BUILDING STRUCTURE – III

21ENG45

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
&
LOADS ON STRUCTURE
DATE : 17/3/2025

PRESENTED BY
Er. Sunny K Gowda,
Asst Prof, BMSCA

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 RCC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
These design methods are based on certain assumptions and procedures which are used to
meet the conditions of safety, functionality, serviceability, and economy of the structure.
✓ These design philosophies are commonly accepted by various codes, for instance, the ultimate
strength method is established in the 1950s and accepted by ACI code in 1956, British codes in
1957, and Indian codes in 1964. Similarly, the limit state method is the most recent one which
is accepted by the ACI Code, British Code, and Indian Standard.
✓ Concrete design methods or concrete design philosophies such as working stress method,
ultimate strength method, and limit state method are used for the design of reinforced concrete,
Steel, and timber structures.
➢ Some of the design philosophies that has been used by engineers are
1. Working Stress Method(WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
3. Limit State Method(LSM)

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1. Working Stress Method(WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design (ASD):
✓ It is also known as elastic method of design or modular ratio method or alternate design
method. It is based on the elastic theory which assumes that concrete and steel are elastic and
the stress strain curve is linear for both.
✓ It is stress based method of RCC design.
✓ Limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure up to a certain load at which the
maximum stress in extreme fiber reaches the characteristic strength of material in bending.
✓ It uses factors of safety for stresses only (to get permissible stresses) and not for loads. As a
result, it does not give true margin of safety with respect to loads because the failure load is not
known.
✓ Working stress method only deals with serviceability such as crack, vibration, deflection etc.
✓ Designed sections are uneconomical since they are oversized and use larger reinforcement ratio
compare with other two design philosophy.
✓ It is only the method available when one has to investigate the reinforced concrete section for
service stresses and for the serviceability state of deflection and cracking.

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2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM):
✓ It is also called ultimate load design method or load factor method. It is based on the ultimate
strength, when the design member would fail.
✓ It uses the actual stress-strain curve. It is strain based method of design.
✓ Limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure up to ultimate load. Load
factors are used on service loads and strength reduction factors are employed on materials.
✓ Ultimate load method only deals with on safety such as strength, overturning, and sliding,
buckling, fatigue.
✓ Designed sections are economical. It does not take into consideration the serviceability criteria
of deflection and cracking.
✓ It considers the effects of different loads acting simultaneously but have different uncertainties.
The method is based on the ultimate strain as the failure criteria.

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3. Limit State Method(LSM):
✓ It is also termed as plastic design method.
✓ This method is based on the actual stress-strain curves of steel and concrete. For concrete the stress-
strain curve is non-linear.
✓ It is strain based method of RCC design.
✓ Limits the structural usefulness of the material of the structure up to a certain load at which acceptable
limit of safety and serviceability are applied so that the failure of structure does not occur.
✓ Partial factor of safety is considered on both loads and stresses (to get design values of stresses).
✓ Limit state method advances than other two methods. it takes into account the ultimate strength of the
structure and also the serviceability requirements.
✓ Designed sections are economical from both ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state point of
view.
✓ Designed sections perform satisfactorily in terms of serviceability requirements.
✓ The acceptable limits of safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is called a limit
state. This method is based on the concept of safety at ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and
serviceability at working loads (working stress method).
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◦ Types of Limit States:
a. Limit State of Collapse
◦ Material at one or more sections ruptures
◦ Buckling or overturning occurs
◦ Ultimate states considered – Tension, compression, flexure, shear and torsion.
b. Limit State of Serviceability
i. Limit State of Deflections:
◦ Sense of lack of safety
◦ Spoils aesthetics
◦ Deformation of door and window frames and cracking of floor finishing materials
◦ Ponding of water on roof slabs
◦ Misalignments lead to malfunctioning of machinery
ii. Limit State of Cracking:
◦ Mars the appearance
◦ Sense of lack of safety
◦ Leakage problems
◦ Corrosion
◦ Excessive deflections due to reduced stiffness
◦ Maintenance problems
◦ Since cracks in concrete are unavoidable, crack widths are limited to certain acceptable limits.

c. Other Limit States

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i. Vibration
ii. Fire Resistance
iii. Chemical and environmental actions
 LOADS ON STRUCTURE

A structural load or structural action is a force, deformation, or acceleration applied

to structural elements. A load causes stress, deformation, and displacement in
a structure. Structural analysis, a discipline in engineering, analyzes the effects of loads on
structures and structural elements. Excess load may cause structural failure, so this should be
considered and controlled during the design of a structure.
TYPES OF LOADS
✓ Dead loads are static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time. They can be
in tension or compression. The term can refer to a laboratory test method or to the normal
usage of a material or structure.
✓ Live loads are usually variable or moving loads. These can have a significant dynamic element
and may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh dynamics of
fluids, etc.
✓ Impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the natural
period of vibration of that material.
✓ Cyclic loads on a structure can lead to fatigue damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These
loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or can be due to vibration.
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The loads acting on a structure due to natural or man-made elements must be
determined before designing any structure.
1. Mass and gravitational effect (m × g): Dead loads, imposed loads, snow, ice, and
earth loads, and hydraulic pressure.
2. Mass and its acceleration effect (m × a): Earthquake, wind, impact, and blast
loads.
3. Environmental effects: Loads due to temperature difference, settlement, and
shrinkage. Also termed as indirect loads.
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◦ Dead, imposed, and wind loads for buildings and their combinations to be
considered in design are given in Indian Standard (IS) 875, Parts 1–5.
◦ Data regarding earthquake loads is specified in IS 1893.
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1. IS 875: 1987 ( PART-I) : DEAD LOADS
✓ Dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the
structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as walls, plasterboard or carpet. The roof is also a
dead load. Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads. Building materials are not
dead loads until constructed in permanent position.
✓ It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and column etc. which are otherwise
the permanent parts of the building. The calculation of dead loads of each structure are
calculated by the volume of each section and multiplied with the unit weight.

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Weight of Building Materials as per IS 875 Part 1

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2. IS 875: 1987 ( PART-II) :LIVE LOADS
✓ Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load.
These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum, vibration, slosh
dynamics of fluids and material fatigue. Live loads, sometimes also referred to as
probabilistic loads, include all the forces that are variable within the object's normal operation
cycle not including construction or environmental loads.
✓ Live loads keeps on changing from time to
time. These loads are to be suitably assumed
by the designer. It is one of the major load
in the design. The minimum values of live
loads to be assumed are given in IS 875
(part 2)–1987.

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Live loads on floors as per IS 875 (Part 2)

Reduction in imposed load

applicable to columns

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3. IS 875: 1987 ( PART-III) : WIND LOADS
✓ Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to
earth. Wind load is required to be considered in structural design especially when
the height of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the
exposed wind surface. For low rise building say up to four to five stories, the wind
load is not critical because the moment of resistance provided by the continuity of
floor system to column connection and walls provided between columns are
sufficient to accommodate the effect of these forces.
✓ Further in limit state method the factor for design load is reduced to 1.2
(DL+LL+WL) when wind is considered as against the factor of 1.5(DL+LL)
when wind is not considered. Complete details of calculating wind load on
structures are given below (by the IS-875 (Part 3) -1987).

4. IS 875: 1987 ( PART-IV) : SNOW LOADS

✓ Snow loads constitute to the vertical loads in the building. But these types of loads
are considered only in the snow fall places. The IS 875 (part 4) – 1987 deals with
snow loads on roofs of the building.
✓ The amount of snow load depends on various factors such as shape and size of
roof structure, roofing materials, location of the structure, insulation of the
structure, duration, and frequency of snow.
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5. IS 1893: 2002:- EARTHQUAKE LOADS
✓ Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total vibration
caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions, usually taken as
vertical and two horizontal directions. The movement in vertical direction do not cause forces in
superstructure to any significant extent. But the horizontal movement of the building at the time of
earthquake is to be considered while designing.

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 Other Loads and Effects
◦ Foundation movements – Settlement, vertical tilt, angular distortion.
◦ Temperature effects – Expansion and shrinkage.
◦ Soil and hydrostatic pressure – Exerted on retaining and basement walls by soil, water or both.
◦ Erection loads – Transportation, storing, lifting and bracing of precast members.
◦ Construction loads – Shoring and formwork of new slabs impose loads on existing slabs.
◦ Vibration.
◦ Fatigue.
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◦ Flood loads – Hydrostatic, erosion – loss of bearing capacity, debris impact.

◦ Axial shortening of columns – Occurs in RC buildings over 30 storeys in height.
◦ Covered by IS 875 (Part 5).
◦ Blast loading – IS 6922.
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