other. Man depends on woman; I
depend on you. I am grateful to you, my son, that you came into the world through
me. You needed my body to be born; I needed you so that I could be a mother. We
humans depend on the trees and rain and on the fruits of the earth. We need to work
to enhance the relationship between us and all life. This is the essence of pollination.
(Kumar 2006, p. 182)
For these reasons, Jains take their lead from the honeybee (Madhukarāyate, मधुकरायते) which
“sucks honey in the blossoms of the tree without hurting the blossom and [thereby]
strengthens itself”, and maintain that human “wants should be reduced, desires curbed and
consumption levels kept within reasonable limits. Using any resource beyond one’s needs
and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed the Jain faith goes
one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are
acts of violence” (Singhvi 2006, p. 224), and that because of the principle of interdepend-
ence violence to nature is tantamount to violence towards oneself.
These views are based on what Singhvi (2006) calls an “ethical philosophy of ecologi-
cal harmony and non-violence” which he claims consists of five guiding principles: (1)
Ahiṃsā (अहिसं ा) or non-violence towards humans and all of nature; (2) Parasparopragraho
jīvanāma (परस्परोपग्रहो जीवानाम्, Tattvārtha Sūtra, 5.21) or universal interdependence of all
things in the universe; (3) Anekāntavāda (अनेकान्तवाद), the “doctrine of manifold aspects”
which underpins the Jain concept of universal interdependence, and relates to the changing
reality of an infinite number of multiple viewpoints and to the corollary that views of life
must not be “one-sided”; (4) Samyaktva (सम्यक्त्व) or equanimity, and hence an opposition to
intolerant, inflexible, harmful, aggressive and unilaterally dogmatic attitudes to the natural
and human-made world and to those around us; and (5) Jīva-daya (जीव दया), which is under-
pinned by Ahiṃsā, represents the need for compassion, empathy, charity and universal
friendliness. Collectively integrated, these five principles form what can be called the Jain
“ethical code of conduct”.
The code includes kindness to animals, vegetarianism (a topic in relation to sustainabil-
ity considered in more detail by McLeod-Kilmurray [2011]), self-restraint, charity and the
avoidance of waste. Underlying the Jain code is what Singhvi (2006, p. 223) refers to as the

13
1632 L. Fergusson et al.

Mahāvratas (महाव्रतस् or big vows for mendicants) and Anuvratas (अनुव्रतस् or basic vows for
laity). These are pledges, if you will, of how to live a non-violent life at the heart of which
is the “emphatic assertion of individual responsibility towards one and all. Indeed, the
entire universe is the forum of one’s own conscience. The code is profoundly ecological in
its secular thrust and [in] its practical consequences”. As stated above, at the core of Jain
ecology and environmental ethics is the philosophy of Ahiṃsā. Non-violence to a Jain
means the obvious non-harm to fellow human beings, but extends to not harming animals
(hence a strict vegetarianism), and involves non-harm to the gross as well as subtle levels
of life, including “the very essential pre-requisites of life—to the air, water, earth and
plants—for, according to Jain biology, all these serve as the abodes of countless souls”
(Cort 2006, pp. 74–75). Such an approach springs from the view that “consciousness” is
the “inalienable characteristic of every [soul], however undeveloped it may be. [Conscious-
ness] is present even in the nigodas (the least developed life-form) and, through its progres-
sive development, the nigoda too may culminate in the supreme state of the soul, namely
omniscience” (Vallely 2006, p. 202).
Historical, as well as contemporary, examples of individuals living in accord with the
Jain code abound and include Mahāvīra and Ādināth who famously urged their followers
to: (1) limit consumption; (2) refrain from eating meat; (3) properly prepare fruit and vege-
tables (for example, by removing seeds from food containing multiple seeds, and retaining
them for re-sowing and regeneration); (4) keep enough seed after sowing for oneself as
well as leaving seed on the ground for wildlife (Kumar’s mother put grain on top of anthills
for this purpose); (5) not exploit animals; and (6) respect the “water body, the fire body, the
earth body and the air body” [in Jain philosophy, these natural “bodies” are not distinct
from human bodies; as human bodies contain each element, and because these natural bod-
ies have sacrificed themselves “to sustain the human body…it is only right that human
beings should take responsibility for sustaining the natural order and preserving the integ-
rity of the elements” (Cort 2006, pp. 184–185)]. For this reason, Jains not only maintain
that non-violence is the highest duty in life (Ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ, अहिसं ा परमो धर्मः) but
also aspire to the practice of “mutually supporting all living creatures”, thus providing
what Dundas (2006, p. 110) calls the “components of a morally unified ideological
underpinning”.

2.2 Personal sustainability

Jains have historically taken personal sustainability seriously, but there are distinctions of
approach between mendicants and laity. In worldly activities, the Jain approach includes
three factors, in addition to the five more general sustainability principles discussed above,
namely: (1) choosing a legitimate means of livelihood (Nyāyopatta-dhana, न्यायपथ धन); (2)
performing service (Sevā, सेवा); and 3) offering gifts (Dāna, दान). According to Jaini (2006,
pp. 143–144), legitimate forms of work include banking, trade, medicine, arts and crafts
including textile manufacture, and government service; unacceptable forms of work, which
involve significant degrees of Himsā (हिसं ा or violence, injustice or cruelty), include the
destruction of timber including clearing forests, work involving the use of or trade in ani-
mal by-products, such as ivory, bones or pelts, trade in destructive products, such as weap-
ons or poisons, trade in alcohol, and work that involves draining lakes. Work that serves
unnatural foods, such as bonemeal and animal by-products, to other animals (for example,
Yam [2009, p. 89] points out that brain-destroying mad cow disease (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy) “vividly illustrates why it’s not a good idea to eat your own species”) is

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1633

particularly frowned upon, but military service can be a last resort if required to protect
one’s own community or one’s nation (Jaini 2006, p. 145).
Jains also maintain that spiritual benefit (Puṇya, पुण्य) can accrue from service and giv-
ing, particularly from “gift-giving with compassion”. For example, Jains practice Abhaya-
dāna (अभय दान), i.e., giving protection to animals, providing food and medicine to animals,
including birds, and actively lobby for the cessation of animal slaughter (Amāri, अमरी).
Similarly, Jains have historically placed great importance on knowledge and education, and
have gifted schools, scholarships and books to their communities; encouraging literacy for
both men and women, publishing and writing, and performing service in temples are also
advocated (Jaini 2006, p. 147). At the household level, frugality and non-wastefulness are
favoured, and the ability to give food, particularly to mendicants of all faiths, is considered
honourable, according to Jaini (2006, p. 148).
Moreover, as Jains have relocated from India to other parts of the world, modern-day
Jains have begun to “enthusiastically and effortlessly embrace ‘green’ concerns, arguing
that they resonate fully with the teachings of the Jain tradition” (Vallely 2006, p. 193).
However, Jainism has its foundations in asceticism, renunciation and purification (particu-
larly as a means to free oneself from the “shackles of karma” and thereby gain liberation,
as taught by the 24 “great teachers” or Tīrthaṅkaras [तीर्थङ्करस्] such as Mahāvīra and
Ādināth, according to Chapple [2006, p. xi]), and the application of a personal sustainabil-
ity ethic by mendicants is completely different to that of the laity (i.e., Śrāvakas, श्रावकस्).
For example, mendicants eschew killing all life forms, including microorganisms (after
Mahāvīra, who noted that even lichen, seeds and sprouts “if narrowly inspected [are]
imbued with life” [Chapple 2006, p. xv]), a practice which is difficult to follow for laity.
According to Vallely (2006, p. 199), it is therefore the “highly attentive, observant, and
mindful” approach to the practice of Ahiṃsā that mendicants are mostly focused on in their
daily routine.

2.3 Social sustainability

Vallely (2006, p. 193) maintains that modern-day Jains, particularly those in the diaspora,
have shifted their ethical orientation away from an “orthodox, liberation-centric ethos to a
sociocentric ‘ecological’” ethos, resulting in a “shift away from the ascetic ideal” towards
an adapted social sustainability viewpoint more suited to their adopted cultural setting. An
example of contemporary Jain social sustainability can be seen in the Jain community of
London, which presented the “Jain Declaration on Nature” at Buckingham Palace in 1990
and as a consequence joined the World Wide Fund for Nature. The community also
launched the Ahimsa Environmental Award, which recognises individuals, businesses and
community groups who have actively worked on reducing harmful waste, are conscientious
about their impact on the environment, and make use of sustainable and non-depleting
resources (Jaini 2006, p. 149). Accordingly, soon thereafter in the early 1990s, the same
Jain community presented a “Statement on Ecology and Faith”, and the Jain Vishva Bharati
Institute in Rajasthan began offering programmes in ecology and environmental science.
Together, these efforts represent a shift towards greater community engagement in social
causes.
Cort (2006, p. 78) also reports that modern-day Jains are active in two streams of social
sustainability: environmental justice and social ecology, mostly practiced in the northern
parts of India; and what he calls “southern environmentalism”, mostly practiced in the
developing south. Both streams are dedicated to reducing environmental degradation as it
affects the landless poor, women and (what Cort somewhat crudely calls) “tribals”, and

13
1634 L. Fergusson et al.

both seek to identify and address not only environmental crises but also “issues of inequal-
ity and injustice in the control and distribution of resources”. In these communities, sus-
tainability is more a question of survival than a question of enhancing the quality of life; as
Cort (2006, p. 78) notes, toxic waste dumps are “disproportionately located among com-
munities of racial and ethnic minorities, as well as others who are economically and politi-
cally dispossessed” and therefore environmental social justice, as practiced by modern-day
Jains, seeks to redress this trend.

2.4 Environmental sustainability

The Jain ethical code of kindness to animals, vegetarianism, self-restraint, charity and
avoidance of waste speaks directly to the question of environmental sustainability. The spe-
cific principles underpinning this approach to the environment, which are broadly aligned
with modern principles of sustainability, can be summarised (according to Tatia 2006) in
the following seven maxims (although maxims 2, 3 and 7 also relate to personal and social
sustainability in Jainism): (1) do not kill or allow others to be killed, try to protect life, dis-
play compassion to all living things, and do not get entangled in the misery and suffering
of others; (2) resist injustice, favour truth (Satya, सत्य), and always speak the truth (from the
Agni Purāṇa, 371.8, which says we should speak the truth, but speak it “sweetly”, i.e., in a
way that does not harm the listener, Satyaṃ brūyāt priyaṃ brūyāt, सत्यं ब्रूयात्प्रियं ब्रूयात); (3)
resolve conflicts peacefully; (4) do not make the accumulation of wealth the main aim in
one’s life (Jain’s particularly eschew human frailties such as greed, pride, conceit, exces-
siveness, rapacious desires and deceit); (5) pollution, extinction of species, and the destruc-
tion of forests and wildlife are crimes against the earth and against humanity; (6) pollution
of the environment is caused by pollution within ourselves, and therefore each person
“needs to remake himself or herself in the image of the divine ideal” (Tatia 2006, p. 5); and
(7) to have a clean, sustainable environment “we have to adopt a lifestyle that springs from
a moral and spiritual dimension” (Tatia 2006, p. 14). According to Jaini (2006, pp.
150–151), to these ends modern-day Jain communities throughout the world have partici-
pated in a host of environmental sustainability projects, including large-scale reforestation
and wasteland development projects and the establishment of plant nurseries and animal
shelters in India.
In summary, we conclude that several sustainability themes can be identified in the Jain
tradition, including themes that suggest humans are interconnected to the laws of nature in
fundamentally important ways and that everything in the universe is viewed as interde-
pendent, that Jains recognise humans are responsible for conserving and preserving the
resources of their environment, that wanton and unnecessary waste generation should be
avoided, and that the environment should not be mistreated or abused. In Table 1, we have
articulated ten main principles of sustainability identified from the above introduction to
Jainism and paralleled these principles with their corresponding sustainability principle
from Maharishi Vedic Science.

3 Overview of Maharishi Vedic Science

Maharishi Vedic Science is the theoretical and experiential investigation of the Veda and
Vedic Literature as brought to light systematically by the great modern scholar and teacher
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. In addition to the four primary Vedas (Rik Veda, Sāma Veda,

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1635

Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda), Maharishi Vedic Science also recognises the importance of
36 other aspects of Vedic Literature, including the Upaveda, Vedānga, Upānga, Brāhmaṇa,
ĀyurVeda and Prātishākya. These 40 aspects of the Veda and Vedic Literature have collec-
tively been explained in detail by Maharishi (1995), and he has developed systems and
programmes to practically apply this knowledge to all areas of life. As Chandler (2011, p.
401) has noted, the designation “Maharishi Vedic Science” indicates “both the ancient tra-
ditional origins of this body of knowledge and the modern commitment to experience, sys-
tem, testability, and the demand for that knowledge to be useful in improving the quality of
human life”.
It should be noted that in this fundamental sense, being an integrative science, Mahari-
shi Vedic Science is different to Jainism in that it is a world religion (Gottlieb 2006). How-
ever, because Jainism is associated with, and has its roots in, the Vedic tradition and
because both have a decidedly unique and soteriological view of the environment and the
future, many similarities in outlook can be detected—including for example an interest in
Karma, Moksha and the Mahabhutas—as will be shown in the following analysis. Indeed,
Maharishi (1998, pp. 269–271) has called Mahāvīra and Ādināth “great luminaries of
India…who maintained the eternal light of Veda, the tradition of pure knowledge, through-
out the ages” and therefore parallel viewpoints are evident in both domains.
Moreover, one of the central experiential aspects of Maharishi Vedic Science—Mahari-
shi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme—has been thoroughly docu-
mented and researched over the last 50 years (e.g., Dillbeck 2011). Furthermore, this pro-
gramme has been examined in light of most of the modern disciplines, for example
empirically in health and healthcare utilisation (e.g., Herron 2005), physiology (e.g., Wal-
lace 1970), and sociology (Davies and Alexander 2005), and more conceptually in art and
art education (Beaufort 2011; Fergusson and Bonshek 2015), psychology and psychiatry
(e.g., Alexander et al. 1991), management and economics (e.g., Schmidt-Wilk et al. 1997),
education and learning (e.g., Fergusson and Bonshek 2013; Grant and Jones 1997), mathe-
matics (Gorini 1997) and computer science (Guthrie 1997). The significance of the theory
and application of Maharishi Vedic Science has also been defined and explained in detail
elsewhere (e.g., Chandler 2011; Dillbeck and Dillbeck 1997; Nader 1993, 2012). It is
therefore not the purpose, or within the scope, of this paper to fully investigate Maharishi
Vedic Science; however, a brief introduction will help orient the reader to the present topic.
Maharishi Vedic Science declares that underlying and permeating physical existence is
a unified field of pure consciousness (Maharishi 1986). Pure consciousness is understood
by Maharishi to be the non-changing, absolute source of all the laws of nature that give rise
to material creation. Existing beyond space and time as a silent, unbounded, unmanifest
field of infinite creative intelligence, pure consciousness is said to create the physical uni-
verse, with all its diverse phenomena and properties, simply by referring to itself, by inter-
acting with itself. This state of consciousness, Maharishi has said,
is completely self-sufficient. How it emerges from within its own self-referral perfor-
mance, which is going on eternally at the unmanifest basis of all creation, is Vedic
Science. How this happens, how the creation comes out—how consciousness
becomes matter and how matter in nature behaves with utmost orderliness, absolutely
following the laws of nature—this is Vedic Science. (Maharishi 1986, p. 26)
Maharishi (1986) has therefore referred to pure consciousness, which is transcendental in
nature and beyond the realm of the senses and of space and time, as “nature’s govern-
ment” (p. 88), the “full potential of Natural Law” (p. 31), and the home of complete knowl-
edge or “pure knowledge and the infinite organising power that is inherent in the structure

13
1636 L. Fergusson et al.

of pure knowledge” (p. 26); at this level of nature’s operation, nothing but consciousness
exists, nothing but pure knowledge (i.e., the Veda) exists, and therefore is “that level of
silence which no one can pollute” (Maharishi 1986, p. 88). This view of both the unmani-
fest level of pure consciousness and its expression as the laws of nature and ultimately the
physical universe is largely consistent with the view of creation proposed by quantum
physics, particularly in relation to supersymmetric unified field theories such as those
advanced by contemporary physicists like Hagelin (1987a, 1987b) and others.
However, Maharishi’s fundamental purpose is not simply a theoretical one: he has artic-
ulated and provided a means whereby pure consciousness can be directly experienced and
as if “awakened” or brought to light in order to culture human existence. Hence, a second
important postulate of Maharishi Vedic Science states that pure consciousness can be
directly experienced on the level of human awareness through the Transcendental Medita-
tion programme and can be enlivened and promoted through the TM-Sidhi programme
(Maharishi European Research University 1984). According to this view, the functioning
of pure consciousness is the functioning of “Natural Law” in its most settled and silent
state; thus, the conscious human mind, by identifying itself with this level of nature’s func-
tioning, can gain the ability to operate in a manner which is consistent with how “nature”
itself functions at its most fundamental level. In so doing, individual life can increasingly
reflect the infinite intelligence, energy and creativity of nature. This training, Maharishi
explains, leads to the development of higher states of consciousness, or life lived com-
pletely in accord with the total potential of Natural Law, supported by all the laws of
nature. In this way, being an infinite reservoir of intelligence, energy and creativity, pure
consciousness can be harnessed for wholly positive application in daily life. According to
Maharishi, if the human mind is “completely identified in transcendental [pure] conscious-
ness with the full potential of natural law, the human mind is a field of all possibilities.
This is how human life will be cultured through Vedic Science” (Maharishi 1986, p. 31).
Maharishi’s prediction has been comprehensively verified by the 50-year scientific
research programme outlined above. Thus, the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi
programme develops the ability to spontaneously think and act in accord with all the laws
of nature, and to utilise the intelligence and orderliness with which nature itself operates
(Maharishi 1986, pp. 24–49). As evidenced by a substantial and growing body of research,
this development has been found to not only contribute significantly to individual progress
and fulfilment, but to the progress and well-being of society as a whole, including to its
economic stability and quality of social life. Maharishi Vedic Science—because it fully
satisfies and even extends a coherent theory of consciousness, because it applies experi-
mental methods and research to test its propositions, because it uses its technologies to
benefit every area of human life, and because it proposes contributing to the creation of an
alternative future—is rightly regarded as a science of “complete knowledge” (Maharishi
1986). In that sense, we suggest it contributes to a comprehensive underpinning of sustain-
ability science.

4 Sustainability in Jainism and Maharishi Vedic Science

To answer question 2, in Table 1 we present a preliminary alignment of the ten principles

of sustainability identified in the literature on Jainism and ecology (left-hand column) with
the corresponding principle identified in Maharishi Vedic Science (centre column); in
order to validate the application of the principles of Maharishi Vedic Science, the

13
 Table 1  Principles of sustainability in Jainism and Maharishi Vedic Science, and research findings associated with the principles as a result of applying Maharishi Vedic Sci-
ence
Jain Sustainability Sustainability in Maharishi Vedic Science Research Findings

1. Non-violence towards humans and all of nature is 1. All action should be harmless 1. Greater inner locus of control; decreased aggres-
fundamental siveness, hostility and tendency to dominate; greater
orientation towards positive values; increased harmony
in the work place
2. Everything in the universe is interconnected and 2. Everything in the universe is interconnected and 2. Increased field independence, indicating broader
interdependent interdependent comprehension and increased ability to focus attention;
increased cognitive flexibility; and improved ability to
deal with the abstract and complex
3. Each individual is ultimately responsible for taking 3. Each individual is ultimately responsible for taking 3. Changing trends in society by changing individual
care of themselves and the world around them; if we care of themselves and the world around them; if we consciousness; developing the individual in order to
want a sustainable outcome, we must take personal want a sustainable outcome, we must take personal strengthen society; and strengthening the relationship
responsibility for creating it responsibility for creating it between individual and government
4. Jains should maintain equanimity and oppose intoler- 4. As a result of Transcendental Meditation, equanimity 4. Increased ability to see the opposites of life as mean-
ant, inflexible, harmful, aggressive and unilaterally and tolerance are developed, and harmful and aggres- ingfully related; increased tolerance, generosity and
dogmatic attitudes to the natural and human-made sive thoughts and behaviour are reduced appreciation; growth of a more sympathetic, helpful
world and to those around them and caring nature; greater empathy; increased sensitiv-
ity to the feelings of others; increased ability to be
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism…

objective, fair-minded and reasonable

5. Jains should engage in work which does not contra- 5. Only work which does not violate the laws of nature 5. Increased enthusiasm for work; improved relationships
dict their code of ethics, but particularly should not should be performed; “wealth of good quality” is at work and improved personal relationships; increased
engage in work which involves violence to others or money that has been earned by means which have productivity; greater ability to achieve more with less
nature, including violence to animals helped to elevate society or to improve the lives of effort
people
6. Jains should develop and display compassion, empa- 6. The Transcendental Meditation TM-Sidhi programme 6. Increased friendliness; increased good-naturedness,
thy, charity and universal friendliness develops tolerance and thinking, speech and behaviour friendliness and loyalty; increased consideration for
which are in harmony with the surroundings, and others; increased sensitivity to the feelings of others;
thereby the surroundings come into harmony with the growth of a more tactful, forgiving and agreeable
individual; as a result, ill-feeling and disharmony are nature; greater regard for etiquette; increased respect-
reduced, and compassion and universal friendliness fulness
are increased
1637

13
 Table 1  (continued)
1638

Jain Sustainability Sustainability in Maharishi Vedic Science Research Findings

13
7. Pollution, extinction of species and destruction of 7. Misusing or destroying the environment deal a fatal 7. More effective interaction with the environment and
forests and wildlife are crimes against the earth and blow to ourselves and to our surroundings improved resistance to stress
against humanity
8. Pollution of the environment is caused by the pollu- 8. All problems in society and the environment are prob- 8. Biochemical indication of reduced stress; improved
tion within ourselves, and therefore each person needs lems created by human stress and mental weakness; stress reactivity, including lower beta-adrenergic recep-
to remake himself or herself in the image of the divine to correct these problems, we must align our thoughts, tor sensitivity, lower blood pressure reactivity to stress,
ideal speech and action to the intelligence of nature more normal resting blood pressure, lower resting
epinephrine levels
9. In order to have a clean, sustainable environment we 9. In order to have a clean, sustainable environment we 9. Decreased need for anti-depressants; decreased use of
have to adopt a lifestyle that springs from a moral and have to adopt a lifestyle aligned to Natural Law cigarettes, alcohol and non-prescribed drugs; increased
spiritual dimension of life; vegetarianism is at the intrinsic unifying ability, directedness and spirituality;
heart of Jainism increased moral reasoning; increased moral maturity
10. Jains should aim, where possible, to avoid generat- 10. Inner peace and freedom result when individuals 10. More balanced mood; increased emotional stability;
ing excessive waste and developing rapacious desires; avoid excess in all things; “moderation” in lifestyle increased autonomic stability
a low-consumption, moderate lifestyle is preferred occurs naturally in life lived in higher states of con-
sciousness
L. Fergusson et al.
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1639

right-hand column provides descriptors of findings from published research which have
tested the Vedic principle. [Note: For the purposes of brevity, research findings in the text
of this section, which correspond to the descriptors in the right-hand column of Table 1,
are presented in two ways: first, a primary example of the descriptor is presented from the
original literature where applicable; and second, findings referenced in the collected papers
of Orme-Johnson and Farrow (1977) (volume 1), Chalmers et al. (1989a) (volume 2),
(1989b) (volume 3), (1989c) (volume 4), Wallace et al. (1990) (volume 5); and Dillbeck
(2011) (volume 6). The research finding, when listed as a citation and paper number in the
collected papers, is given, for example, as: 1:65 = Orme-Johnson and Farrow 1977, which
is volume 1, paper 65.] Some of Maharishi’s principles in the centre column relate directly
to “sustainability” while some are more general and may apply to several areas of life,
including creating an alternative future.

Sustainability Principle 1 The principle of non-violence towards humans and nature is

fundamental to Jainism and is not simply its view of how mankind should treat the environ-
ment. Maharishi similarly states that all “action should be harmless” (Maharishi 1966, p.
161), and in fact he references Ahiṃsā specifically as a central part of the five Yamas [i.e.,
including Satya (truthfulness, सत्य), Asteya (non-covetousness, अस्यते ), Brahmacharya (celi-
bacy, ब्रह्मचर्य), and Aparigraha (non-acceptance of others’ possessions, i.e., not stealing),
अपरिग्रह] of Patānjali’s Ashtanga Yoga, one of the 40 aspects of the Veda and Vedic Litera-
ture (Maharishi 1969, p. 362). Consistent with the principles of Vedic sustainability, he
goes on to explain that
…the only way to perform action without harming anyone is to raise the level of
intelligence and consciousness to absolute divine consciousness. And when the doer
is established on the level of Cosmic Consciousness, the undertaking will naturally
be harmless to him and to the entire creation. All the activity will be in accordance
with the upgoing stream of evolution, which alone could be a means to institute
harmless action in the true sense of the word. (Maharishi 2011, ‘The Art of Perform-
ing Action Without Harming Anyone’, paras. 4–5)
Maharishi maintains that when aligned to Natural Law, the actions of a person who
practices the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme “are totally harmless
and life-supporting and he automatically gains the support of nature for all his endeav-
ours” (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p. 9). The practice of the
Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme serves a dual purpose. On the one
hand, it allows the conscious thinking mind to align itself with the unbounded intelli-
gence of pure consciousness, align itself with Natural Law, and thereby unlock the infi-
nite potential of consciousness, while, on the other hand, it “normalises” the nervous
system by removing stress from the physiology which is hindering the full mental and
physical potential of the individual (Maharishi 1966) resulting in behaviour that reflects
the harmony, orderliness and peacefulness of Natural Law. Such outcomes have been
confirmed by empirical research, which indicate that individuals who practice of the
Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme display decreased aggressiveness
(Ramirez 1975; 1:65, 1:73, 1:74, 1:77, 2:147, 3:284, 3:290, 4:308), hostility (Abrams
and Siegel 1978; 2:142, 2:143, 2:158, 2:160, 3:280, 4:314) and tendency to dominate
(Geisler 1978; 1:65, 1:77, 3:268, 3:290), a greater inner locus of control (Aron and Aron
1982; 1:69), a greater orientation towards positive values (5:394), and increased har-
mony in the work place and in personal life (5:399).

13
1640 L. Fergusson et al.

Sustainability Principle 2 The concept that everything in the universe is interconnected

and interdependent is common to both traditions. For example, Maharishi states that “pure
consciousness is a field of infinite correlation pervading the whole of nature, so any nega-
tive or positive impulse at any single point is instantly transmitted to the entire field and
accordingly [that impulse] damages or enriches all life everywhere….The relationship
between man and nature is indivisible” (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment
1978, p. 9). Maharishi also points out that “all the laws of nature are so intimately con-
nected that the isolation of any one law will create imbalance in any field of life…if the
part is not connected to the whole, then pollution is inevitable” (Maharishi 1994, pp. 297–
299). Thus, Singhvi’s (2006, p. 219) statement that “the fundamental natural phenomenon
of symbiosis or mutual dependence, which forms the basis of modern-day science of ecol-
ogy”, is not only supported by “the ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopragraho
jivinam (all life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence)” but is reiter-
ated in Maharishi Vedic Science.

While it is impossible to confirm if this worldview of life is correct, it is possible to

determine whether consciousness changes in a manner consistent with the principle.
Results of practicing the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme do sug-
gest that cognitive flexibility spontaneously increases (3:253, 4:300, 5:380) leading to a
greater awareness of the entire “domain of stimulus” (i.e., the “field” in modern psy-
chology) while simultaneously being able to identify the isolated but interrelated parts
of the field (i.e., a cognitive trait called “field independence”; Fergusson 1992; 1:51,
1:52, 1:103, 3:255, 3:257, 3:259, 4:307, 5:384, 5:389, 6:476) and to an improved ability
to deal simultaneously with the abstract and the complex (1:62). Such findings may
indicate a greater awareness of interconnection between parts of the field and the whole
of the field, and of the intimate relationship that exists between them.

Sustainability Principle 3 The concept that each individual is ultimately responsible for
taking care of themselves and the world around them is a fundamental and common theme
of both traditions. This view of life extends to include the contemporary recognition that if
humans want a sustainable future, every individual must take personal responsibility for
creating it (e.g., Middlemiss 2010). Maharishi (1957, p. 16) has emphatically stated that “if
society is to become great, every man has to become great” and that “The whole universe
is influenced by every thought, word, and action of the individual”. Maharishi explains this
relationship by saying: “Just as a stone thrown into a pond produces waves that reach all
extremities of the pond, any thought, word or action produces waves in the atmosphere,
and these waves travel in all directions and strike against everything in the atmosphere.
They produce some influence in every level of creation” (Maharishi 2011, ‘Importance of a
Proper Thought’, para. 1).

Indeed, the concept that each individual must take personal responsibility for the
future is central to his teaching (Maharishi 1978). Maharishi (1966, p. 98) has in fact
pointed out that it is precisely because of Sustainability Principle 2 that this phenom-
ena is true when he said

“If you want the surroundings to be of best use to you, be of best use to your sur-
roundings….If you cultivate within yourself a natural state of kindness, compassion,
love, and forgiveness, you will receive a thousandfold reward from the surroundings.

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1641

In order to make full use of the surroundings it is necessary to develop these qualities
within yourself to the fullest capacity; these are merely the potentialities that are
within you. If one is able to rise to this full value of human life, one may receive the
maximum possible and make full use of the surroundings to his own best advantage”
(Maharishi 2011, ‘How to Make Full Use of the Surroundings’, para. 26).

Such an outcome can be observed in research that indicates trends in society can
be changed by changing individual consciousness (Alexander 1992; 1:98, 4:317,
4:318, 4:319, 4:320, 4:322, 5:402, 5:404, 5:405, 5:406, 5:407, 6:521, 6:524) and that
strengthening the individual can strengthen government (King 1987).

Sustainability Principle 4 Jains seek to maintain equanimity and oppose intolerant,

inflexible, harmful, aggressive and unilaterally dogmatic attitudes, applying these personal-
ity traits to not only other humans but also to the natural and human-made world. Mahari-
shi supports these views but also emphasises the importance of applying actual technolo-
gies which change the consciousness (and thereby the mind and behaviour) of individuals,
and as a result develop these qualities naturally and effortlessly. His efforts over many dec-
ades extend to programmes which incorporate these technologies into health care (e.g.,
Maharishi 1977), education (e.g., Maharishi 1978), defence (e.g., Maharishi 1986), juris-
prudence (e.g., Maharishi International College for the Age of Enlightenment 1977),
industry (Swanson and Oates 1989) and government (King 1987). Maharishi has pointed
out specifically that as stress is reduced in the nervous system as a result of practicing
Transcendental Meditation, both equanimity and tolerance are developed, and harmful and
aggressive thoughts and behaviour are reduced. For example, in the context of Vedic Liter-
ature Maharishi (1969, p. 81) states “the universe is conquered by those whose mind is
established in equanimity” (a concept that Maharishi locates at the heart of the Bhagavad-
Gītā, which declares: “Having gained equanimity in pleasure and pain, in gain and loss, in
victory and defeat, then come out and fight. Thus you will not incur sin”, Ihaiva tair jitaḥ
sargo yeshāṃ sāmye sthitaṃ manaḥ, इहैव तैर्जितः सर्गो येषां साम्ये स्थितं मनः, Bhagavad-Gītā, 5.19).

Results of individuals who practice Transcendental Meditation indicate increased abil-

ity to see the opposites of life as meaningfully related (1:76), increased tolerance, generos-
ity and appreciation (Geisler 1978; 1:62, 1:65, 2:153, 2:164, 3:266, 3:290, 4:308, 4:316),
growth of a more sympathetic, helpful and caring nature (1:73, 2:153, 4:316), greater
empathy (2:149), increased sensitivity to the feelings of others (1:73, 4:304, 4:316), and an
increased ability to be objective, fair-minded and reasonable (4:316), phenomena which are
all associated with higher levels of electroencephalogic (EEG) brainwave coherence
(4:297).

Sustainability Principle 5 Jains maintain that one should only engage in work which does
not contradict their code of ethics, but particularly should not engage in work which
involves violence to others or nature, including violence to animals. Unlike Jains, Mahari-
shi does not specify the type of work people should engage in (although he clearly would
not advocate work which is counter to, say, his view that “action should be harmless” and
hence the manufacture of weapons or poisons, for example, would not be encouraged), but
he does make it clear only work which does not violate the laws of nature should be per-
formed; in other words, work which does not harm others or the environment. He also
states that “the quality of wealth” that a person gains through work is important and

13
1642 L. Fergusson et al.

suggests that such “quality of wealth” is determined by the means through which it has
been earned, as well as by the effects if produces for others. “A good quality of wealth is
that which is earned through means which have helped to elevate the society and improve
the life of the people” (Maharishi 2011, ‘The Universe Reacts to Individual Action’, para.
12).

While not specifically conducted on the type or outcomes of different types of work,
research over many years does indicate that individuals who practice the Transcendental
Meditation programme have an increased enthusiasm for work (2:150), enjoy improved
relationships at work and improved personal relationships (5:399), display elevated levels
of productivity (Frew 1974; 1:97, 5:399), and a greater ability to achieve more with less
effort (2:164), perhaps indicating that as a result work is both more rewarding and less tir-
ing and thereby contributes more to society. Certainly, that is the opinion of some organisa-
tional researchers and theorists (e.g., Herron and Graff 2011).

Sustainability Principle 6 Jains place a great degree of emphasis on developing and dis-
playing compassion, empathy, charity and universal friendliness in all modes of human
behaviour and interaction. Maharishi operationalises this principle by explaining that “…
by the practice of Transcendental Meditation the individual becomes harmonious with the
surroundings, or the surroundings become harmonious with the individual” (Maharishi
2011, ‘Favourable Surroundings’, para. 6); “if tolerance is not there”, Maharishi explains,
“ill-feelings and disharmony result” (Maharishi 2011, ‘Art of Behaviour’, para. 8).

“Other attempts to maintain harmony in the surroundings”, Maharishi goes on to point

out, “are not as effective as this practice. Good behaviour towards others, kindness, com-
passion and helpfulness all have their value, and on the surface of behaviour, one has to be
guided by these high principles of life. One has to be helpful to his neighbour, kind to his
friends, and compassionate to his surroundings; but all this kindness and compassion and
help to others will be more fruitful and valuable if the inner life of the individual is pure”
(Maharishi 2011, ‘Favourable Surroundings’, para. 7).
Indeed, research has shown that through the application of Maharishi Vedic Science,
individuals display increased levels of friendliness (Geisler 1978; 1:65, 1:73, 1:77, 3:290),
good-naturedness and loyalty (1:73), increased consideration for others (1:71, 1:73, 2:153)
and a sensitivity to the feelings of others (1:73, 4:304, 4:316), growth of a more tactful,
forgiving and agreeable nature (1:73, 2:153), and increased respectfulness to their sur-
roundings (1:65, 1:77, 2:164, 3:277, 3:290).

Sustainability Principle 7 The Jain code of ethics suggests humans should avoid pollut-
ing the environment, should not contribute to the extinction of species, and should not
destroy forests and wildlife [forests have been identified as particularly important in the
Jain code (e.g., Shilapi 2006, pp. 161–162)], and that any contrary actions to these are
crimes against the earth and against humanity. Maharishi similarly states that “to misuse or
destroy the environment is to deal a fatal blow to ourselves because we are indivisible from
our surroundings” (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p. 9).

Specifically, Maharishi (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p. 9) has

identified activities associated with “energy and other vital natural resources such as vari-
ous metals” which have “succeeded in devastating [the] environment in terms of flora and

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1643

fauna, and entire lakes, rivers, and forests have become the dealers of disease rather than
refreshment, health, and pleasure”. However, research conducted on individuals who prac-
tice the Transcendental Meditation programme indicates that such individuals effectively
interact with their environments and have improved resistance to stress (Orme-Johnson
1973; 1:26, 1:27, 1:28, 2:123, 5:370).

Sustainability Principle 8 Central to Jain teaching is the view that pollution of the envi-
ronment is caused by pollution within ourselves (in other words, our internal condition cre-
ates the world we live in), and therefore, each person needs to remake himself or herself in
the image of “the divine ideal”. Maharishi similarly maintains that all problems in society
and the environment are problems created by human weakness and an inability to live in
accord with Natural Law. Such a condition is caused by human stress and mental weak-
ness, and is the result of inadequate systems of education. He points out that “all weak-
nesses or problems in society have their basis in a lack of culture of the human mind, and
this in turn is the result of incomplete education. Education is incomplete when it fails to
develop the full creativity of the individual and fails to nurture his ability to act in accord-
ance with the laws of nature” (Maharishi European Research University 1979, p. 1).

To correct these problems, including pollution in the environment, we must, according

to Maharishi, align our thoughts, speech and action to the intelligence of nature, to the infi-
nite creative intelligence of Natural Law, through proper and complete education. The
causal relationship between individual stress and collective stress in the broader environ-
ment has been thoroughly explore by a range of researchers, including Alexander (2011),
Cavanaugh et al. (2011), and Hagelin (2011), and research on the biochemical indications
of reduced personal stress (Jevning et al., 1983; 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 2:109, 3:194, 3:203, 3:207,
4:291), improved stress reactivity—including lower beta-adrenergic receptor sensitivity,
lower blood pressure reactivity to stress, more normal resting blood pressure, and lower
resting epinephrine levels (5:367), and increased intelligence (6:472, 6:473, 6:474) have
confirmed that Transcendental Meditation significantly reduces levels of stress in humans
and as a consequence reduced it in the environment.

Sustainability Principle 9 In order to have a clean, sustainable environment Jains adopt a

lifestyle that springs from a moral and spiritual dimension of life; conservation and vege-
tarianism are at the heart of Jainism. Maharishi (1966, p. 83) has gone further by suggest-
ing that
man’s life is meant to be a bridge between divine intelligence and the whole of crea-
tion. It exists to cultivate the divine power, intelligence, happiness and abundance,
and to give this out to all creation. This is the high purpose of man’s life. Man is for-
tunate in being endowed with the capacity to reach this level through directly con-
tacting the field of the Absolute [i.e., the unified field of pure consciousness], thereby
enlarging the conscious capacity of his mind.
As a result of such practice, every human being is “able to project all the values of the
Absolute into the world of relative existence for all creatures to enjoy, and to glorify the
entire creation of God. Each man is capable of living a life full of values. If he fails to do
this he brings shame on himself, and he abuses the glory of the almighty God present
within and around him” (Maharishi 1966, p. 83). A life “cultivated in divine power” results
in what Maharishi (1973, p. 24) calls the “spiritual rejuvenation of the human race”.

13
1644 L. Fergusson et al.

“Spiritual” in this context means “concerned with the essential character or meaning of
life as expressed dynamically in wholeness and inner harmony” as described by Maharishi
Vedic Science, but does not entail “beliefs [or] metaphysical, a priori religious dogmas. It
is solely direct experience and its understanding” (Maharishi 1973, p. 24). Consistent with
Jain philosophy, Maharishi also points out that

food has a very great influence on the mind because everything we eat and drink is
transported by the blood which sustains the nervous system. Therefore the quality of
food has a great deal to do with the quality of the mind…it is [also] important how
that food has been earned. (Maharishi 1966, pp. 124–125)
In order to test the theory of improved human behaviour as a result of applying Maharishi
Vedic Science, research has focused on a range of lifestyle choices, including findings
which confirm decreased need for anti-depressants (3:247), decreased use of cigarettes
(Alexander et al. 1994; 1:80, 1:84, 2:150, 2:153, 2:161, 2:162, 2:163, 3:239, 3:247, 3:276,
3:280, 3:287, 5:399), decreased use of alcohol (Alexander et al. 1994; 1:73, 1:80, 1:83,
1:84, 1:85, 1:95, 2:126, 2:150, 2:153, 2:162, 2:163, 3:239, 3:247, 3:282, 3:287, 4:313,
5:399), increased intrinsic unifying ability, directedness and spirituality (5:395), increased
moral reasoning and moral maturity (1:91, 3:265, 3:270, 4:309) and reduced use of non-
prescribed drugs (Alexander et al. 1994; 1:73, 1:79, 1:80, 1:81, 1:82, 1:84, 1:85, 1:86,
1:89, 1:90, 1:95, 2:153, 2:161, 2:162, 2:163, 3:239, 3:247, 3:277, 3:282, 3:287). Moreover,
research has identified a distinct correlation between high EEG coherence and both high
levels of principled moral reasoning and a unified, “cosmic” perspective on life (3:223).

Sustainability Principle 10 Jains aim, where possible, to avoid generating excessive

waste and developing rapacious desires; a low-consumption, moderate (Yukta, युक्त) lifestyle
is preferable. Maharishi (1969, p. 307) also points to a verse in the Bhagavad-Gītā, an
important aspect of the Vedic Literature, which states: “For him who is moderate in food
and recreation, moderate of effort in actions, moderate in sleep and waking, for him is the
Yoga which destroys sorrow” (Yuktāhāra vihārasya yukta cheṣhṭasya karmasu yukta
svapnāvabodhasya yogo bhavati duḥkhā, युक्ताहारविहारस्य युक्तचेष्टस्य कर्मसु || युक्तस्वप्नावबोधस्य योगो भवति
दु:खहा), Bhagavad-Gītā, 6.17). In this context, Maharishi defines “Yoga” as the unified state
of pure consciousness.

Maharishi (1969, p. 307) maintains that “Here [in this verse] is the broad principle to be
followed by one who wishes to live a life of inner peace and happiness integrated with suc-
cessful activity in the outside world….One should avoid excess in all things, and be regular
in meditation, for this will result in the state of inner peace and freedom from bondage…”.
Maharishi (1969, pp. 307–308) goes on to explain that the essential teaching of the
verse is “in order to be moderate in food it is necessary to keep the whole system function-
ing normally. With regular meditation morning and evening, the functioning of the inner
mechanisms is maintained in a normal condition, and one becomes by nature ‘moderate in
food and recreation’”. Research on the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi pro-
gramme has confirmed that over time, practitioners experience a more balanced mood
(1:65, 1:77, 3:277, 4:308), increased emotional stability (Ramirez 1975; 1:65, 1:71, 1:87,
1:93, 1:95, 2:150, 2:153, 3:241, 3:273, 3:277, 3:290, 4:308) and increased autonomic sta-
bility (Orme-Johnson 1973; 1:26, 1:27, 1:28, 1:87, 2:123, 2:130, 3:197, 3:205, 5:356), col-
lectively indicating a naturally more balanced and moderate lifestyle.

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1645

5 Conclusion

In this study, we have shown that the Jain and Maharishi Vedic Science worldviews of sus-
tainability are largely consistent. Both view nature as an interconnected web of laws of
nature and both consider that everything in the universe is interdependent; both worldviews
recognise that humans are responsible for conserving and preserving the resources of their
environment and that wanton and unnecessary waste generation should be avoided
(although we noted that the focus in Maharishi Vedic Science is on developing moderation
in behaviour through changing consciousness, whereas the Jain approach is generally
focused more on the behavioural levels of life).
Both worldviews also recognise that the environment should not be mistreated or
abused, and Maharishi has specifically pointed out that misuse or destruction of the envi-
ronment deals what he calls “a fatal blow to ourselves because we are indivisible from our
surroundings” (World Government of the Age of Enlightenment 1978, p. 9). Moreover,
both the Jain and Maharishi Vedic Science worldviews emphasise that in order to create a
sustainable future for humanity the individual must first change himself or herself; in other
words, if we want a sustainable outcome, we must first change ourselves and then take per-
sonal responsibility for creating a better, alternative future.
However, there is a key difference between the two approaches. Maharishi Vedic Sci-
ence places central emphasis on the development of human consciousness, specifically
through the practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme. Cer-
tainly, the Jain tradition acknowledges that for changes to occur in society, and for social
practices to be aligned with sustainable outcomes, commensurate changes must also be
made in the individual. But these are generally associated with changing outcomes by
choosing a legitimate means of work, performing service and offering gifts, all of which
are noteworthy. Maharishi Vedic Science, on the other hand, focuses its attention on chang-
ing behaviour “from within” through the development of consciousness and the growth of
higher states of consciousness in which life, on both the individual and collective level, is
said to be lived more in accord with Natural Law. Such a life nourishes every aspect and
every level of the social and physical environment. Here true sustainability, in all its dimen-
sions, is to be found.

Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge that Transcendental Meditation, TM-Sidhi and other terms
used in this paper are subject to trademark protection in many countries worldwide, including the USA.

References
Abrams, A. I., & Siegel, L. M. (1978). The Transcendental Meditation program and rehabilitation at Folsom
State Prison: A cross validation study. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 5(1), 3–20.
Alexander, C. N. (1992). Peaceful body, peaceful mind, peaceful world. Modern Science and Vedic Science,
5, 150–164.
Alexander, C. N. (2011). Peaceful body, peaceful mind, peaceful world. In M. C. Dillbeck (Ed.), Scientific
Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme (pp. 4510–4518). Fair-
field, IA: Maharishi University of Management Press.
Alexander, C. N., Rainforth, M. V., & Gelderloos, P. (1991). Transcendental Meditation, self-actualiza-
tion, and psychological health: A conceptual overview and statistical meta-analysis. Journal of
Social Behavior and Personality, 6(5), 189–247.
Alexander, C. N., Robinson, P., & Rainforth, M. (1994). Treating and prevention alcohol, nicotine, and
drug abuse through Transcendental Meditation: A review and statistical meta-analysis. Alcoholism
Treatment Quarterly, 11, 13–87.

13
1646 L. Fergusson et al.

Aron, E. N., & Aron, A. (1982). Transcendental Meditation program and marital status. Psychological
Report, 51, 887–890.
Beaufort, M. (2011). Consciousness-based education and art. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of
Management Press.
Bhaskar, B. J. (2006). Ecology and spirituality in the Jain tradition. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and
ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 170–180). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Cavanaugh, K. L., King, K. D., & Titus, B. D. (2011). Improving the national economy through alliance
with nature’s government: Effects of the group practice of Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation
and TM-Sidhi program. In M. C. Dillbeck (Ed.), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental
Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme (pp. 4485–4509). Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of
Management Press.
Chalmers, R., Clements, G., Schenkluhn, H., & Weinless, M. (Eds.). (1989a). Scientific research on
Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected papers, (Vol. 2). Vlo-
drop: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Chalmers, R., Clements, G., Schenkluhn, H., & Weinless, M. (Eds.). (1989b). Scientific research on
Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers (Vol. 3). Vlo-
drop: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Chalmers, R., Clements, G., Schenkluhn, H., & Weinless, M. (Eds.). (1989c). Scientific research on
Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme: Collected Papers (Vol. 4). Vlo-
drop: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Chandler, K. (2011). Modern science and Vedic science: An introduction. In M. Scaroni-Fisher and D.
Fisher (Eds.), Consciousness-based Education and Sustainability, Volume 11 (pp. 397–430), Con-
sciousness-based Education: A Foundation for Teaching and Learning in the Academic Disciplines
(a series of 12 volumes), Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of Management Press.
Chapple, C. H. (Ed.). (2006a). Jainism and ecology: Nonviolence in the web of life. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers.
Chapple, C. H. (2006b). Jainism and ecology: Transformation of tradition. In R. S. Gottleib (Ed.), The
Oxford Handbook of Religion and Ecology (pp. 147–159). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cort, J. E. (2006). Green Jainism? Notes and queries toward a possible Jain environmental ethic. In C. H.
Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 63–94). Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers.
Davies, J. L., & Alexander, C. N. (2005). Alleviating political violence through reducing collective ten-
sion: Impact assessment analysis of the Lebanon war. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality,
17(1), 285–338.
Dillbeck, M. C. (Ed.). (2011). Scientific research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-
Sidhi programme: Collected Papers (Vol. 6). Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of Management
Press.
Dillbeck, S. L., & Dillbeck, M. C. (1997). Twenty-five years of unfolding knowledge of pure conscious-
ness through Maharishi Vedic Science: Introduction to the issue. Modern Science and Vedic Sci-
ence, 7(1), 1–36.
Dundas, P. (2006). The limits of a Jain environmental ethic. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and ecol-
ogy: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 95–117). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Fagan, J. (2011). Feeding the world without genetic engineering or chemical poisons—Maharishi Vedic
approach to sustainable agriculture. In M. Scaroni-Fisher and D. Fisher (Eds.), Consciousness-
based Education and Sustainability, Volume 11 (pp. 107–121), Consciousness-based Education: A
Foundation for Teaching and Learning in the Academic Disciplines (a series of 12 volumes), Maha-
rishi University of Management Press, Fairfield, IA, USA.
Fergusson, L. (1992). Field independence and art achievement in meditating and nonmeditating college
students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 1171–1175.
Fergusson, L., & Bonshek, A. (2013). Maharishi Vedic University in Cambodia: Educational recon-
struction and social renewal. Gold Coast: Prana World Publishing.
Fergusson, L., & Bonshek, A. (Eds.). (2015). The unmanifest canvas: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the
arts, creativity and perception. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of Management Press.
Fergusson, L., Kettle, D., & Wells, G. (2017a). Indigenous accounts of environmental stewardship in light of
the theory and language of Maharishi Vedic Science. International Journal of Society, Culture and
Language, 5(1), 68–81.
Fergusson, L., Wells, G., & Kettle, D. (2017b). The principles and practice of sustainability in Maharishi
Vedic Science. Journal of Health and Environmental Research, 3(3–1), 1–15.
Foucault, M. (1970). The order of things: An archaeology of the human sciences. New York: Random
House.

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1647

Frew, D. R. (1974). Transcendental Meditation and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 16,
362–368.
Geisler, M. (1978). Therapeutische wirkungen der Transzendentalen Meditation auf drogenkonsumenten.
Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, 7(4), 235–255.
Gorini, C. A. (1997). How Maharishi Vedic Science answers the questions of the unreasonable effectiveness
of mathematics in the sciences. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 7(1), 181–190.
Gottleib, R. S. (Ed.). (2006). The Oxford handbook of religion and ecology. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Grant, J. D., & Jones, C. H. (1997). The significance of pure consciousness for education. Modern Science
and Vedic Science, 7(1), 39–70.
Guthrie, G. (1997). Vedic computation: Redefining computer science in the light of Maharishi Vedic Sci-
ence. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 7(1), 193–223.
Hagelin, J. S. (1987a). Is consciousness the unified field? A field theorist’s perspective. Modern Science and
Vedic Science, 1(1), 29–87.
Hagelin, J. S. (1987b). Restructuring physics from its foundation in the light of Maharishi’s Vedic Science.
Modern Science and Vedic Science, 3(1), 3–72.
Hagelin, J. S. (2011). Achieving world peace through a new science and technology. In M. C. Dillbeck
(Ed.), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme (pp.
4534–4552). Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of Management Press.
Heaton, D. (2016). Higher consciousness for sustainability-as-flourishing. In S. Dhiman & J. Marques
(Eds.), Spirituality and Sustainability: New Horizons and Exemplary Approaches (pp. 121–137).
Cham: Springer.
Herron, R. E. (2005). Can the Transcendental Meditation program reduce medical expenditures of older
people? A longitudinal medical cost minimization study in Canada. Journal of Social Behavior and
Personality, 17(1), 415–442.
Herron, R. E., & Graff, W. W. (2011). The intelligence model of organizational effectiveness: Its implica-
tions for enhanced productivity. In M. C. Dillbeck (Ed.), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcen-
dental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme (pp. 4467–4471). Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of
Management Press.
Jain, P. (2011). Dharma and ecology of Hindu communities: Sustenance and sustainability. Surrey: Ashgate
Publishing.
Jaini, P. S. (2006). Ecology, economics, and development in Jainism. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and
ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 141–156). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Jevning, R., Wilson, A. F., Pirkle, H., O-Halloran, J. P., & Walsh, R. N. (1983). Metabolic control in a state
of decreased activation: Modulation of red cell metabolism. American Journal of Physiology, 245,
C457–C461.
King, M. S. (1987). Transcendental Meditation, consciousness and government. Perth: Gantheaume Press.
Kumar, S. (2006). Jain ecology. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of
Life (pp. 181–190). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Kumar, J., & Narayan, R. (2003). Ecology and religion: Ecological concepts in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jain-
ism, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. Muzaffarpur: Institute for Socio-Legal Studies.
Maharishi European Research University. (1979). Making education ideal through the Transcendental Med-
itation programme and the Science of Creative Intelligence. Rheinweiler: Maharishi European
Research University.
Maharishi European Research University. (1984). Maharishi technology of the unified field: Results of sci-
entific research on the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programme. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi
International University Press.
Maharishi International College for the Age of Enlightenment. (1977). The fulfilment of law, justice and
rehabilitation through the development of consciousness. West Germany: Maharishi European
Research University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1957). Beacon light of the Himalayas. Kerala: International Meditation Society.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1966). The science of being and art of living. Washington, DC: Age of Enlighten-
ment Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1969). Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita: A new translation and
commentary, chapters 1–6. London: Penguin.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1973). Alliance for knowledge. West Germany: Maharishi International Univer-
sity Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1977). Enlightenment in world psychiatry: The Transcendental Meditation tech-
nique new light on consciousness. West Germany: Maharishi European Research University Press.

13
1648 L. Fergusson et al.

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1978). Enlightenment for every individual, invincibility to every nation. Germany:
Maharishi European University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1986). Life supported by natural law: Lectures by His Holiness Maharishi
Mahesh Yogi to the World Assembly on Vedic Science July 9–17, 1985. Washington, DC: Age of
Enlightenment Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1994). Maharishi Vedic University: Introduction. Holland: Maharishi Vedic Uni-
versity Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1995). Maharishi’s absolute theory of government: Automation in administration.
Delhi: Maharishi Ved Vigyan Vishwa Vidya Peetham.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1998). Celebrating perfection in administration: Creating invincible India. India:
Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (2011). The science of being and art of living. [E-Reader version]. Maharishi Uni-
versity of Management Press, Fairfield, IA USA (the original version of this book was copyrighted in
1963 by the S.R.M. Foundation of India).
McLeod-Kilmurray, H. (2011). Vegetarianism and food governance: Sustainability and ecological justice. In
K. Bosselmann, L. Westra, & C. Soskolne (Eds.), Globalisation and Ecological Integrity in Science
and International Law (pp. 57–76). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Middlemiss, L. (2010). Reframing individual responsibility for sustainable consumption: Lessons from
environmental justice and ecological citizenship. Environmental Values, 19(2), 147–167.
Nader, T. (1993). Human physiology: Expression of Veda and the Vedic literature—modern science and
ancient Vedic science discover the fabrics of immortality in the human physiology. Vlodrop: Maharishi
Vedic University Press.
Nader, T. (2012). Rāmāyan in human physiology: Discovery of the eternal reality of the Rāmāyan in the
structure and function of human physiology. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi University of Management Press.
Orme-Johnson, D. W. (1973). Autonomic stability and Transcendental Meditation. Psychosomatic Medi-
cine, 35, 341–349.
Orme-Johnson, D. W., & Farrow, J. T. (Eds.). (1977). Scientific research on the Transcendental Meditation
program: Collected papers, (Vol. 1). Rheinweiler: Maharishi European Research University Press.
Ramirez, J. R. (1975). The Transcendental Meditation program as a possible treatment modality for drug
offenders: Evaluation of a pilot project at Milan Federal Correctional Institution. Bloomington, Indi-
ana: Department of Forensic Studies, Indiana University.
Scaroni-Fisher, M., & Fisher, D. (Ed.). (2011). Consciousness-based education and sustainability, volume
11. Consciousness-based Education: A Foundation for Teaching and Learning in the Academic Disci-
plines (a series of 12 volumes), Maharishi University of Management Press, Fairfield, IA, USA.
Schmidt-Wilk, J., Alexander, C. N., & Swanson, G. C. (1997). Developing consciousness in organizations:
The Transcendental Meditation program in business. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10(4),
429–444.
Shilapi, S. (2006). The environmental and ecological teachings of Tiṛthaṅkara Mahāvīra. In C. H. Chapple
(Ed.), Jainism and ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 160–167). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers.
Singhvi, L. M. (1990). The Jain declaration on nature. London: Institute of Jainology.
Singhvi, L. M. (2006). The Jain declaration on nature. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and ecology: Nonvi-
olence in the Web of Life (pp. 217–224). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Swanson, G., & Oates, R. (1989). Enlightened management: Building high-performance people. Fairfield,
IA: Maharishi International University Press.
Tatia, N. (2006). The Jain worldview and ecology. In C. H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and Ecology: Nonvio-
lence in the Web of Life (pp. 4–18). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Tobias, M. (2008). Jainism and ecology: Views of nature, non-violence, and vegetarianism. The Bucknell
Review, 37(2), 138.
Vallely, A. (2006). From liberation to ecology: Ethical discourses among orthodox and diaspora Jains. In C.
H. Chapple (Ed.), Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (pp. 193–216). Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers.
Vannucci, M. (1999). Human ecology in the Vedas. Restructuring Indian History & Culture, No. 19, D.K.
Printworld, New Delhi, India.
Wallace, R. K. (1970). Physiological effects of Transcendental Meditation. Science, 167, 1751–1754.
Wallace, P.G. (2011). Approaching material well-being: Maharishi Vedic organic agriculture. In M. Sca-
roni-Fisher and D. Fisher (Eds.), Consciousness-based Education and Sustainability, Volume 11 [pp.
123–217], Consciousness-based Education: A Foundation for Teaching and Learning in the Academic
Disciplines (a series of 12 volumes), Maharishi University of Management Press, Fairfield, IA, USA.

13
The personal, social and environmental sustainability of Jainism… 1649

Wallace, R. K., Orme-Johnson, D. W., & Dillbeck, M. C. (Eds.). (1990). Scientific research on Maharishi’s
Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program: Collected papers, (Vol. 5). Fairfield, IA: Maharishi
International University Press.
World Government of the Age of Enlightenment. (1978). A time of crisis: Environment. World Government
News, 9, 5–13.
Yam, D. (2009). Mad cow disease. Scientific American, 301, 89.

13