MATH1510 1

Chapter 2 Limits

In this chapter, we will study the concept of limit. The idea is crucial
to our subsequent discussion on differentiation and integration. We will
consider limits in indeterminate form. Furthermore, we will learn about
limit at infinity which is related to the behavior of the function as the
independent variable becomes large.
Some interesting theorems, namely, the Sandwich Theorem and some
special limits will be discussed. Finally, we still study the concept of the
limit of a sequence and its relation to the limit of a function.

I. Definition
II. Limit Laws
III. Indeterminate Forms
IV. One-sided Limits
V. Sandwich Theorem
VI. Limit at Infinity
VII. Special Limits
VIII. Limit of Sequence

HNC
 MATH1510 2

I. Definition
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about a, except possibly at a itself.
If f(x) gets arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x
sufficiently close to a, we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches
a, and we write
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 .
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

(The precise definition is out of scope.)

Example 1.1
Find the limit of f(x) as x approaches 0, i.e.
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥→0

(a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥

Solution:
lim 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑥→0

(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1

Solution:
lim 1 = 1
𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
MATH1510 3

The limit value does not depend on how the function is defined at a.

Example 1.2
Consider the following piecewise function:
1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 ≠ 𝑓𝑓(0)
𝑥𝑥→0

Example 1.3
How does the function
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 − 1
behave near x = 1?

Solution:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 1)
lim = lim = lim(𝑥𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥→1

HNC
 MATH1510 4

Sometimes, limit may not exist. The function

- may diverge to infinity (+∞ or − ∞)
- oscillates
- the behavior as we approach the point from the left and from the right
are different (jump).

Example 1.4
Consider the following piecewise function:
0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 < 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥𝑥→0

Example 1.5
1
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �𝑥𝑥
0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) does not exist. For x > 0, the function approaches infinity.
𝑥𝑥→0

Whereas for x < 0, the function approaches negative infinity.

Example 1.6
0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 1
sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 > 0
𝑥𝑥
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) does not exist. The function oscillates near x = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
 MATH1510 5

II. Limit Laws

If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿, and lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑀𝑀.
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

1. lim(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) = 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑀𝑀
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

2. lim(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑀𝑀
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

3. lim(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∙ 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) = 𝐿𝐿 ∙ 𝑀𝑀
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝐿𝐿
4. lim = , provided that 𝑀𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑀𝑀

5. lim(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥))𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠 = 𝐿𝐿𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠 , provided that r and s are non-zero integers with

𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

no common factor, furthermore, if s is even, we assume that L > 0.

Example 2.1
(i)
𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 3 (−1)3 + 4(−1)2 − 3
lim = =0
𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 (−1)2 + 5

(ii)
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 (𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 1) (𝑥𝑥 + 3)
lim 2 = lim = lim
𝑥𝑥→2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥→2 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 1) 𝑥𝑥→2 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)

The limit does not exist. As we will learn later,

𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 3
lim =∞
𝑥𝑥→2+ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 3
lim = −∞
𝑥𝑥→2− 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2

HNC
 MATH1510 6

III. Indeterminate Forms

Sometimes we may encounter limit of the following forms
0 ∞
, ,
0 ∞
0 ∙ ∞, (+∞) − (+∞),
(∞)0 , 00 , 1∞
These forms are indeterminate forms because we cannot tell whether the
limit exists or not based on the above expressions alone. We need to play
some clever tricks before we obtain our conclusion.

Example 3.1
(i)
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2
lim
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥
(exercise, hint: by factorization)

(ii)
√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 − 10
lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2
(√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 − 10)(√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 + 10)
= lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 + 10)

𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 − 100
= lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2 (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 + 10)

1
= lim
𝑥𝑥→0 (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 + 10)

1
=
(√02 + 100 + 10)
1
=
20
(This technique is called rationalization.)

HNC
 MATH1510 7

(iii)
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→0 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 1
= lim −𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑒𝑒 (𝑒𝑒 − 1)
1
= lim −𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑒𝑒
=1

More discussions on this topic later.

HNC
MATH1510 8

IV. One-sided Limits

The limit that we have discussed so far is a two-sided limit.

Consider the following function:

Left-hand limit: the limit as x approaches the number c from the left hand
side (x < c) only
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 −

Example 4.1
In the above example, lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −1
𝑥𝑥→0

Right-hand limit: the limit as x approaches the number c from the right
hand side (x > c) only
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 +

Example 4.2
In the above example, lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0

Theorem
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 ⇔ lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 − 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

- both one-sided limits exist, and

- share the same value
HNC
MATH1510 9

Example 4.3
𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑥𝑥→0 |𝑥𝑥|
Solution:
𝑥𝑥 −1 if 𝑥𝑥 < 0,
=�
|𝑥𝑥| 1 if 𝑥𝑥 > 0.
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
So lim− |𝑥𝑥| = −1 and lim+ |𝑥𝑥| = 1 , the right-hand limit and left-hand
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0
𝑥𝑥
limit are unequal, so lim |𝑥𝑥| does not exist.
𝑥𝑥→0

Example 4.4
Let m be a real number and let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) be a piecewise function defined by:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = �
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 > 1.
Given that lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists, what is the value of m?
𝑥𝑥→1

Solution:
Note that
lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim−(𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 3) = 1 − 2 + 3 = 2,
𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1

and
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 1) = 𝑚𝑚 + 1
𝑥𝑥→1+ 𝑥𝑥→1

Since lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) exists,

𝑥𝑥→1

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→1− 𝑥𝑥→1

Hence, 𝑚𝑚 + 1 = 2. That is, 𝑚𝑚 = 1.

HNC
MATH1510 10

Example 4.5
Consider the following piecewise function:
|𝑥𝑥 2 − 1| 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 < 0,
⎧
⎪0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0,
𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑒𝑒 − 1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1,
⎨2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 1,
⎪
⎩�𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 > 1.
Evaluate the following limits.
(a) lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim−|𝑥𝑥 2 − 1| = lim− (−𝑥𝑥 2 + 1) = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0

(b) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+(2𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 1

𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0

(c) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1

𝑥𝑥→0

(d) lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim−(2𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑒𝑒 − 1

𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1

(e) lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+√𝑥𝑥 2 + 3 = 2

𝑥𝑥→1 𝑥𝑥→1

(f) lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) does not exist.

𝑥𝑥→1

HNC
MATH1510 11

V. Sandwich Theorem/Squeeze Theorem

Suppose that 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 in some open interval
containing c, except possibly at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐. Suppose also that
lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

Then lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.

𝑥𝑥→𝑐𝑐

Example 5.1
Given that
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2
1− ≤ 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 1 +
4 4
for all x. Find lim 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥).
𝑥𝑥→0

Solution:
𝑥𝑥 2
lim �1 − � = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 4

𝑥𝑥 2
lim �1 + � = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 4

By Sandwich Theorem, lim 𝑢𝑢(𝑥𝑥) = 1.

𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
MATH1510 12

Example 5.2
Find
1
lim �𝑥𝑥 cos �
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
Solution:
Note that for any 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0,
1
0 ≤ �cos � ≤ 1
𝑥𝑥
1
0 ≤ |𝑥𝑥| �cos � ≤ |𝑥𝑥|
𝑥𝑥
Since
lim|𝑥𝑥| = 0
𝑥𝑥→0

1
by Sandwich Theorem, lim �𝑥𝑥cos � = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

Hence,
1
lim �𝑥𝑥 cos � = 0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

Example 5.3
Consider the following piecewise function:
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 0,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 1
𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 > 0.
𝑥𝑥
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =?
𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
MATH1510 13

VI. Limit at Infinity ±∞

If as x moves increasingly far from the origin in the positive direction, f(x)
gets arbitrarily close to L, then we say that f(x) has the limit L as x
approaches infinity and write
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→∞

If as x moves increasingly far from the origin in the negative direction, f(x)
gets arbitrarily close to L, then we say that f(x) has the limit L as x
approaches minus infinity and write
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑥𝑥→−∞

Example 6.1
(i)
2 1
3 −1 𝑥𝑥 3 �1 + + �
𝑥𝑥 + 2√𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 √𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 4
lim = lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 7|𝑥𝑥| + 3 𝑥𝑥→∞ 7 3
𝑥𝑥 3 �3 − 2 + 3 �
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

2 1
�1 + + 4�
= lim √𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 2
𝑥𝑥→∞ 7 3
�3 − 2 + 3 �
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
1
=
3

(ii)
1 1
2√𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 −1 √𝑥𝑥(2 + )
1
(2 + )
𝑥𝑥√𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥
lim = lim = lim =0
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑥𝑥 − 7 𝑥𝑥→∞ 7 𝑥𝑥→∞ √𝑥𝑥 7
𝑥𝑥(3 − ) (3 − )
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

HNC
MATH1510 14

(iii)
𝑥𝑥 2 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 4
lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 8𝑥𝑥 − √𝑥𝑥 2 − 2

𝑦𝑦 2 + �𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑦𝑦 + 4
= lim
𝑦𝑦→∞ −8𝑦𝑦 − �𝑦𝑦 2 − 2

1 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑦𝑦 4
𝑦𝑦 2 �1 + � 2 + 2 �
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
= lim
𝑦𝑦→∞
𝑦𝑦 2 − 2
𝑦𝑦 �−8 − � 2 �
𝑦𝑦

1 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑦𝑦 4
𝑦𝑦 �1 + � 2 + 2 �
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
= lim
𝑦𝑦→∞
𝑦𝑦 2 − 2
�−8 − � �
𝑦𝑦 2

= −∞
(iv)
√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 4
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 5𝑥𝑥 − √𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 4
𝑥𝑥 �� + �
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 �5 − � �
𝑥𝑥 2

1 4
��1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 �
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3
�5 − �1 − 𝑥𝑥 �

1
=
4
HNC
MATH1510 15

(v)
√𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 + 4
lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 5𝑥𝑥 − √𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥
(exercise!)

(vi)
lim (�𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − �𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑥𝑥→∞

(√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)(√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)

= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥) − (𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)

= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)

𝑥𝑥 − 3
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ (√𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3)
3
𝑥𝑥 �1 − �
= lim 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 �𝑥𝑥 2 + 3
2
𝑥𝑥 �� + �
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2
3
�1 − 𝑥𝑥 �
= lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 1 3
��1 + 𝑥𝑥 + �1 + 2 �
𝑥𝑥
1
=
2

Technique: compare the order of magnitude of the dominant terms in the

denominator and numerator.

HNC
MATH1510 16

Example 6.2
(i)
lim 𝑒𝑒 1−3𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→∞

(ii)
2)
lim 𝑒𝑒 1/(1+5𝑥𝑥−𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→−∞
(iii)
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 3𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 4
(iv)
𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 2
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 5𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 7
(v)
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑒𝑒 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 2
(vi)
𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→−∞ 3𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 4

HNC
MATH1510 17

VII. Special Limits

A.
sin 𝑥𝑥
lim =1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
- ‘Sinc function’
- Note: in radian
- Both the numerator and denominator approaches 0 as x approaches 0:
lim sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and lim 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
MATH1510 18

Example 7.1
(i)
sin(2𝑥𝑥) sin(2𝑥𝑥)
lim = lim (2) = 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 2𝑥𝑥

(ii)
tan(2𝑥𝑥) sin(2𝑥𝑥) 2 sin(2𝑥𝑥) 2
lim = lim = lim =2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 cos(2𝑥𝑥) 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 2𝑥𝑥 cos(2𝑥𝑥)

(iii)
sin(4𝑥𝑥) sin(4𝑥𝑥) 7𝑥𝑥 4 4
lim = lim =
𝑥𝑥→0 sin(7𝑥𝑥) 𝑥𝑥→0 4𝑥𝑥 sin(7𝑥𝑥) 7 7

Furthermore,
1 − cos 𝑥𝑥
lim =0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
Note: in radian.

Recall that
cos(2𝑥𝑥) = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥𝑥
Thus
1 − cos 𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥
1 − �1 − 2 sin2 �
= lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥
2 sin2
= lim 2
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 sin 2
= lim �sin � 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥→0 2 � �
2
=0

HNC
MATH1510 19

1 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥
B. 𝑒𝑒 = lim �1 + � = lim �1 + �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→−∞

x 1 𝑥𝑥
�1 + �
𝑥𝑥
10 2.5937
100 2.7048
1000 2.7169
10000 2.7181
100000 2.7183
-10 2.868
-100 2.732
-1000 2.7196
-10000 2.7184
-100000 2.7183

Or we can write
𝑒𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑦𝑦)1/𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦→0

Example 7.2
1 𝑥𝑥
(a) lim �1 − �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥

1 (−𝑥𝑥)(−1)
= lim �1 + �
𝑥𝑥→∞ −𝑥𝑥
−1
1 𝑦𝑦
= lim ��1 + � �
𝑦𝑦→−∞ 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 −1

𝑥𝑥 2
2 𝑥𝑥
2
1
(b) lim �1 + � = lim ��1 +
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 � � = 𝑒𝑒 2
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞ �2�

1 −3
1/𝑥𝑥
(c) lim (1 − 3𝑥𝑥) = lim �(1 − 3𝑥𝑥) −3𝑥𝑥 � = 𝑒𝑒 −3
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0

HNC
MATH1510 20

𝑥𝑥 2
𝑥𝑥 2 +1
(d) lim � 2 �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 −1
2
1 𝑥𝑥
1+ 2
= lim � 𝑥𝑥 �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 1
1− 2
𝑥𝑥
2 2
1 𝑥𝑥 1 −𝑥𝑥
= lim �1 + 2 � �1 − 2 �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑒𝑒 2

HNC
MATH1510 21

VIII. Limit of Sequence

An infinite sequence of numbers {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } is a function whose domain is the
set of positive integers.

1. Convergent
If the numbers in a sequence {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } approach a single value L as the index
n increases, then we say that the sequence {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } converges to the limit L
and we write
lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝐿𝐿.
𝑛𝑛→∞

Example 8.1
1
(i) { }
𝑛𝑛

n 1 2 5 10 50 100 103 106 109

1/n

𝑛𝑛−1
(ii) { }
𝑛𝑛

n 1 2 3 4 5 10 100 1000
𝑛𝑛 − 1
𝑛𝑛

HNC
MATH1510 22

2. Divergent
If the sequence does not converge, it is called a divergent sequence.

A divergent sequence may diverges to infinity (or negative infinity) or

oscillate.

Example 8.2
(i) {√𝑛𝑛}

n 1 4 9 64 81 100 10000 1000000

√𝑛𝑛

(ii) {(−1)𝑛𝑛 }

n 1 2 3 4 99 100 999 1000

(−1) 𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛−1
(iii) {(−1)𝑛𝑛+1 }
𝑛𝑛

n 1 2 3 4 99 100 999 1000

𝑛𝑛 − 1
(−1)𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛

Example 8.3
1
lim (−1)𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛

Example 8.4
lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞

HNC
MATH1510 23

Example 8.5
Let {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } be the sequence defined by the recursive relation

𝑎𝑎 = �𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1
� 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑎𝑎1 = 1
Suppose that {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } converges to l, find l.

Solution:
2 2
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 = �𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 1 ⇒ lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 = lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛→∞
1±√5
Note that lim 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 = 𝑙𝑙. Thus, we have 𝑙𝑙 2 = 𝑙𝑙 + 1 ⇒ 𝑙𝑙 =
𝑛𝑛→∞ 2
Since {𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 } is a sequence of positive numbers, 𝑙𝑙 ≥ 0 and hence,
1 + √5
𝑙𝑙 =
2

HNC
MATH1510 24

Sequential Criterion for Limit of Functions

Given a function f : D → ℝ. Then

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑥𝑥0

provided that whenever {xn} is a sequence in D\{x0} that converges to x0,

lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛→∞

Example 8.6
The following limit does not exist:
1
lim sin( )
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

Alternatively, we can formally define the limit of a function by the

(𝜖𝜖, 𝛿𝛿) − definition. We say that
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎

provided that for every number 𝜖𝜖 > 0 , there exists a corresponding

number 𝛿𝛿 > 0 such that for all x,

0 < |𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎| < 𝛿𝛿 ⇒ |𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝐿𝐿| < 𝜖𝜖

HNC
MATH1510 25

SUMMARY (Chapter 2)

A. Concept of Limit
In general, a limit may or may not exist. For the case where the limit
does not exist, the function can
- diverge to infinity
- oscillate
- jump.
In computing limit, we may encounter an indeterminate form. Some
techniques are discussed.

Furthermore, we introduce the concept of

1. One-sided limit
2. Limit at infinity

B. Sandwich Theorem

C. Special Limits
1.
sin 𝑥𝑥
lim =1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
2.
1 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 = lim �1 + � = lim �1 + �
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥

D. Limit of a sequence and the sequential criterion for limit of functions

Supplementary Exercise 2: Q13-15

Supplementary Exercise 3
Supplementary Exercise 4: Q1-3

HNC
MATH1510 26

Answers (Chapter 2)

Example 3.1 (i) 3

Example 5.3: 0
Example 6.1 (v) -1/6
Example 6.2
(i) 0
(ii) 1
(iii) 1/3
(iv) ∞
(v) 0
(vi) -1/4

HNC