COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION

MODULE: BAT 04103- BASICS OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

PROGRAMME: NTA LEVEL 4: BASIC CERTIFICATE PROGRAMMES

UNIT 1: THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

In ordinary language, to communicate means to get someone to understand your thoughts. Hence,
we know each one of us communicates every day, irrespective of our levels of education, wealth,
authority or responsibility. There is a natural urge to communicate in every person’s heart.

1.0 Definitions of Communication

Every action of human beings can be seen as a means to communicate. Communication is the
exchange of information between two entities. This exchange is not necessarily in words only. It
could be a gesture like a raised eyebrow or waving to a friend when you spot them in a crowd.
Communication means sharing something with another person or a group of people.
Many experts define communication in different ways. But at this stage let us use these simple
definitions:
 Communication is a process of passing information from one person to another
 Communication is the transmission of a message from a source to a receiver
 Communication is the process by which individuals and businesses transfer messages
between or among each other.

So, looking at the above definitions we can conclude that the general objective of communication
is to send and receive information about a particular fact or circumstance.

1.1 Types of communication

There are two major types of communication. First, is the communication that uses words (called
“verbal communication”) and the second is the communication that does not use words (called
“non-verbal communication”).
Sometimes, for the purposes of emphasizing a message, word communication may go with non-
word communication and there are times when non-word communication may stand alone.

What is verbal communication?

Verbal communication is the use of words to convey a message. The used words form a
component of language through which people communicate. Verbal communication has two forms
which are written and oral communication. Examples of the written words are letters, memos and
reports and spoken words are oral presentations and speeches. Therefore, language achieves
communication by use of words (spoken or written), so it represents verbal communication.

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Language is a system of arbitrary symbols accepted and used by a particular group of people to
achieve communication (understanding) among them.

Language has the following characteristics:

1. It is an organization of sounds to convey a coherent message
2. It is a social phenomenon and therefore is used for social interaction
3. Language has no logical link between any given feature of a language and the meanings
conveyed (e.g. why the words or symbols: chair [English], kiti [Swahili], isumbi [sukuma] for
the same item?)
4. Language is systematic. It uses specific symbols in a specific arrangement (words are arranged
in a particular order to achieve a desired meaning. If those words are arranged haphazardly,
the meaning may not be achieved)
5. Language is uniquely human. Only human beings have developed an advanced means of using
language and their creativity makes language modifiable and extendable. But communication
goes beyond the use of words. People can communicate without using any word; for example,
when they dress in a particular way, or nod their head, smile, et cetera. This shows that
communication is a broader concept than what language covers. When this happens it means
that those people communicate through other means, which are non-verbal as the results we
get non-verbal communication.

What is Non-verbal Communication?

Non-verbal communication occurs without using any oral or written word, it relies on various non-
verbal cues like physical body movements, personal appearance, facial expressions, signs,
graphics, drawings, tasks, colors, symbols, signals charts, etc. to express feelings, attitudes or
information.
Although no word is used in non-verbal communication, it can effectively communicate many
human feelings more accurately than verbal methods of communication.

Types of Non verbal Communication

 Eye contact.
 Facial expressions.
 Gestures.
 Posture and body orientation/movement.
 Body Language.
 Space and Distance (Proximity).
 Para-linguistic.
 Humor.
 Touch.
 Silence.

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 Personal appearance.
 Symbol.
 Visual Communication.

Characteristics of nonverbal communication

1. Non-verbal messages primarily communicate emotions, attitudes.
2. Non-verbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize or regulate verbal message.
3. Non-verbal cues are often ambiguous.
4. Non-verbal cues are continuous.
5. Non-verbal cues are more reliable.
6. Non-verbal cues are culture bound.

Functions of non-verbal in communication.

 Non-verbal communication affects verbal communication in that it can complement, reinforce,
substitute, or contradicts verbal messages.
 Nonverbal communication influences others, as it is a key component of deception and can be
used to assert dominance or to engage in compliance gaining.
 Nonverbal communication regulates conversational flow, as it provides important cues that
signal the beginning and end of conversational turns and facilitates the beginning and end of
an interaction.
 Nonverbal communication affects relationships, as it is a primary means through which we
communicate emotions, establish social bonds, and engage in relational maintenance.
 Nonverbal communication expresses our identities, as who we are is conveyed through the
way we set up our living and working spaces, the clothes we wear, our personal presentation,
and the tones in our voices.
Verbal and non -verbal communication have advantages and disadvantages as shown in the
tables below:

A. ADVANTEGES

VERBAL COMMUNICATION NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. It is easier to be understood 1. Enables communication with people who are hard
hearing or deaf
2. It is quicker to get a clear reply 2. Enables communication where talking audibly is
avoided
3. There is less paperwork
4. It saves time

B. DISADVANTAGES

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 VERBAL COMMUNICATION NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
1. It demands high sensitivity and mastery of 1. There is a possibility to misrepresent or
cultural differences before communicating misunderstand a non-verbal due to cultural
(different languages, phrases and differences
terminologies)
2. Sending a large volume of word 2. It narrows interaction between participants
information may likely be boring or because it is not easy to communicate
confusing completely through non-verbals

1.2 Elements of Communication

One way to understand communication is through studying what we call “the elements of
communication”. These are the key things involved in the communication act. They include the
following:
1) Message/idea/information – the content of the communication act
2) Sender/source/encoder -the person or thing that initiates or starts the communication process
by sending a message
3) Goal/purpose-the intention of the sender
4) Channel-the way by which the message is sent to the other person such as through written
form (channel), oral (spoken) form (channel), audio form (channel), visual form (channel), et
cetera.
5) Receiver/decoder– the thing or person to whom the message is sent
6) Response/ feedback – the reaction of the receiver after receiving the message

Communication Models

Models of communication are simplified representations of the process of communication. There

are many communication models but our focus will be on two models simple model and modern
model of communication.
In its simplest form, the communication process begins with the Sender and ends with the
Receiver. The sender is the person who sees the need to communicate his thoughts, feelings,
anxiety, directives, orders, advice or whatever idea to another person. The receiver is the person
to whom the message is sent. This understanding represents the Old (or Simple) Communication
Model also known as the One Way Communication Model. It is ‘one way’ because there is no
feedback or message coming back to the sender. The following simple diagram represents the one
way communication model:

Channel
Sender Receiver

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In truth, however, Communication is not expected to be a one way business; it needs feedback
or the reaction from the person who receives the message. And by sending a feedback the receiver
changes role in the communication process and becomes a sender himself/herself. The old model
therefore, was improved to reflect the reality by showing that a person who receives a message is
normally expected to respond to the message by sending back a response. This second
understanding represents a Modern Communication Model also known as the Two Way
Communication Model. A simple drawing can show this idea like this:

Channel
Sender Receiver

Feedback

Stages of the Communication Process

The communication process normally goes through the following six stages (or steps):
1. The idea is generated or developed in the mind of the sender
2. The idea is encoded (changed) by the sender into words, pictures, graphics, gestures, etc.
3. The idea (now in form of words, pictures, etc.) is sent to the receiver through a written,
spoken or unspoken channel or visual channel
4. The idea (now in form of words, pictures, etc.) is received by the intended receiver
5. The idea (in form of words, pictures, etc.) is decoded (interpreted) by the receiver according
to his experiences
6. The receiver develops an idea and sends a feedback to the original sender based on his
understanding or interpretation thus initiating a new Cycle of communication. In sending
feedback, the role of the original receiver changes into sender while the original sender
changes into the receiver.

Look at the cyclic nature of the communication process below as represented in the six stages
presented above:

6.Receiver
provides
feedback to
the sender

1.Sender 2.Sender 3.Sender 4.Receiver 5.Receiver

has an idea encodes the transmits gets the decodes the
idea into a message through message message
channel
message

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Functions of communication

a. The information function serves to provide knowledge to the individuals need for guidance in
their actions. It also fulfills worker’s desires for awareness of things that affect them.
b. The command and instructive functions serve to make the employee aware of his obligations
to the formal organization and to provide him with additional guidance on how to perform his
duties adequately.
c. The influence and persuasion function (also known as motivational function) encourages the
appropriate individual to perform or to exhibit a certain behaviour. Messages communicated
are used to convince individuals that their actions can be personally or organizationally
beneficial.
d. The integrative function refers to the fact that the communication of messages / ideas, if
properly handled, should help to relate the activities of the workers to their efforts complement
rather than detract from each other. Work efforts are unified rather than fragmented as a result
of properly integrative communication. Employees can perform well and be involved in their
work only when they understand their job duties and responsibilities. Unless the
organization’s key goals, values and strategies are communicated to employees, they will not
work in that direction.

B. THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication skills are one of the fundamental life skills which are required for greater
understanding of information. It can be done vocally/verbally, visually, non-verbally and through
written media. All these are means of communication which are essential soft skills which are
required for a successful career. Professionals in the digital age must effectively know how to
convey and receive messages via various means of communication.

What is communication skills?

In general terms, Communication skills are those abilities or competencies that enable people to
communicate effectively with one another. Such abilities (or competencies) may include:

 skills of speaking in public with audible and clear tone,

 skills of using appropriate body language, the use the eye to eye connection, use hand
signals, and watch the tone of the voice when speaking with others.
 skills of making presentations,
 skills of active listening with understanding, to provide and receive feedback to the
listener or the reader effectively,
 skills of reading productively,
 skills of writing mails/letters and reports,
 skills of chairing business meetings and business negotiations, et cetera.

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All these skills are based on four main categories or communication styles including verbal, non-
verbal, written and visual:

1. Verbal

Verbal communication is the use of language to transfer information through speaking or sign
language. It is one of the most common types, often used during presentations, video conferences
and phone calls, meetings and one-on-one conversations. Verbal communication is important
because it is efficient. It can be helpful to support verbal communication with both non-verbal and
written communication. The following are few steps you can take to develop your verbal
communication skills:

 Use a strong, confident speaking voice. Especially when presenting information to a few
or a group of people, be sure to use a strong voice so that everyone can easily hear you. Be
confident when speaking so that your ideas are clear and easy for others to understand.

 Use active listening. The other side of using verbal communication is intently listening to
and hearing others. Active listening skills are key when conducting a meeting, presentation
or even when participating in a one-on-one conversation. Doing so will help you grow as
a communicator.

 Avoid filler words. It can be tempting, especially during a presentation, to use filler words
such as “um,” “like,” “so” or “yeah.” While it might feel natural after completing a sentence
or pausing to collect your thoughts, it can also be distracting for your audience. Try
presenting to a trusted friend or colleague who can call attention to the times you use filler
words. Try to replace them by taking a breath when you are tempted to use them.

2. Non-verbal

Non-verbal communication is the use of body language, gestures and facial expressions to convey
information to others. It can be used both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, you
might smile unintentionally when you hear a pleasing or enjoyable idea or piece of information.
Non-verbal communication is helpful when trying to understand others’ thoughts and feelings.

If they are displaying “closed” body language such as crossed arms or legs, or hunched shoulders,
they might be feeling anxious, angry or nervous. If they are displaying “open” body language with
both feet on the floor and arms by their side or on the table, they are likely feeling positive and
open to information. Here are a few steps you can take to develop your non-verbal communication
skills:

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  Notice how your emotions feel physically. Throughout the day, as you experience a range
of emotions (anything from energized, bored, happy or frustrated), try to identify where
you feel that emotion within your body. For example, if you’re feeling anxious, you might
notice that your stomach feels tight. Developing self-awareness around how your emotions
affect your body can give you greater mastery over your external presentation.

 Be intentional about your non-verbal communications. Make an effort to display

positive body language when you feel alert, be open and positive about your surroundings.
You can also use body language to support your verbal communication if you feel confused
or anxious about information, like using a furrowed brow. Use body language alongside
verbal communication such as asking follow up questions or pulling the presenter aside to
give feedback.

 Mimic non-verbal communications you find effective. If you find certain facial
expressions or body language beneficial to a certain setting, use it as a guide when
improving your own non-verbal communications. For example, if you see that when
someone nods their head it communicates approval and positive feedback efficiently, use
it in your next meeting when you have the same feelings.

3. Written

Written communication is the act of writing, typing or printing symbols like letters and numbers
to convey information. It is helpful because it provides a record of information for reference.
Writing is commonly used to share information through books, pamphlets, blogs, letters, memos
and more. Emails and chats are a common form of written communication in the workplace. The
following are few steps you can take to develop your written communication skills:

 Strive for simplicity. Written communications should be as simple and clear as possible.
While it might be helpful to include a lot of detail in instructional communications, for
example, you should look for areas where you can write as clearly as possible for your
audience to understand.

 Don’t rely on tone. Because you do not have the nuance of verbal and non-verbal
communications, be careful when you are trying to communicate a certain tone when
writing. For example, attempting to communicate a joke, sarcasm or excitement might be
translated differently depending on the audience. Instead, keep your writing as simple and
plain as possible and follow up with verbal communications where you can add more
personality.

 Take time to review your written communications. Setting time aside to re-read your
emails, letters or memos can help you identify mistakes or opportunities to say something

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 differently. For important communications or those that will be sent to a large number of
people, it might be helpful to have a trusted colleague review it as well.

 Keep a file of writing you find effective or enjoyable. If you receive a certain pamphlet,
email or memo that you find particularly helpful or interesting, save it for reference when
writing your own communication.

4. Visual

Visual communication is the act of using photographs, art, drawings, sketches, charts and graphs
to convey information. Visuals are often used as an aid during presentations to provide helpful
context alongside written and/or verbal communication. Because people have different learning
styles, visual communication might be more helpful for some to consume ideas and information.
Here are a few steps you can take to develop your visual communication skills:

 Ask others before including visuals. If you are considering sharing a visual aid in your
presentation or email, consider asking others for feedback. Adding visuals can sometimes
make concepts confusing or muddled. Getting a third-party perspective can help you decide
whether the visual adds value to your communications.

 Consider your audience. Be sure to include visuals that are easily understood by your
audience. For example, if you are displaying a chart with unfamiliar data, be sure to explain
what is happening in the visual and how it relates to what you are saying. You should never
use sensitive, offensive, violent or graphic visuals in any form. To make improvements to
your communication skills, set personal goals to work through the things you want to
accomplish step by step. It might be helpful to consult with trusted colleagues, managers
or mentors to identify which areas would be best to focus on first.

Importance of Communication Skills to Different Professionals

Because communication is so important in any business organisation, businesses want and need
people with good communication skills. Whatever position you have in business, your
performance will be judged largely by your ability to communicate. If you perform well and
communicate well, you are likely to be rewarded by a promotion. And the higher you climb the
ladder of your organization, the more you will need the communication skills. In short, improving
your communication skills improves your chances for success in business.
In general, the importance of communication skills can be summed up as follows:
1. It facilitates clarity in expression of one's ideas
2. It helps in creation of business and personal relationships
3. The knowledge of communication skills helps in setting up business priorities
4. It helps in solving business conflicts
5. It helps in making high quality decisions

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 1.3 Communication in the Organisation

Communication in organizations addresses how the information circulates among the employees
in an organization. Technically, it is called Organizational Communication. Organizational
communication is a technical term used to describe how people within a company share
information and speak to one another, their clients, and their customers. It includes everything
from the style and content of press releases, to the channels and software used to keep teams
connected and cooperating on projects.

Types of Communication in the Organisation

There are two major ways through which information passes from one employees to another within
an organization one is formal communication network and other is informal communication
network.
Lower level employees mostly use informal network and top management use formal network of
communication. When organization becomes larger and more complex the communication inside
organization will also be complex. For example, in a five person organization communication is
relatively simple but in an organization of hundreds and thousands of employees it will be highly
complex.
Messages sent and received within the organization formal and informal groups is refer to as
business communication. Furthermore business communication is also defined as how an
organization shares information to promote its products or services to its customers.

Communication in an organization is crucial for disseminating important information and sharing

updates. When different people work together in a team, they should all be on the same page. And
when multiple teams work together, clear communication becomes even more important. It helps
each team member keep track of project updates, exchange progress reports and monitor results.
Organizational communication helps businesses stay abreast of what’s happening. Here are the
different types of communication in the organisation:

 Internal Communication: communication that takes place within the organization or group,
among people within, among different groups of employees and between employers and
employees. In short, it is a kind of communication that takes place between people who work
for the same company.

 External Communication: communication that takes place between the organization and the
outside world such as its individual customers, companies or the general public.

 Upward Communication: communication that flows from lower-level employees to higher-

level employees.
 Downward Communication: communication that flows from higher-level employees to
lower-level employees.
 Formal Communication: communication that follows the formal structure of the
organization. Formal communication takes place between people who have a clear hierarchy
within an organization, such as between a boss and an employee, or between the company
and a customer.

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 Informal Communication: communication that does not follow the formal structure of the
organization. It takes place between people who have a more equal footing within an
organization, such as between coworkers or friends. It’s typically more spontaneous and less
controlled than formal communication.

 Lateral or horizontal Communication: communication that takes place between employees

at the same level.

 Interactive Communication or Two-way communication: it is the kind of communication

where information flows in two directions, from the sender to the receiver and back again.
Team meetings and work Slack channels are examples of two-way communication.

Remember, whether it’s formal or informal communication,

- it can also be verbal or non-verbal depending on the nature of the information to be shared.
- It can be one-way communication where information flows in only one direction, from the
sender to the receiver. Notice board postings and press releases are examples of one-way
communication.

Examples Communication in the organisations

Communication can be verbal or written, so you have to figure out when to use which medium. If
you want to keep something on record, the best form of communication is written communication
like emails. But for quick and urgent updates, verbal communication is more suitable because you
can get an immediate response from the other party. Here are some common examples
of communication in an organization:

1. Status Update Meetings

These are the most important types of meetings because they require every team member to share
how they’re getting along with their tasks. Status update meetings are held at regular intervals,
incentivizing employees to complete their tasks on time. Meetings are effective for organizational
communication. You can address queries, assign tasks and raise concerns about a project.

2. Virtual Conferences
Today, most communication in an organization takes place online. Whether it’s virtual meetings
or conferences, your laptop screen serves as the gateway to your team. Virtual conferences are a
reliable medium to share information. With both video and audio control, you won’t feel too far
away from your team. You can make presentations, brainstorm and share updates just as you would
in the office.

3. Written Communication
Apart from spoken communication, written communication is also used regularly in organizations.
Emails, notes, memos, business reports, newsletters and manuals comprise written
communication. This is a reliable method when you want to store, archive and track information.
It can help you keep everything in one place and share it with the rest of the team. Accessibility
and reliability are two important advantages of written communication.

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4. Online Communication Channels
Platforms like Microsoft Teams and Google Meet are now increasingly sought-after for online
communication. Many large corporations have internal organizational communication channels
for privacy and security. You can instantly reach out to a coworker in a different department or
team via these channels. Online chats are quick, informal and convenient.

5. Presentations
Communication extends to how you exchange ideas, pitch to clients and conduct your business.
Presentations are another important example of communication in the organization. Whether you
prepare slides or written reports, presentations help you condense ideas into understandable and
accessible chunks.

A good organizational communication strategy ensures that everyone within the business is on
the same truck and aware of the company’s goals and objectives. It helps to strengthen and
maintain relationships between employees, their customers, and their clients. And it can help to
improve the overall efficiency of the business by allowing the orderly flow of information between
the employees with valuable knowledge and the employees who need it.

On the other hand, ineffective organizational communication might seem like a small issue, but it
can quickly snowball into major problems for your business. For instance,
- Misunderstanding instructions or simply not having the relevant information can lead to
employees making costly mistakes.
- Customers can feel left in the dark or ignored, and decide to take their business somewhere
else.
- Clients might perceive your poor communication as incompetence or indifference to their
needs.
- Employee morale also suffers when communication breaks down. Without transparency and
openness, teams can become siloed and workers can feel isolated from the wider company
culture.
- Learning about important business updates, such as an upcoming office move, through the
grapevine rather than from a manager can lead to a sense of secrecy and negativity around the
office.

How to create a successful organizational communication strategy

If you want to improve communication within your organization, there are a few steps you can
take to make it happen:
 Support two-way communication by setting up channels where employees can give
feedback and ask questions. This can be as simple as setting up a Slack channel for open
discussion or holding regular team meetings.
 Make sure everyone has access to the same information by using a centralized system such
as an intranet or an online knowledge base. This will help to avoid confusion and
miscommunication.
 Encourage transparency by being open about the company’s plans and objectives.
Employees will feel more invested in the business when they know where it’s going and
why.

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  Let employees feel like their voices are being heard by regularly asking for feedback and
acting on it. This will help to build trust and improve morale.
 Finally, make sure you’re using the right tools for the job. The right communication tools
will make it easier for employees to stay connected and will help to improve the flow of
information.

1.4 Different communication Networks in the organisation

Communication networks are the channels or pattern of contacts among the employees through
which the information and messages passes from one person to another. The pathways along which
information flows in groups and throughout the organization. The selection of network depends
upon the following points:
 Magnitude of the organization,
 Nature of communication channels and group tasks,
 The extent to which group members need to communicate with each other to achieve group
goals.
Some types of communication networks consisting of wheel, chain, circle, and all-channel
networks.
1. The wheel network
This has a central person who accumulates information and disseminates it to all the
members. This is the most merged forms of a communication network where in all the
information flows from one central person, typically the leader. The other members have
little or no communication connection with each other. Here, the leader consciously
controls the line of communication and make sure that the information reaches in the entire
group.
2. The chain network
In the chain network, a person can communicate only with his immediate superior and
subordinate. Under the chain pattern, the information runs either up or down the line. Here
each person gets the information from his immediate superior and then passes it to their
immediate subordinates. All members of the organisation get connected to a single person,
usually the leader. This network is suitable when the information to be passed is officially
correct.
3. The circle network
It is characterized by members communicating with those who are closest to them in terms
of job responsibilities. The circle network is one of the forms of a communication network
in which the information is shared equally among all the members. Each person gives and
receives information from two or more persons in the network. Under this design, each
member has the equal chance to contribute.
4. All-channel network
In the all-channel network, all members can communicate with each other. Everyone is
linked to each other, and the information can flow freely from anywhere in the
organization. It is the most reorganized form of formal communication. The diverse feature
of this communication pattern is that all the persons in the group are linked to each other
and can freely communicate with anyone they want.

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Types of Communication Networks in Organizations by different directions
Understanding the following communication networks and directions helps organizations establish
effective channels for information exchange, collaboration, and decision-making. The most
common communication direction in organizations are:
1. Upward Communication: It flows from lower levels to higher levels of the hierarchy. Such as
employees providing feedback, suggestions, reports, or seeking guidance from their superiors.
2. Downward Communication: it flows from upper hierarchies to lower hierarchies. Such as,
superiors transmit instructions, goals, policies, performance feedback, and organizational
announcements to subordinates.
3. Horizontal Communication: Also known as lateral communication, it occurs between peers or
colleagues at the same hierarchical level, facilitating collaboration, coordination, and the exchange
of information or ideas across different departments or teams.
4. Diagonal Communication: Communication cuts across hierarchical levels and departments,
enabling collaboration and information sharing to achieve specific goals or solve problems.
The importance of diagonal communication is that it bridges gaps and enhances coordination
across the organization.
Importance of Communication Networks in the organisation

The importance of a communication network lies in its ability to facilitate efficient flow of
information, enhanced collaboration, reduced ambiguity and misunderstanding, increased
engagement and employee satisfaction, and alignment with organizational goals. The core
importance of communication is to exchange the information between two or more parties. The
following are some key reasons why communication networks are crucial:

1. Conflict Resolution: Communication networks play a vital role in resolving conflicts within
an organization. They provide platforms for open and constructive dialogue, allowing
individuals or teams to address issues, clarify misunderstandings, and find mutually beneficial
solutions.

2. Employee Engagement and Morale: Effective communication networks contribute to high

employee engagement and morale. When employees feel informed and valued, they are more
likely to be motivated and productive in their work.

3. Organizational Alignment: A communication network helps align individuals and

departments within an organization. It ensures that everyone is aware of the organization’s
objectives, strategies, and changes. This alignment promotes consistency and a shared
understanding of organizational goals.

4. Efficient Information Flow: An effectively structured communication network guarantees the

seamless and efficient circulation of information across the entire organization. It enables the

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 sharing of important messages, instructions, goals, and updates, facilitating effective
coordination and decision-making.

5. Collaboration and Teamwork: Communication networks foster collaboration and teamwork

by providing channels for individuals and teams to exchange ideas and work together towards
common goals. It encourages cooperation and problem-solving among employees.

The role of a communication network in information exchange

Communication networks play a crucial role in facilitating the exchange of information within
organizations. They provide a framework for people to share opinions, and important messages
with one another. Here are some key roles that communication networks fulfill in information
exchange:
1. Sharing Information: Communication networks allow individuals and departments to share
relevant information with each other. It enables the sharing of updates, announcements,
policies, and procedures across the organization. This ensures that every individual has the
necessary access to information required for optimal performance in their respective roles.

2. Coordination and Collaboration: Communication networks facilitate coordination and

collaboration among individuals and teams. They enable employees to communicate, share
ideas, and work together on projects and tasks. Through these networks, employees can
exchange thoughts, seek clarifications, and coordinate their efforts, fostering a sense of
teamwork and synergy within the organization.
3. Decision-Making Support: Communication networks play a crucial role in supporting
decision-making processes. They allow relevant information to be conveyed to decision-
makers, enabling them to gather insights, consider different perspectives, and make informed
choices. By providing a platform for information exchange, networks contribute to well-
informed decision-making that aligns with organizational goals.

4. Feedback and Evaluation: Communication networks enable the exchange of feedback, both
positive and constructive, among team members and between employees and managers. This
feedback loop facilitates individual performance improvement and enables the identification
of areas for growth. It also provides a mechanism for evaluating progress and making
necessary adjustments.

1.5 Effective communication

Effective communication occurs when there is shared meaning. The message that is sent is the
same message that is received. There must be a mutual understanding between the sender and the
receiver for the transmission of ideas or information to be successful. Effective communication
may be defined as:
 Using language that is appropriate to others' levels of understanding.

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  Making sure others receive the information or knowledge intended.
 Developing relationships with others.
 Talking with others in a way that facilitates openness, honesty and cooperation.
 Providing feedback.

Generally, effective communication is the process of sending a message in such a way that the
message received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended. It is about getting
your point across to your listeners without causing misunderstanding and confusion. In other
words, it is a process of passing your message to other people clearly and unambiguously. It’s
also about receiving information that others are sending to you, with as little distortion as possible.
Effective communication helps you get your point across successfully and it is therefore a part and
parcel of any successful organization. Any communication should be free from barriers so as to be
effective.

The characteristics of effective communication

1. Clarity of Purpose: The message to be delivered must be clear in the mind of sender. The
person to whom it is targeted and the aim of the message should be clear.
2. Completeness: The message delivered should be complete. It should be supported by facts
and observations. It should be well planned and organized. No assumptions should be made
by the receiver.
3. Conciseness: The message should be concise. It should not include any unnecessary details.
It should be short and complete.
4. Feedback: Whether the message sent by the sender is understood in same terms by the
receiver or not can be judged by the feedback received. The feedback should be timely and in
personal. It should be specific rather than general.
5. Empathy: Empathy with the listeners is essential for effective verbal communication. The
speaker should step into the shoes of the listener and be sensitive to their needs and emotions.
This way he can understand things from their perspective and make communication more
effective.
6. Modify the message according to the audience: The information requirement by different
people in the organization differs according to their needs. What is relevant to the middle level
management might not be relevant to the top level of management. Use of jargons should be
minimized because it might lead to misunderstanding and misinterpretations. The message
should be modified according to the needs and requirements of the targeted audience.
7. Multiple Channels of communication: For effective communication multiple channels
should be used as it increases the chances of clarity of message. The message is reinforced by
using different channels and there are less chances of deformation of message.
8. Make effective use of Grapevine (informal channel of communication): The employees and
managers should not always discourage grapevine. They should make effective use of

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 grapevine. The managers can use grapevine to deliver formal messages and for identification
of issues which are significant for the employees. The managers can get to know the problems
faced by the employees and can work upon it.

Barriers of Effective Communication

What a Communication Barrier?

A communication barrier is anything that comes in the way of receiving and understanding
messages that one sends to another to convey his ideas, thoughts, or any other kind of information.
It is something that hinders or obstructs communication. It affects communication right from the
beginning, it is there whether the communication is taking place or not but when communication
happens it affects the process of communication negatively.
These various barriers of communication block or interfere with the message that someone is
trying to send. It happens because the message sent by the sender might not be understood exactly
as it is meant to be. It can get distorted during the communication exchange. These different types
of communication barriers can come at any stage in the process of communication. It can come
because of the bias or stereotyping and generalization that exists in the workplace.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication

A skilled communicator needs to have information about the different types of barriers to effective
communication and try to prevent them. These barriers to effective communication can be
overcome by active listening, reflection, etc. The communicator must seek feedback from the
receiver of the information to check if the message was understood in its true sense. The following
are some of the common barriers to effective communication.
1. Using Jargon. If one uses unfamiliar terms or over-complicated technical terms, it could not
be understood well.
2. Lack of Attention or Interest. If the message is irrelevant to the receiver or there are
distractions around (like others speaking at the same time) then the message might not be
communicated properly.
3. Perception Difference. If two people see things differently then their viewpoints might come
in the way of deciphering the message correctly.
4. Physical Disabilities. If the receiver has hearing problems, or the speaker has speech
disabilities, then communication will not be effective. It will distort the message.

5. Emotional Barriers. Sensitive topics make it difficult for the speaker or the receiver to
engage properly in the communication exchange. It could also be that some people are not
comfortable expressing themselves; hence their words might not reflect the true meaning of
what they want to convey. Topics that may be taboo or off-limits for some people are politics,
religion, mental or physical disabilities, racism, sexuality, and any other unpopular options.

17
 6. The Difference in Culture. Social interactions have different norms in different cultures. For
example, the idea of space exists in some cultures and social settings but not in the same
form in others. These cultural differences could prevent effective communication.

7. Physical Barriers to Communication. A face-to-face communication has a lot of parts to the

communication than just the words. Facial expressions, body language, gestures, etc. are also
involved in the whole communication process. If you can’t see the person, then some
messages might get lost. Text messages, phone calls, etc. are some of the technological ways
of communicating which lack the effect of a personal meeting.

8. Language Difference. The difference in dialects of different regions or unfamiliar accents

can make it difficult to understand the message sent. On the other hand, using vocabularies
or terminologies with ambiguity from the same language can cause misunderstanding among
the communicators.

9. Prejudices. Most people have preconceived notions about many things; hence they hear only
what they want to listen to, not what is being said. These false assumptions and stereotyping
lead to barriers in communication.
Some scholars summarize all these barriers into the following major groups:
1. Physical barrier: this is an obstruction due to the nature of the environment where the
communication is taking place e.g. Mountains, walls, lakes, forests. Communication suffers
because of those obstructions.
2. Psychological barrier: this is an obstruction due to one’s state of mind or inward feelings.
Communication suffers because the person is not in good mood to listen or receive
information. It includes pre-conceived opinions, biases and assumptions that affect one's
interpretive abilities and understanding.
2 Language barrier: Words convey different meanings to different people. Age, education and
cultural background are the major factors that influence the use of language by people and the
meanings they associate with words. Communication fails because the language used excludes
the listener. e.g. When a person listens to a speech in a language he does not master.
3 Gender barrier: communication suffers right away because the listener cannot contain the idea
of listening to a person of different gender. In other words, gender barrier is a failure to
understand the other person because you are not a man or woman or you do not possess the
experience of the person of another gender regardless of what you try to do. Or you do not
appreciate the other gender in such a way that you are not ready to understand their point.
4 Perception barrier: one’s failure to understand information because of their limited capacity
to think or analyse information. How other people think and analyze issues is something you
cannot control irrespective of your effort to explain your point to them

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How to Overcome Barriers to Effective Communication

The following are the different measures to overcome effective communication:

- Ideas should be clear before Communication. The person sending the message should have
clear ideas in his mind about what he wants to convey. He should know the objective of the
message and accordingly, he should arrange his thoughts in a systematized way.
- Sender should Communicate According to the Receiver’s Needs. The sender should frame
the structure of the message not according to his own level or ability but should keep in mind
the level, understanding, and environment of the receiver.
- Consult Others before Communication. During Communication planning, suggestions should
be invited from all the concerned persons. Its main benefit is that all those people who are
involved in the communication planning will contribute to the success of the communication
system.
- Be Aware of the Tone, Content, and Language of the Message. The sender should consider
that the message should be transmitted in a clear, precise, and easy language. The tone of the
message should not hurt the feeling of the receiver. Hence, try to formulate the content of the
message in brief and ensure to avoid technical words.
- Convey Things that are Helpful to Listener. The content of the message should be helpful and
valuable to the receiver. The need and interest of the receiver should be kept in mind before
communicating. Communication becomes more effective in such situations.

- Ensure to getting Proper Feedback. The aim of getting feedback is to find whether the
receiver has properly understood the meaning of the message received. While communicating
face to face, the reaction on the face of the receiver can be easily understood.

- Message should be Consistent. The message sent to the receiver should not be
inconsistent. The information transferred should be in accordance with the objective,
programs, policies, and techniques of the organization. When a new message is sent in place
of the old message, a sender should always mention it as it will create confusion.

- Follow Up Communication. To make the communication effective, the manager should

attempt to know the weakness of the communication system. In this condition, effort should
be made to know whether it is appropriate to focus more on formal communication or informal
communication.

- Be a Good Listener. Both sender and receiver must be good listeners in the communication
process. Both should understand each other's points of view with patience, attention, and a
positive attitude. A receiver can receive much relevant information if he is a good listener.

Ways of Improving Communication

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In order for us to communicate effectively we need to apply the communication skills we learn
into all our speaking, listening, reading, writing and non-verbal communication. The following are
different ways of improving communication are:
- To be a good communicator, the foremost step is to communicate well.
- Have a positive attitude about communication
- Constantly work at improving communication skills
- Help managers and employees to improve their communication skills by making them
understand their barriers.
- Consider the effects of miscommunications
- Always try to use assertive and active voice while communicating.
- When you are being communicated to, list down the important points in communication.
- This is the most effective way to ensure that there is no miscommunication.
- Try to speak in the right tone as most miscommunication happens because either of the parties
involved was not speaking in the right tone.
Effective communication is something we need to learn and practice.

TOPIC 2: NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Introduction
As a student, you will spend much of your time listening to lectures and reading texts. Since it is
not easy to remember everything you have read or heard, you will need to take notes in order to
help you remember what you have studied, and to help you keep a record of information you obtain
from lectures or from reading texts. Taking notes also brightens your participation in listening to
lectures or public talks.

Studies show that people may forget:

•50% of a lecture within 24 hours
•80% in two weeks
•95% within one month
If they do not take notes.

Note taking
Note taking is a process that involves writing or recording what you hear or read in a descriptive
way. This is often the first stage of the process of producing effective notes. Note taking is the
process of typing notes as you read or listen to something in real time. When note taking, you flex
your multitasking skills and think on your feet as you work to jot down all the important stuff.

Importance of note taking

 Good note-taking allows a permanent record of key information that you can integrate with
your own writing, and use for exam revision.
 Taking reliable, accurate notes also reduces the risk of plagiarising.

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  It helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how and what you think about
those ideas.
 Enables You to Capture Every Point: Most of us speak faster than we can write, which is
why effective note-taking strategies are essential to capture every point made.
 Aids Recall: Note-taking is a proven process that aids in recalling information, particularly
when using handwritten notes.
 Aids Learning: Note-taking promotes ‘The Generation Effect’, which can boost your
ability to store information in your memory.
 Helps to Develop Creativity: Using index cards to note ideas or concepts aids in creating
new concepts or ways of thinking.

Note making

Note making is an advanced process that involves reviewing, synthesizing, connecting ideas from
the lecture or reading and presenting the information in a readable, creative way that will stick in
your mind.

Note making is the process of creating simple notes and rewriting them in your own words.
Through note making, you can reword someone else’s ideas into notes that fit your needs.

Importance of note making

Note making helps you to:

 Understand what you have learnt.

 Stay active and get engaged with the lectures, revision, and reading.
 Identify and select the key ideas.
 Revise the study-materials before exams.
 Organise the noted points, ideas, and make connections.
 Plan and structure various assignments.

Differences between note taking and note making

Below are some of the key differences between note taking and note taking.

 Language

With note taking, you record a key idea in the moments that you’re first exposed to new ideas or
knowledge. With note-making, you instead rephrase the original idea in your own words. In
other words, note making is all about your own wording, while note taking comes straight from
the source.

 Speed

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Oftentimes, you’ll find that note taking is speedier than note making, as you’re just getting down
your real-time thoughts. It usually takes more time to write something your own way than to type
someone else’s words.

 Issues-related

Each of these types of notes comes with its own baggage. For example, note taking might be
more efficient, but your notes can be tougher to remember. Similarly, the notes you make might
last longer in your mind, but note making can be less practical in a fast-paced setting.

 Definition

Note taking and note making have two different names for a reason – they’re, by definition,
different from each other. Note taking starts with jotting down others’ ideas, and note making is
all about what you actively create after that.

 Nature

Note taking requires more active listening, while note making requires more active engagement.
Note taking can come in handy when you’re listening to someone speak, while note making is
better suited for reading.

The 6 Rs of Note-taking
1. Record - During the lecture, record the information in the note-making section. You can use
a shorthand system if you wish – but make sure you can understand it afterwards! Symbols
and abbreviations can also be used. Mark your own thoughts in a different colour.
2. Reduce - Within 24 hours of your lecture review your notes. Highlight important headings,
terminology or key people/dates. Now use the Cue Column to reduce your notes to key
words, phrases or questions.
3. Recite – Cover the note-taking area and using only the Cue words recite out loud what the
lecture was about.
4. Reflect – Think about what you have just learnt. Link key themes and topics, this will help
develop critical thinking skills.
5. Review - Spend time each week going back over the notes. Use the Cue words to help pull
the information into your mind.
6. Recapitulate – In the Summary section, use your own words to summarise the main points
you want to remember. This practice helps to strengthen your memory and is a great way to
review notes just before an exam.

Note taking during the lecture

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Lectures can be hard to understand due to a combination of unfamiliar vocabulary, speaker style
or accent and the fact that you can’t control the speaker’s speed or put them on repeat. To get the
most from your lectures, develop a ‘before, during and after’ approach.

Before the lecture

 Be prepared
 Know what is up –check course outline
 Do any required pre-reading
 Review notes from previous lectures
 Set up resources for note-taking
 Arrive early –avoid missing the intro, esp. to a new topic
 Position yourself strategically

During the lecture

 Listen actively and think critically.
 Select key concepts and what is relevant.
 Listen for verbal signposts –transitions: intro, conclusion/final remarks, emphasis etc.
 Notice lecturer’s interest level
 Watch the board or projector
 Listen for repetition of main ideas
 Note phonological cues –stress, pitch, volume, intonation.

Things to listen out for:

 The start of the lecture when the speaker usually outlines the structure of the
 lecture and states key points.
 The end of the lecture when the speaker usually summarises the most important points
covered.
 The lecturer raising their voice and/or speaking more slowly to emphasise key points.
 Whether the lecturer is giving a key point, a fact, a description, an explanation, an
example or an opinion.
 Words that qualify a statement (e.g. always, rarely) or words that give a negative, such as
no, not, never, fails to or neglects to.
 ‘Signposting language’ that will help you understand the structure, direction and key
points of the lecture.

After the lecture

 Review and re-engage your notes (Note-Making)

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  Review while the lecture is still fresh in your mind, to identify gaps
 Clean up your notes by doing corrections
 Code and classify your notes –colour, underline, highlight
 Identify anything that needs further clarification/reading
 Try ‘chunking’ similar pieces of info into categories that you can remember easily
 Paraphrase key concepts in your own words
 Add your own questions –to help recall ideas

Note-taking and Note-making

Note making –from texts

 Note title of sections/chapters in relation to the whole book (see table of contents)
 Indicate subsections/subtitles
 Write thesis/topic sentences
 Show connectors and transition markers
 Format -bold, italicize, underline, CAPITALIZE
 Use colours, highlighters (if the text is yours)
 Put a comment on the margins, e.g. page numbers
 Underline the important sentences. It helps to make headings and subheadings
 Make a rough note first so as to get an idea
 Organize them in logical order or sequence for the final note
 Use the appropriate note-making format
 Do not change the idea or the message of the text
Note Taking/Making Methods

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1. Mind-map/Tree diagram Method
It involves putting the keyword, main point or learning outcome in the centre of the page and
making branches that go from this main point to sub-points, details etc.

2. Outlining Method
This method involves using indentations, bullet points or numbers to visually distinguish the
difference between main points, sub-points and details. You can make this method more effective
by using different coloured pens, capitalisation or highlighters.

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3. The Cornell Method
This method involves having 2 columns – one for the main point, theory, learning outcome, and
the second for your notes, key-words or questions. At the end of each page with this method, it is
suggested that you write a brief summary.

26
4. The Charting method
This method involves using a table to make your notes. You can have separate columns for main
points, questions, details etc. This method pretty much involves you classifying your information
so you can easily access it.

5. Sentence method

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Using Abbreviations and Symbols in Note Making
Using abbreviations and symbols when taking notes saves time and space. There are several
techniques to shorten long or intricate words:
 Using the initials of one or more words, for example, Prime Minister – PM, India –
IND, United Nations – UN, Chief Marketing Officer – CMO.
 Using only the initial few letters of the words, for example, construction – Const.,
abbreviation – abbr., information – info., and so on.
 Universally recognised abbreviations include, for example, opposite – opp.,
government – govt., established – est., private limited – Pvt. Ltd, department – dept.,
etcetera – etc., that is – i.e., etc.
 Removing the vowels, for example, reading – rdng, books – bks, cleaning – clng,
shopping – shppng, and so on.
 Universally recognised symbols, for example, Q because > greater, larger, < less,
smaller, ↓ falling, decreasing, ↑ rising, increasing.

Abbreviations and acronyms for note taking

1. Common etc. (etcetera) = and the rest para = paragraph

e.g. = for example ch. = chapter

info = information no. = number

i.e. = that is diff = different

n.b. =note well, important C19 = nineteenth century

p = page (pp = pages)

2. Discipline- These should be whatever is frequently used in your field of study.
Specific
In chemistry: Au for gold, Mg for magnesium.

In the case of quantities and concepts, these are represented by

Greek letters in many fields.

A or a (alpha) B or b (beta)

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3. Personal Develop your own set so that you don’t have to write every word
in full. You can shorten any word that is commonly used in your
lectures.

 Gov = government
 nec = necessary

Work out a system you’ll remember and use it consistently.

Introduce a few symbols and abbreviations at a time to help you
remember them.
4. Acronyms Some abbreviations are so well known and widely used that they
have become acronyms—abbreviations pronounced as words. For
example:

Laser = Light Amplification by Stimulation Emission of Radiation

ABC = Australian Broadcasting Corporation

Symbols for note taking

equals/is equal to/is the same as

is not equal to/is not the same as
is equivalent to
therefore, thus, so
Because
and, more, plus
more than, greater than
less than
less, minus
gives, causes, produces, leads to, results in, is given by, is
produced by, results from, comes from
rises, increases by
falls, decreases by

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Things to Consider when Making Notes
 Make your notes using a separate sheet of paper, and do not scribble or do any markings
on the textbooks.
 Whenever possible, your notes should be summaries of source materials rather than direct
quotations.
 Leave enough spaces in between the points for further expansion through comments,
examples, etc. and for making relevant citations.
 Highlight all key words in your notes so that you can later expand them with definitions,
illustrations, etc.
 Organize your notes in such a way that the original structure of the text is clearly reflected.
 Whenever you make notes from a written text remember to record:
 The name of the author
 The year of publication
 The title of the article, book, or journal

TOPIC 3: PARTS OF SPEECH

A part of speech is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the nine main categories into
which words are classified according to their functions in sentences, such as nouns or verbs. Also
known as word classes, these are the building blocks of grammar.

Parts of Speech

Word types can be divided into nine parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners and interjections. The part of speech indicates
how the word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.

 Some words can be considered more than one part of speech, depending on context and
usage. Examples;

- "work" can be a verb and a noun;

- "but" can be a conjunction and a preposition;
- "well" can be an adjective, an adverb and an interjection.

 In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.

 Interjections can form complete sentences on their own.

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Every sentence you write or speak in English includes words that fall into some of the nine parts
of speech. Some sources include only eight parts of speech and leave interjections in their own
category.
Open and Closed Word Classes
The parts of speech are commonly divided into open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs) and closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and
interjections). The idea is that open classes can be altered and added to as language develops and
closed classes are pretty much set in stone. For example, new nouns are created every day, but
conjunctions never change.
In contemporary linguistics, the label part of speech has generally been discarded in favor of the
term word class or syntactic category. These terms make words easier to qualify objectively based
on word construction rather than context. Within word classes, there is the lexical or open class
and the function or closed class.
The 9 Parts of Speech and sentence structure
Noun
Nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from
the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they're the official name
of something or someone, called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship,
freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.
Pronoun
Pronouns stand in for nouns in a sentence. They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only
to people. Examples: I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.
Verb
Verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject's
state of being (is, was). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction
(singular or plural). Examples: sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became
Adjective
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much, what kind, and
more. Adjectives allow readers and listeners to use their senses to imagine something more clearly.
Examples: hot, lazy, funny, unique, bright, beautiful, poor, smooth.
Adverb
Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when, where, how, and
why something happened and to what extent or how often. Examples: softly, lazily, often, only,
hopefully, softly, sometimes.
Preposition
Prepositions show spacial, temporal, and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the other
words in a sentence. They come at the start of a prepositional phrase, which contains a preposition
and its object. Examples: up, over, against, by, for, into, close to, out of, apart from.

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Conjunction
Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. There are coordinating, subordinating,
and correlative conjunctions. Examples: and, but, or, so, yet, with.
Articles and Determiners
Articles and determiners function like adjectives by modifying nouns, but they are different than
adjectives in that they are necessary for a sentence to have proper syntax. Articles and determiners
specify and identify nouns, and there are indefinite and definite articles. Examples: articles: a, an,
the; determiners: these, that, those, enough, much, few, which, what.
Some traditional grammars have treated articles as a distinct part of speech. Modern grammars,
however, more often include articles in the category of determiners, which identify or quantify a
noun. Even though they modify nouns like adjectives, articles are different in that they are essential
to the proper syntax of a sentence, just as determiners are necessary to convey the meaning of a
sentence, while adjectives are optional.
Interjection
Interjections are expressions that can stand on their own or be contained within sentences. These
words and phrases often carry strong emotions and convey reactions. Examples: ah, whoops,
ouch, yabba dabba do!
How to Determine the Part of Speech

Only interjections (Hooray!) have a habit of standing alone; every other part of speech must be
contained within a sentence and some are even required in sentences (nouns and verbs). Other
parts of speech come in many varieties and may appear just about anywhere in a sentence.

To know for sure what part of speech a word falls into, look not only at the word itself but also at
its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.

For example, in the first sentence below, work functions as a noun; in the second sentence, a verb;
and in the third sentence, an adjective:

i. Bosco showed up for work two hours late.

 The noun work is the thing Bosco shows up for.
ii. He will have to work until midnight.
 The verb work is the action he must perform.
iii. His work permit expires next month.
 The attributive noun [or converted adjective] work modifies the noun permit.

Learning the names and uses of the basic parts of speech is just one way to understand how
sentences are constructed.

How to construct a sentence (sentence structure)

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To form a basic complete sentence, you only need two elements: a noun (or pronoun standing in
for a noun) and a verb. The noun acts as a subject and the verb, by telling what action the subject
is taking, acts as the predicate. Example; Birds fly.

In the short sentence above, birds is the noun and fly is the verb. The sentence makes sense and
gets the point across.

You can have a sentence with just one word without breaking any sentence formation rules. The
short sentence below is complete because it's a command to an understood "you".

Example, Go!

Here, the pronoun, standing in for a noun, is implied and acts as the subject. The sentence is really
saying, "(You) go!"

Constructing More Complex Sentences

Use more parts of speech to add additional information about what's happening in a sentence to
make it more complex. Take the first sentence from above, for example, and incorporate more
information about how and why birds fly.

 Birds fly when migrating before winter.

Birds and fly remain the noun and the verb, but now there is more description.

When is an adverb that modifies the verb fly. The word before is a little tricky because it can be
either a conjunction, preposition, or adverb depending on the context. In this case, it's a preposition
because it is followed by a noun. This preposition begins an adverbial phrase of time (before
winter) that answers the question of when the birds migrate. Before is not a conjunction because it
does not connect two clauses.

Therefore, sentences differ in length depending on the kind of message one sends and the type of
parts of speech have been used. Look at the following examples:

Verb: Stop! Go!

Noun-verb: John works.

Noun-verb-verb: John is working.

Pronoun –verb-noun: She loves animals.

Noun-verb-noun-adverb: Tarah speaks English well.

Noun-verb-adjective-noun: Tarah speaks good English.

Pronoun –verb-preposition-determiner- noun -adverb:

33
She ran to the station quickly.

Pron-verb-adj-noun-conjunction-pron -verb- pron.

She likes big snakes but I hate them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

Interjection – pron-conj – det – adj – noun- verb-prep-noun-adverb

Well, she and my young John walk to school

Clauses and phrases

Sentences are made up of clauses and phrases. All sentences must have at least one independent
clause.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words which has:

• a subject, ie. the focus of the clause, or someone or thing which does something in the clause
and
• a complete finite verb, ie. a verb which has a subject and a sense of time. For example,

Subject Verb

The lecture finished at 3 pm

Pollution causes cancer

New Zealand is in the south Pacific

There are two kinds of clauses: independent (or main) clauses and dependent (or subordinate)
clauses

Independent Clause

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand on its own as a sentence

e.g. Learning a new language is often frustrating.

Dependent Clause

A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and needs to be joined to an Independent
clause to become a sentence. It usually begins with a word such as although,

while, because, who, which, if, etc.

34
e.g. Although learning a new language is often frustrating

Relative clauses

A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and functions as an adjective. Example,

The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn’t sell well when it was first published.

The relative pronoun that is the subject of its clause and won is the predicate.

This clause couldn’t stand by itself. Its role in the complete sentence is to modify novel, the subject
of the independent clause.

Phrases

A phrase is a group of words which either does not have a subject. It is a related group of words.
The words work together as a "unit," but they do not have a subject and a verb. The following are
examples of phrases:

 Noun Phrase; Friday became a cool, wet afternoon.

 Verb Phrase; Mary might have been waiting outside for you.
 Gerund Phrase; Eating ice cream on a hot day can be a good way to cool off.
 Infinitive Phrase; She helped to build the roof.
 Prepositional Phrase; In the kitchen, you will find my mom.

The Sentence

A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete
thought or meaning. But for this definition to be helpful, you must be able to recognize a subject
and a predicate and understand what is meant by “a complete thought.”

A sentence has a subject (what or whom the sentence is about) and a predicate).

Subject

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being. The subject is
sometimes called the “naming part” of a sentence or clause. It shows what the sentence is about,
or who or what is performing an action in the sentence. The subject is most often a noun, pronoun,
or noun phrase. The simple subject is a noun or pronoun. The complete subject is this noun or
pronoun and the words that modify

Predicate

The predicate is the part of a sentence (or clause) that tells us what the subject does or is. To put
it another way, the predicate is everything that is not the subject. The simple predicate is a verb
or verb phrase (for example, has walked, will have walked). The complete predicate is the verb
or verb phrase and the words that modify or complete it.

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Types of Sentences

In English, sentences can be categorized in terms of structure and in terms of functions or usage.

Structurally, sentences are of four types: simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence
and compound-complex sentence.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence containing only one clause, or more specifically, an independent
clause, with a subject and a predicate.

A simple sentence is typically made up of a subject, verb, and object, or SVO, and creates a
complete thought; however, since a simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase only, a simple
sentence can also be made up of only a subject and verb (SV). Example;

- Juma writes a letter.

- Student learns

Compound sentence

A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses.
Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses. Example:

- I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two
independent clauses – two verbs)

Complex sentence

A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause
and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular connectors
for the clauses of a complex sentence to be connected. Example:

- I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a
connector and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.)

Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of

compound and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example:

I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor.
(Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses
with a compound conjunction between them.)

Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:

Declarative sentence

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Most of the sentences of English language are assertive or declarative sentences. The sentence
which declares or asserts a statement, feeling, opinion, incident, event, history, or anything is called
an assertive sentence. An assertive sentence ends with a period (.). Assertive sentences can be
either affirmative or negative. Examples:

- Alex is a good baseball player.

- He plays for the Rockers club.
- He always gives his best effort in the team.
- He is a good leader.
- I like him for his intensity.

Imperative sentence

The sentence which is used to convey a command, a request, or a forbiddance is called

an imperative sentence. This type of sentence always takes the second person (you) for the subject
but most of the time the subject remains hidden. Imperative sentences usually end with a period
(i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e.,
exclamation mark). Examples:

- Bring me a glass of water.

- Don’t ever touch my phone.
- Give me a pen and a pencil.
- Play with intensity and courage.
- Remember me when we are parted.
- Never forget the person who loves you.
- Please sit down.
- I need you to sit down now!

Interrogative sentence

The sentence which asks a question is an interrogative sentence. This kind of sentence usually ends
with a note of interrogation (?) instead of a period (.). An interrogative sentence can be either
affirmative or negative. Examples:

- Do you want to go there?

- Did you see her?
- Have you watched the movie?
- How often do you go there?
- Have you been there before?
- Can’t we be friends again?
- Why haven’t you completed your homework?
- Don’t you know who she is?

Exclamatory sentence

An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness,

wonder, sorrow, anger, etc. The sentence which expresses a sudden and intense excitement, disgust,
admiration, shock, or sorrow, etc. is called an exclamatory sentence. This kind of sentence must
have a note of exclamation (!) at the end or in the middle of the sentence. Example:

37
 - Hey! Don’t touch my phone.
- Alas! I could not be at her funeral.
- Hush! Your father is sleeping.
- What a boring day!
- How disgusting it becomes when he opens his mouth!
- What a nice car you have!

On the other hand under this type of sentences there is another category of sentences which
expresse a prayer, keen wish, curse etc. this is called an optative sentence. This kind of sentence
generally starts with ‘may’ and ‘wish’. (Sometimes, ‘may’ remains hidden). Examples:

- What a day it was!

- I cannot believe he would do that!
- May the king of Westeros live long!
- Long live the king of Westeros.
- May you two live long enough to see your grandchildren!
- May God bless us all.

TOPIC 4: WRITING SKILLS

What is writing?

Writing is a representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or
symbols (known as a writing system). Written text lasts longer than a merely spoken utterance.
Writing is never a one-step action; it is an ongoing creative act. When you first write something,
you have already been thinking about what to say and how to say it.

The process of writing has roughly four steps:

i. First step: Pre-writing - In this step, you choose a topic and collect ideas to explain the
topic.
ii. Second step: Organizing - The next step in the writing process is to organize the ideas
into a simple outline.
iii. The third step: Writing – In this step, write a rough draft, using your outline as a guide.
Write your rough draft as quickly as you can without stopping to think about grammar,
spelling,or punctuation. Just get your ideas down on paper.
iv. The final step: Polishing - In this step, you polish what you have written. This step is also
called revising and editing. Polishing is most successful if you do it in two steps. First,
attack the big issues of content and organization (revising). Then work on the smaller issues
of grammar, punctuation, and mechanics (editing).

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THE PURPOSE OF WRITING

There are numerous reasons why people write. People write to inform, to entertain, to persuade,
and to describe various things in their daily life. A business executive writes a memo to inform his
subordinates of changes in a business proposal. A teacher writes a story to entertain her students.
A newspaper columnist writes to persuade his readers of the benefits of a political change. A person
writes a friend to describe the fun he is having on a vacation. Students at universities are obligated
to write frequently in order to complete the course of their studies.

GOOD WRITING FEATURES

Good writing should have the following features:

1. Ideas that are interesting and important.
2. An organization that is logical and effective.
3. Conventions that are correct and communicative.
4. Word choice that is specific and memorable.
5. Sentence fluency that is smooth and expressive
6. Voice that is individual and appropriate

TYPES OF WRITING

There are two types of writing:

i. Factual writing: This deals with factual information or research based reports of some sort.

ii. Creative writing: This is based on imagination. But, this lecture series concentrates on factual

writing which is part and parcel of students’ academic life.

ESSAY WRITING

What is an essay?

An essay is generally a short piece of writing outlining the writer’s perspective or story. It is
often considered synonymous with a story or a paper or an article.

An essay is characterized by:

 Unity: Sentences should focus on one theme or topic with a definite purpose.
 Order: Logical organization of ideas or arguments.
 Brevity: Essay should not be too long. At least 300 words.
 Style: Formal style: No slang, colloquial terms or contractions.
 Language should be simple, direct and natural.
 Coherence. All sentences should be related to one another logically. It is attained by using
transitional markers: such as, and, also, like etc.
 Completeness: The subject of the essay should be adequately developed by providing details,
explanations, definitions, evidence, etc.
 Personal touch: An essay should reveal personal feelings or opinions of the writer. One has to
express his own views in an essay rather than just quoting other people’s ideas.

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 Use of citations and references: Proper citations and referencing.

TYPES OF ESSAY

The type of essay will depend on what the writer wants to convey to his reader. Therefore, there
are broadly four types of essays:

Narrative Essays
This is when the writer is narrating an incident or story through the essay.

Descriptive Essays
The writer may describe a place, an object, an event or maybe even a memory. But it is not just
plainly describing things. The writer must paint a picture through his/her words. One clever way
to do that is to evoke the senses of the reader.

Expository Essays
To write such an essay, the writer must have real and extensive knowledge about the subject.
There is no scope for the writer’s feelings or emotions in an expository essay. It is completely
based on facts, statistics, examples, e.t.c

Persuasive Essays
The purpose of the essay is to get the reader to writer’s side of the argument. A persuasive essay
is not just a presentation of facts but an attempt to convince the reader of the writer’s point of
view. Both sides of the argument have to present in these essays. But the ultimate aim is to
persuade the readers that the writer’s argument carries more weight.

PARTS OF AN ESSAY

1. Introduction

This is the first paragraph of your essay. This is where the writer introduces his topic for the very
first time. In this section the writer does the following activities: Defining terms, presenting
background information, indicating the organization of the essay and writing the thesis statement.

2. The Main Body

The body is the main part of your essays. It is the meat of your essay sandwiched between the
introduction and the conclusion. So the most vital and important content of the essay will be here.
Information is written in a systematic flow so that the reader can comprehend.

3. The conclusion

This is the last paragraph of the essay. Sometimes a conclusion will just mirror the introductory
paragraph but make sure the words and syntax are different. A conclusion is also a great place to
sum up a story or an argument. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw
together the points made in the main body. It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is
finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.

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Post writing stage

 Proof read the essay to identify areas of weaknesses.

 Edit the essay in order to have the correct version.
 Add more information if some sentences are not complete.
 Ensure that the bibliography is written in a correct format showing names of authors, years
of publication, titles, edition numbers, places of publication, names of publishers etc.

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a number of sentences grouped together and relating to one topic; or, a group of
related sentences that develop a single point. A paragraph contains one main point or theme.
Paragraph writing leads to essay writing.

It is a group of sentences which contains a single idea. A standard paragraph should have at least
a minimum of five sentences. Bailey (2003) says that paragraph is a collection of sentences that
deal with one subject.

Features of a good paragraph

i. It must present a single idea.

ii. It begins with a topic sentence, not a phrase or a word.
iii. It contains at least three supporting sentences.
iv. It should contain examples (if any).
v. It should have a closure sentence.

PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

1. Topic Sentence

 This is the first sentence and it expresses the main idea.

 It is the most important part of a paragraph.
 It identifies the main idea of the paragraph and impress the readers to read more.
 It helps to provide the general summary for your paragraph.
 It should be a declarative sentence.

2. Supporting Sentences

 Details that expand your main idea and should relate to topic sentence.
 They come after a topic sentence and make a body of a paragraph.
 They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph.
 When writing supporting sentences, you should give supporting facts, details, and
examples.
 It can be a single or more than a sentence.

3. Concluding Sentence

41
  Summarizing what has been said or drawing a logical conclusion from it.
 The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph.
 It is a sentence that closes a paragraph.
 It restates the main idea of the paragraph using different words.

Things to consider in writing a paragraph

i. Decide on a controlling point and create a topic sentence.

ii. Explain the controlling point after the topic sentence.
iii. Provide an example or examples.
iv. Close the paragraph with examples.

PARAGRAPH SAMPLE

Canada is one of the best countries in the world to live in. First, Canada has an excellent health
care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada
has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well‐trained teachers and are encouraged
to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed.
Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a
desirable place to live.

REFERENCING & CITATION SKILLS

Referencing has to do with documenting/ acknowledging others’ ideas/contributions on a topic

that one writes. Sometimes this is generally called citation (in-text citation and referencing)

Borrowing one’s ideas or words without proper acknowledgement, becomes an academic

dishonest commonly known as plagiarism.

Why do we cite or reference?

i. To document the contribution of other writers on the topic that one writes
ii. To tell readers where your information comes from
iii. To give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words or ideas.

How do we cite?

Citing can be done by:

i. Paraphrasing: use your own words to restate, reword, interpret, or translate the works of
other scholars, with a condition that the meaning and voice of the principle authors are
maintained.
ii. Quoting: reproducing the exact words of the author using quotation marks “” in case of a
word, a phrase, a sentence or indentation in case of two sentences or more.
iii. Summarising: rewriting the authors’ ideas in a digested form without adding your own
ideas.

Referencing Formats/Styles

42
APA = Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Mostly used in science
and social science fields.
Harvard Style = Mostly used in biological studies, humanities, social sciences and history.
Chicago Humanities = Mostly used in law, history, anthropology, and philosophy
MLA = Publication Manual of the Modern Language Association of America (Arts &
Humanities)
CMS = Chicago Manual of Style (History and Humanities)
CSE = Publication Manual of the Council of Science Editors (Life Sciences)

APA (THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION)

APA Style provides guidelines to help writers determine the appropriate level of citation and how
to avoid plagiarism. APA Style uses the author–date citation system, in which a brief in-text
citation directs readers to a full reference list entry. The in-text citation appears within the body of
the paper (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix) and briefly identifies the cited work by its
author and date of publication.

A. APA IN-TEXT CITATION

An APA in-text citation includes only three items: the last name(s) of the author(s), the year the
source was published, and sometimes the page or location of the information.

Mentioning the Author’s name and publication date in your sentence.

- In a 1993 study, Samwel Ebenezeri found out that supervisor motivation helped research
students reduce anxiety.

Mentioning the author’s last name at the beginning of your sentence.

- Magasila (1983) suggested that…..

- According to Magasila (1983, p.7), motivation is….

Author’s name or date of publication not mentioned in the sentence (parenthetical referencing)

- A former study (Kanyama, 1983) shows that ....

- …. this is what was formerly proposed in earlier research (Kanyama, 1983b).

If a source has two authors, cite both names every time

- Mabiki and Kikwala (1978) claim that……

- …… a claim put forward by modern sociologists (Mabiki & Kikwala, 1978).
- Some scientists (Mabiki & Kikwala, 1978) have claimed….

If a source has three authors or more, cite all of them the first time, and use et al. in subsequent
citations.

… this is called politicking (Mnenuka, Bwagalilo, & Haule, 2007).

43
…. this is called politicking (Mnenuka et al., 2007).

If the source has no date use n.d.

Maze (n.d.) claims that there is correlation between the size of the head and IQ

If the same information has more than one author, use semi colons and commas. (Authors to be
listed in alphabetical order).

…this is evident from various researches (Kayungi, 2004; Maliwa, 2005; Mkotani, 2007).

Citing from an indirect source – use the phrase as cited in.

Kibonde observed, “While growing square tomatoes may seem to be engineering ingenuity
……….” (as cited in Livingstone, 1992, p.45).

Direct quotations and paraphrases

When you can do both, paraphrasing is more acceptable (academic).

Nyerere (1966, p.3) once said, “The world is becoming too fragile; unlike glass please, handle
with prayer.”

B. REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY

APA references generally include information about the author (s), publication date (year), full
title of the source, and the URL or page range. Depending on the type of source, you may have to
include extra information that helps your reader locate the source.

APA publications and other publishers and institutions using APA Style generally require
reference lists, not bibliographies.

A reference (list) contains only sources you have cited in-text in your assignment, it contains
works that specifically support the ideas, claims, and concepts in your writing.

A bibliography is a list of all the sources you used to generate your ideas about the topic
including those cited in your assignment as well as those you did not cite.

General Guidelines of References

 Include only the sources you have cited, not everything you read.
 Entries are listed alphabetically by the last name of the author or by the first major word
of the title if no author is mentioned.
 Italicize the title of the book, journals, magazines, and newspapers.
 For more than one author, alphabetize by last name of the author whose name appears
first.

44
  For several sources by same author – list according to year of publication, the earliest
first.
 All run-on lines are indented ½” to the right.

Book by one author

Kothari, C. R. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd Edition). New Delhi:
Wishwa Prakashan.

Book by two authors

Kothari, C. R. and Kendall, B. (1991). Questionnaire Techniques. Madison: Sage Publishers.

Edited book

Onuya, I. S. (Ed.). (2005). Making Sense of Interviews. Dar es Salaam: DUP.

Book without an Author or Editor

Managing Strikes in Higher Education Institutions (1982). Dar es Salaam: DUP. (Ignore non-
content words)

Source without a date

Shapiro, T. (n.d.). Educational Research….

Chapter in a book

Sikawa, E. (1980). Giving the World a Face Lift. In Ngongi, W. (Ed.) Biodiversity. London:
Appleby, pp. 37-50.

Article in a Journal

Rubagumya, C. (2008). Second Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters, Vol.3, No.4, pp. 78-
89.

Dissertation/thesis

Zitto, K. (2007). Raping the Earth: Effects of Uncontrolled Mining in Tanzania. Unpublished
MA Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.

Newspaper Articles

Mruma, T. (2007, November 17). Financing Higher Education in Developing Countries. Daily
News (Tanzania’s Daily Newspaper), p.3.

SAMPLE REFERENCES

45
Ebest, S. B., Alred, G. J., Brusaw, C. T., and Oliu, W. E. (2004). Writing from A to Z: The Easy-
to-Use Reference Handbook (5th Edition). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Keene, M. L. and Adams, K. H. (2002). Easy Access: The Reference Handbook for Writers
(3rd Edition). Boston: McGraw Hill.

Maimon, E. P. & Yancey K. B. (2020). A Writer’s Resource: A Handbook for Writing and
Research (6th Edition). New York: McGraw Hill.

TOPIC 5: READING SKILLS

Introduction

Reading is a process of looking at the letters with a purpose of understanding the ideas represented
by those letters. Effective reading involves skills or strategies that will help you to benefit from
your reading while poor reading does not.
Reading skill refers to the ability to understand written text. It is advisable to develop this skill at
early age of schooling. When students comprehend or understand written text, and combine their
understanding with prior knowledge, they are able to perform the following three reading-
comprehension skills.
1. Identify simple facts presented in written text (literal comprehension)
2. Make judgments about the written text’s content (evaluative comprehension)
3. Connect the text to other written passages and situations (inferential comprehension)

5.1 Types of reading

There are two types of reading: active reading and passive reading.
(1) Active reading- this is the type of reading in which the reader is engaged with the reading
through performance of different actions that will help him or her to understand the text better and
remember the information better.
(2) Passive reading – reading without doing anything to assist the reader to understand and
remember the ideas in the text. In passive reading the reader could be falling asleep, texting or
watching TV while claiming to be reading.
In this course our focus is on the Active reading. Whenever you are reading for serious purposes
make sure you are participating or doing things such as making notes to help you understand what
you are reading to keep up your concentration.

5.2 Active Reading Techniques

46
Active reading is a process in which a person engages intellectually with the text he is reading. It
requires focusing on material by highlighting significant passages, making notes in the margins
and regularly asking questions related to the text. Individuals can test their reading comprehension
by summarizing what they have read every 30 minutes.
The following are six tips for active reading. They represent some of the techniques for effective
reading:
1. Underlining. Underline what you think are the most important parts of what you are reading.
2. Highlighting. Use different colours to highlight different aspects of what you’re reading.
3. Taking notes. This refers to noting key words and points. It is the writing of the main points
as you read your text, either writing within the text itself or on a paper or notebook. Use one
or two keywords or short sentences for each important point.
4. Making notes. Note making is an act of reviewing your notes and re-organizing them in a way
that makes sense to you, leading to more obvious connections between the points. It is about
making your own notes by expanding on the information you already have. Sometimes it
involves arranging information in the way suitable for your understanding, or perhaps
integrating information from the notes you took from a friend's exercise book and from a book
you read in order to get good notes for your own use. Note making comes after note taking.
5. Questioning. Before you start reading, prepare for your reading by noting down questions or
issues you want the material to provide information on. Also when reading, note down
questions which the author himself may raise.
6. Summarising. Writing a summary is an act of writing a short statement based on your
understanding of the original text and which is presented in your own words (without
presenting your own opinions).Remember to go over the text again and check the correctness
of your summary. If something important is missing then add it and if something you wrote
seems to be wrong, correct it. Summarizing in written form also tries to keep the structure (or
skeleton) of the original text intact so that the ideas do not get mixed up.
Those techniques can be summarized into two major techniques or strategies for reading which
are scannining and skimming.

5.3 SCANNING AND SKIMMING AS READING STRATEGIES

Scanning and skimming are two distinct reading strategies that individuals use to quickly gather
information from written texts, such as books, articles, or documents. These strategies are
especially useful when you need to locate specific details or get an overview of the content without
reading every word.

Scanning

Is a reading technique that involves quickly looking through a text to find specific information or
key-word. When you scan a document, you have a specific search in mind, such as name, date,
number, or specific term. It is a reading strategy used when you have a clear and specific objective,
like finding a particular fact, figure, or piece of information in a text. It involves quickly locating

47
and extracting that information while ignoring most of the surrounding content. The primary
purpose of scanning is to locate this particular information efficiently.

How do we scan?

When you doing scanning consider the following: -

1. Identify the specific information you are searching for.

2. Focus your attention on that information while moving your eyes rapidly across the text.
3. Pay little attention to the surrounding text or details that are not related to your search target.
4. Use techniques like visual cues, formatting (e.g. bold or italicized text), or headings to help
you quickly identify the relevant information.
5. Once you find the specific details you were looking for, you can stop scanning and focus on
that part for further examination.

Skimming:

Is a reading strategy often referring to the way in which one reads at a faster rate to gain the general
idea about the text without paying attention to the detailed meaning of the text.

We use skimming technique when we are looking only for the general or main ideas, and works
best with non-fiction (factual) materials. Here you can read more in less time, and your overall
understanding is reduced because you do not read everything.

- Skimming is used to understand the overall structure and organization of the text.

-It is the act of glancing through a text for gathering a basic idea about that text.

For example; If you want to read an interesting article on the newspaper and you do not have
enough time to read more than one article, you will skim through most of the article to decide
exactly which article you want to read.

Both strategies are valuable for efficient information retrieval, and the choice between them
depends on your reading goals.

Differences between Scanning and skimming

1. Purpose

 Scanning: the primary goal is to find specific information or answers to targeted

questions.
 Skimming: Is used to get general sense of the content, understand the main ideas, or
decide whether the text is worth reading in-depth.

2. Speed

 Scanning: Is generally faster and more focused than skimming because you have a
specific search target.

48
  Skimming: Involves a more leisure pace as the objective is to get an overview rather
than to pinpoint specific details.

3. Focus

 Scanning: Involves a narrow and focused attention on the specific keywords or

information you are looking for.
 Skimming: Is broader in focus with an emphasis on grasping the main ideas, headings,
and key points of the text.

4. Context:

 Scanning: here you may not pay much attention to the context of the information you
find, the focus is on isolated details.
 Skimming: considers the content’s context and structure to understand the overall
flow and organization.

Practical Advice (Techniques) On How to Read for a Comprehension Exercise

Here are simple steps that can help you to read a passage and answer questions more effectively.
These steps simply involve reading the passage and the questions twice alternatively (R-PQPQ)
as follows:
(1) Read the passage to get the general idea of that passage
(2) Read the questions to get the idea of the nature of the questions
(3) Read the passage again carefully trying to sense the answers to the questions you have just
read.
(4) Read the questions again while providing the answers from the passage

TOPIC 6: LISTENING SKILLS

Good listening needs learning and practice. By listening carefully to your fellow workers, leaders
and customers you can maximize your business performance.
To begin with, you need to differentiate between listening (receiving information through your
ears intentionally) and hearing (receiving information through your ears unintentionally provided
your ears are functioning properly). Our interest in this course is on developing listening skills.
6.2 Types of listening
There are two types of listening, namely, active listening and passive listening.
Active Listening: This refers to an attempt to receive sound waves into our ears with a purpose
of doing a specific task (such as following certain instructions, giving specific information,
taking notes, etc).

49
 Passive listening: This refers to the intentional receiving of sounds but without the purpose of
responding to the information in it. In passive listening it is common for our mind to drift away
from the topic of discussion from time to time because we are doing nothing about the message
we are receiving. Passive listening is closely associated with hearing. Common examples of
passive listening involve listening to a lecture, or TV or radio without doing anything that will
help you to understand the information better and remember it.

Differences between listening and hearing

ACTIVE LISTENING HEARING/PASSIVE LISTENING

1. You do something about the information 1. You do nothing about the information
received. received.
2. It involves effort to understand the 2. It does not involve any effort to
message. understand the message.

3. It is a skill which we have to learn and 3. It is an unlearned process

practice.
4. It implies a need to use the message. 4. It has no need of using the message.

6.3 The five steps in Active Listening Process

To listen effectively, you need to successfully complete five separate steps:
1. Receiving (acknowledging getting the message)
2. Decoding (assigning meaning to sounds)
3. Remembering (storing the message for future processing)
4. Evaluating (applying critical thinking skills to the message)
5. Responding (reacting to the message)
6.4 Qualities of Good Listening and Passive /Poor Listening
Active listening is often referred to as a “soft skill,” as it can promote successful conversations in
many contexts – at work, with family, and in social situations. Active (good) listening and
passive (poor) listening have opposing characteristics which in a way show their advantages and
disadvantages as shown in the table below:
ACTIVE LISTENING PASSIVE LISTENING
1. It helps to obtain correct and complete 1. It is likely to pick inaccurate and
information easily. incomplete information.
2. It helps to understand root causes of 2. It fails to understand the root cause of an
issues. issue.
3. It builds good relations between 3. It discourages the speaker and destroys
communicators. relations.

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6.4 How to improve our Active listening Skills
To increase your active listening skills and become a good listener, the following guidelines can
prove helpful:
 Concentrate mentally on what the person is saying
 Repeat the key ideas of the speaker to yourself
 Relate the speakers points to your environment and experience
 Maintain good eye contact–look at the speaker and put down any distracters like
newspapers, etc
 Sit and act attentively - raise your eyebrows, nod your head in agreement, smile or laugh
when appropriate
 Do not interrupt when the speaker is talking – allow the person to express one’s thoughts
completely before giving your views
 Control your emotions as you listen – if the speaker is angry do not add on top of this
anger
 Show your interest practically by asking well phrased questions and paraphrasing what
the person is speaking.
 e.g “Did you say the supervisor insulted you in front of the customers..?”

6.4 Barriers to the effective listening

Great listening skills are a key part of learning and functioning in the workplace. Hearing the
information, absorbing it, and comprehending it correctly can make a huge difference in work.
Many studies suggest that even the smallest improvements in a person’s listening ability can have
a noticeable impact on the overall effectiveness of communication and productivity.
Effective listening occurs when there is a high degree of correspondence between the sender’s
original message and the listener’s recreation of that message. Communication is a two-way street,
but it is up to the listener to make sure they are receiving the information accurately.
Listening well is essential for nearly all work areas. These skills are crucial in teamwork, problem
solving, decision making, managing, supervising, negotiating, customer service, and sales.
Listening Barriers
Unfortunately, effective listening can be held back by barriers. These barriers to listening can be
grouped into two major categories: external and internal.
External Listening Barriers

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External listening barriers are easier to manage than internal barriers. They include a variety of
environmental distractions that can usually be avoided or minimized with simple corrections, like
removing yourself from the interfering barrier or removing the issue from the area that you are in.
External barriers include:
 Noise. Any external noise can be a barrier, like the sound of equipment running, phones
ringing, or other people having conversations.
 Visual distractions. Visual distractions can be as simple as the scene outside a window or
the goings-on just beyond the glass walls of a nearby office.
 Physical setting. An uncomfortable temperature, poor or nonexistent seating, bad odors, or
distance between the listener and speaker can be an issue.
 Objects. Items like pocket change, pens, and jewelry are often fidgeted with while listening.
 The person speaking. The person listening may become distracted by the other person’s
personal appearance, mannerisms, voice, or gestures.
Internal Listening Barriers
Internal listening barriers are more difficult to manage, as they reside inside the mind of the
listener. Internal barriers’ elimination relies on a high level of self-awareness and discipline on the
part of the listener, like catching oneself before the mind starts to wander and bringing full attention
back to the speaker. Internal barriers include:
 Anxiety. Anxiety can take place from competing personal worries and concerns.
 Self-centeredness. This causes the listener to focus on his or her own thoughts rather than the
speaker’s words.
 Mental laziness. Laziness creates an unwillingness to listen to complex or detailed
information.
 Boredom. Boredom stems from a lack of interest in the speaker’s subject matter.
 Sense of superiority. This leads the listener to believe they have nothing to learn from the
speaker.
 Cognitive dissonance. The listener hears only what he or she expects or molds the speaker’s
message to conform with their own beliefs.
 Impatience. A listener can become impatient with a speaker who talks slowly or draws out the
message.
Working through these barriers are crucial for better listening. If a listener can remove these
barriers, they will find that they can gain better understanding of the tasks at hand, communicate
more effectively, and achieve greater success in the workplace.

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6.5 How to overcome listening barriers
In order to overcome listening barriers at working place we need to do the following:
1. Minimize distractions
To avoid getting distracted, make sure you are physically facing the speaker and attempt to make
frequent eye contact with them while they are speaking. Make sure you are seated or standing
comfortably but appropriately so you can remain engaged. Put away your cell phone or any other
pieces of technology that could become a distraction. The speaker may also appreciate the gesture
you’ve made to show them that they have your undivided attention.
2. Prioritize listening over speaking
If you think you might be an excessive talker, try to practice self-control in conversation. Give the
other person room to speak. During any conversation with a coworker, wait until they’re finished
speaking before you respond to show respect for what they’re saying. Finally, observe your
listeners’ reactions as you talk. If you notice signs of distraction in someone you are speaking with,
consider asking questions to encourage them to talk more and direct their focus back on the
conversation.
3. Reduce outside noise
Before having a conversation, minimize sound in your environment that could be distracting or
make it more challenging to hear. A noisy environment can create distractions for both listeners
and speakers, resulting in possible disruptions to conversations.
To minimize noise, turn off mobile devices or place them on silent. Plan to hold important
conversations in a place that you know will be quiet, like your office or a private meeting area. If
someone is talking loudly outside your office or making other distracting noises, it is often better
to politely ask them to move elsewhere or keep the noise down.
4. Practice reflecting instead of deflecting
To bond with your conversation partner or show them you’re engaged, you may feel eager to share
your personal experiences when listening. However, a better approach typically involves merely
listening and providing responses that focus on the other person’s situation. This shows that you’re
genuinely invested in their side of the conversation.
To listen effectively, keep deflecting to a minimum and try reflecting instead. Reflecting involves
paraphrasing back to the speaker what they have said. To do so, you could use language like,
“What I am hearing from you is...” or “It sounds frustrating that that happened to you.” Reflecting
could also involve asking a follow-up question based on what you have heard, such as “What did
you do after he said that?” or “How did that make you feel?”
Reflecting assures your listener that you are paying close attention, but it can also help to correct
any possible misunderstandings. Reflecting allows the other person to correct what you may have
misheard.

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5. Ask questions
In addition to reflecting, asking questions is an effective listening technique. Focus on asking
questions based on what the speaker has already told you and are designed to elicit more
information. The best questions are nonjudgmental and flow directly from something the speaker
has recently said.
6. Listen fully before giving advice
It can sometimes be tempting to offer advice after someone shares a problem or concern with you,
especially if you want to help them solve that problem. However, it's a good idea to wait to advise
someone unless they specifically ask for it. Sometimes people share their concerns in the
workplace simply to build bonds with colleagues or to make a coworker aware of a problem.
Sharing issues can be a way to start introducing conversations deeper than small talk.
If you want to share advice, think first about whether your colleague is truly soliciting advice or
just looking for a way to vent. Instead of advising, consider offering empathy with responses such
as, “That sounds frustrating,” or try reflecting instead.

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