Management Research Methods 2.

2
MODULE 1 BUSINESS RESEARCH
MEANING, OBJECTIVES, PURPOSE, TYPES, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information on all the

areas of business and using such information to maximize the sales and
profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which
product/service is most profitable or in demand. In simple words, it can be
stated as the acquisition of information or knowledge for profe
 Management Research Methods 2.2
MODULE 1 BUSINESS RESEARCH
MEANING, OBJECTIVES, PURPOSE, TYPES, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information on

areas of business and using such information to maximize the sales and
profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which
product/service is most profitable or in demand. In simple words, it can be
stated as the acquisition of information or knowledge for professional or
commercial purposes to determine opportunities and goals for a business.
For example: A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the
market. But they are not aware of what are the dimensions of a mobile that
are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts business research
using various methods to gather information, and the same is then
evaluated, and conclusions are drawn as to what dimensions are most in
demand.
Factors that marketers need to consider before conducting market research. Some
of them are:
 Customers and market competition
 Awareness and image of the product
 Usage of the product
 Undiagnosed issues with the product
 Customers need and demand for new product development
 Business research methods refer to the systematic process of collecting,
analysing, interpreting, and converting data into actionable insights. These
insights can help drive informed decision-making within an organisation.

Purpose of Business Research

The purpose of business research is to evaluate performance against industry
benchmarks. This helps companies identify areas for improvement and stay
 ssional or commercial purposes to determine opportunities and goals for a
business.
For example: A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the
market. But they are not aware of what are the dimensions of a mobile that
are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts business research
using various methods to gather information, and the same is then
evaluated, and conclusions are drawn as to what dimensions are most in
demand.
Factors that marketers need to consider before conducting market research. Some
of them are:
 Customers and market competition
 Awareness and image of the product
 Usage of the product
 Undiagnosed issues with the product
 Customers need and demand for new product development
 Business research methods refer to the systematic process of collecting,
analysing, interpreting, and converting data into actionable insights. These
insights can help drive informed decision-making within an organisation.

Purpose of Business Research

The purpose of business research is to evaluate performance against industry
benchmarks. This helps companies identify areas for improvement and stay
competitive.

Market expansion becomes more calculated with insights garnered through

research.

Efficiency gains translate into cost reductions and improved productivity.

The primary objective of business research is to support firms' decision-making

processes. It aims to provide facts grounded in data rather than assumptions or
guesswork.

Types of Business Research Methods

To get a deeper understanding of business research

methodology, we must look at the various research
methods.
There are two primary methods of business research:
quantitative and qualitative research. Each method
approaches data collection and analysis differently,
resulting in a diverse set of data from within an
organisation.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses numbers and statistics to

understand trends and correlations, providing
measurable metrics for decision-making.

 Surveys: Gathering structured responses from a

large sample to draw statistical inferences.
 Correlational Research: Studying the
relationship between two variables to identify
patterns.
 Causal-Comparative Research: Exploring
cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
 Experimental Research: Conducting controlled
experiments to test hypotheses.
 Literature Research: Reviewing existing
literature and data to conclude.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research delves into nonnumerical data like

experiences and emotions, adding depth and context
to numerical findings for a comprehensive
understanding.

 Interviews: Engaging in in-depth discussions with

individuals to capture nuanced insights.
 Focus Groups: Facilitating group discussions to
delve into perceptions and opinions.
  Ethnographic Research: Immersing participants
in the natural environment to understand their
behaviours.
 Case Studies: Analysing specific cases or
scenarios in detail to derive insights.
 Website Visitor Research: Monitoring online
user behaviour and interactions for qualitative
feedback.

Mixed Methods

While quantitative research provides statistical data

for decision-making, qualitative methods offer
contextual insights that add depth to the analysis.

 Combining both approaches can simplify

comprehending intricate issues by cross-
referencing findings from various sources.
 This synergy ensures a more robust and nuanced
approach towards addressing business challenges.

Process of Business Research:-

Identify the Problem

Clearly define the issue or opportunity that the

research aims to address.

Review Existing Literature

Conduct a thorough review of relevant sources to

understand previous findings and perspectives.

Choose the Research Design

Select the appropriate research design based on the
nature of the problem and available resources.

Collect Data

Gather data using various methods such as surveys,

interviews, observations, or experiments.

Analyse Data

Process and interpret the collected data to derive

meaningful insights.

Draw Conclusions

Summarise the findings and draw actionable

conclusions based on the analysis.

Report Results

Communicate the research findings clearly and

concisely through reports or presentations.

Need for Business Research

The concept of business research is key to battling the

uncertainties that businesses face daily.

By examining how it impacts firms' growth trajectory,

we can gain a clearer understanding of business
research methods.

Informed Decisions
Business research methodologies reveal customer needs, preferences, and
purchasing behaviour.

Performance Evaluation
Comparing performance to industry standards identifies strengths and areas for
improvement.
Market Expansion
Business research methodology plays a pivotal role in market expansion strategies.
Research insights can support the confident exploration of new markets.

Efficiency and Cost Reduction

Streamlining operations based on research optimises resources and reduces costs.

Examples of Business Research

Example 1
A company specialising in energy drinks wants to expand into an older
demographic. Through focused business research, including focus groups
and competitor analysis, they can effectively gain insights to plan for this new market
segment.

Example 2
A clothing store's online platform aims to improve user experience.

Here, business research methodologies can be used to revamp an online presence

and boost customer satisfaction. Website visitor research, feedback collection, and
usability testing can help identify areas for enhancement.

Scope and significance of research in business and

industry

Benefits of Business Research

By understanding market trends, customer behavior, and other critical
factors, businesses can make better decisions, optimize their strategies,
and achieve their goals. Here are some major benefits of business research:

Informed Decision Making: Business research provides accurate and

reliable data, enabling managers to make well-informed decisions.

Market Understanding: It helps businesses understand market

dynamics, customer preferences, and emerging trends.

Risk Reduction: By identifying potential risks and challenges, business

research allows companies to take proactive measures.

Competitive Advantage: Businesses can gain a competitive edge by

understanding their competitors’ strengths and weaknesses.
Strategic Planning: Research insights help in formulating effective
strategies and long-term plans.

Scope and significance of research in business and

industry:

Scope of Business Research

The scope of research is vast and includes various aspects of a business.
It can be broadly categorized into the following areas:
Market Research: Market research involves collecting and analyzing
data about market conditions, customer preferences, and buying
behaviors. It helps businesses identify new market opportunities, understand
customer needs, and develop effective marketing strategies.

Product Research: Product research focuses on evaluating the

feasibility, design, and performance of new products or services. It
involves testing product concepts, assessing market demand, and
gathering customer feedback.

Financial Research: Financial research involves analyzing financial data

to evaluate the financial health of a business. It includes budgeting,
forecasting, and financial planning to ensure the company’s profitability
and sustainability.

Consumer Research: Consumer research aims to understand consumer

behavior, preferences, and satisfaction levels. It helps businesses tailor
their products and services to meet customer expectations.

Competitive Analysis: Competitive analysis involves studying

competitors to understand their strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. It
helps businesses develop strategies to gain a competitive advantage.

Operational Research: Operational research focuses on improving

business processes and operations. It involves analyzing workflows,
identifying inefficiencies, and implementing solutions to enhance
productivity.

Business Research Methodology

The business research methodology involves a systematic process that
includes several key steps:

Problem Identification: The first step in business research is identifying

the problem or issue that needs to be addressed. This involves defining
the research objectives and determining the scope of the study.

Research Design: In this step, researchers develop a plan or framework

for conducting the research. This includes selecting the research method
(qualitative or quantitative), determining the sample size, and choosing
data collection techniques.

Data Collection: Data collection involves gathering relevant information

from various sources. This can be done through surveys, interviews, focus
groups, observation, and secondary data sources such as company
records and industry reports.
 Data Analysis: Once the data is collected, it is analyzed using statistical
tools and techniques.: This step involves organizing the data, identifying
patterns, and interpreting the results.

Reporting and Presentation: The final step is presenting the research

findings in a clear and concise manner. This includes preparing reports,
charts, and presentations that summarize the key insights and recommendations.

CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH, ETHICS IN RESEARCH.

Clarity and Preciseness

Good research begins with clear objectives and research questions. It’s
imperative to articulate what the research intends to achieve and what it
seeks to explore.
Specific Objectives
 Define the goals of your research.
 Ensure they are clear, focused, and attainable.
Well-Formulated Research Question
 Craft a question that guides your research path.
 It should be precise and manageable in scope.
2. Relevance and Significance
Research must contribute value to its field. It should address a gap in
knowledge or solve a specific problem.
Identifying the Gap
 Understand what has already been studied.
 Identify areas that require further exploration.
Impact of Research
 Evaluate how your research contributes to the field.
 Consider its practical applications and theoretical implications.
3. Methodological Rigor
 The methodology is the blueprint of your research. It should be systematic,
appropriate, and reproducible.
Appropriate Method Selection
 Choose methods suited to your research question and objectives.
 Justify your methodological choices.
Reproducibility
 Ensure that others can replicate your study.
 This enhances the reliability and validity of your results.
4. Ethical Considerations
Research must be conducted with integrity and respect for ethical norms.
Informed Consent
 Obtain consent from participants, ensuring they are well-informed about the
research.
 Respect their privacy and confidentiality.
Avoiding Bias
 Recognize and mitigate potential biases in your study.
 Strive for objectivity and fairness.
5. Logical Structure and Coherence
A well-structured research flows logically from one point to another.
Consistent Argumentation
 Present your arguments and findings coherently.
 Ensure each section logically leads to the next.
Clear and Concise Presentation
 Communicate your findings effectively.
 Use language that is accessible and clear.
6. Comprehensive Data Analysis
The interpretation of data should be thorough and accurate.
Rigorous Data Analysis
 Employ appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods.
 Interpret your data in a way that answers your research question.
 Critical Evaluation
 Assess the strengths and weaknesses of your findings.
 Discuss the implications and limitations of your research.
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In
addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work
and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is
due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them
to make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

RESEARCH PROCESS-STEPS IN RESEARCH

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a
researcher must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be
considered valuable by the project and focus on the relevant topic.

To conduct effective research, you must understand the research process

steps and follow them. Here are a few steps in the research process to
make it easier for you:
Step 1: Identify the Problem
Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-
defined research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the
research process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There
are a number of approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better
understanding of it. Such as:

 A preliminary survey
 Case studies
 Interviews with a small group of people
 Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research
process. It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the
problem. Once a problem has been found, the investigator or researcher
needs to find out more about it.

This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator

about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions.
The researcher can build consistency between his work and others through
a literature review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more
significant body of knowledge and helps him follow the research process
efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing
down the research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships
between variables. In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must
have a certain amount of expertise in the field.

It is important for researchers to keep in mind while formulating a

hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers are
able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives
when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering
research questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal
is to design research to test hypotheses, address the research questions,
and provide decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required
to acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

 Exploration and Surveys

 Experiment
 Data Analysis
 Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or
how technology is used in the business. In research, the term population
refers to this study group. The research topic and purpose help determine
the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the

community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group,
males or females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in
a study’s design is to specify its sample or population so that the results
may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information
required to answer the research issue. Every research collected data,
either from the literature or the people being studied. Data must be
collected from the two categories of researchers. These sources may
provide primary data.

 Experiment
 Questionnaire
 Observation
 Interview

Secondary data categories are:

 Literature survey
 Official, unofficial reports
 An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting
data, the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the
approach in this step. The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages, such as setting

up categories, applying these categories to raw data through coding and
tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can
examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report
detailing his findings. The report must be carefully composed with the
following in mind:


o The Layout: On the first page, the title, date,
acknowledgments, and preface should be on the report. A table
 of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and
charts if any.

 Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods.

This section should include the study’s scope and limits.


o Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings
and recommendations will follow the introduction. The findings
should be summarized if they’re lengthy.

 Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense
and be broken up into sections that are easy to understand.

 Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of

the main text. It’s the final result.

RESEARCH GAP:

A research gap refers to a research question or area that has not been
sufficiently addressed or answered in previous studies. It is an area where
further research is needed to advance the current knowledge and
understanding of a particular topic. Identifying research gaps in
the literature review is important as it helps establish a study’s relevance and
significance and can lead to the development of new research questions
and hypotheses.

A research gap signifies an unexplored terrain within existing knowledge,

spotlighting an area lacking comprehensive investigation. Imagine, in
medical research, a void in understanding the long-term effects of a newly
developed treatment.

Good research gap

A good research gap is a specific area of knowledge or a problem that has

not been adequately addressed or explored in the existing literature. Here
are 10 points that are typically considered mandatory in a good research
gap:

1. Relevance: The quantitative research gap example should be relevant to

the field of study and have practical significance.
2. Novelty: It should identify a new, unexplored area of research or a new
angle for examining an existing research topic.
3. Significance: The gap should be significant enough to warrant further
investigation and have the potential to contribute to the existing body of
knowledge.
4. Feasibility: The research question should be feasible and realistic, taking
into account factors such as time, resources, and available data.
5. Clarity: The gap should be clearly defined, not too broad or too narrow.
6. Specificity: The gap should be specific enough to allow for targeted
research.
7. Timeliness: The research question should be relevant to current issues or
concerns in the field.
 8. Originality: The gap should be original and not simply a replication of
previous research.
9. Researchable: The gap should be researchable, meaning that data can
be collected and analyzed to answer the research question.
10.Importance: The research gap should be important enough to justify the
time and resources required to conduct the research.

Poor research gap

“Poor research gap” refers to a situation where there is either no research

gap identified in the existing literature or the identified research gap is
not significant enough to contribute to the field of study. It means that the
proposed research would not add any value to the existing knowledge
base or research in the field.

Here are some examples of poor research gaps:

 “There is a lack of research on the effects of social media.”

This research gap is too broad and does not identify a specific research
question or problem. It does not provide any direction for the research.
  “No one has looked at this specific topic before.”

This research gap is not valid as it is unlikely that no one has ever looked
at the topic before. It is also too broad and does not provide any direction
for the research.

 “The literature review is inconclusive.”

This research gap does not identify a specific problem or research

question. It also does not provide any direction for the research.

 “There is no research on this topic in my country.”

This research gap is too narrow and does not consider research conducted
in other countries. It also does not provide any direction for the research.

 “The existing research is outdated.”

This research gap does not identify a specific problem or research

question. It also does not provide any direction for the research.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

A research problem statement is a clear, concise, and specific
statement that describes the issue or problem that the research
project addresses. It should be written in a way that is easily
understandable to both experts and non-experts in the field.

To write a research problem statement, you should:

 Identify the general area of interest: Start by identifying the

general area of research that interests you.
 Define the specific problem: Narrow down the general area
of interest to a specific problem or issue.
 Explain the significance of the problem: Provide context for
the problem by explaining why it is important to study and
what gap in current knowledge or understanding it fills.
 Provide a clear and concise statement: State the problem in
a clear and concise manner, making sure to use language
that is easily understood by your intended audience.
 Use a scientific and objective tone: The problem statement
should be written in a neutral and objective tone, avoiding
any subjective language and personal bias.

An Example of a Research Problem Statement

“The increasing prevalence of obesity in children is a growing
public health concern. Despite the availability of information on
healthy eating and physical activity, many children are still not
engaging in healthy lifestyle behaviors. The problem this study
addresses is the lack of understanding of the barriers and
facilitators to healthy lifestyle behaviors in children.”

Write a Problem Statement in

Research
A research problem statement should be written at the beginning
of the research process, before any data collection or analysis
takes place. This is because the statement sets the foundation for
the entire research project by clearly defining the problem that
the research is trying to address.

VARIABLES –MEANING AND TYPES.

A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured

or counted. A variable may also be called a data item. Age, sex, business
income and expenses, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades,
eye colour and vehicle type are examples of variables. It is called a
variable because the value may vary between data units in a population,
and may change in value over time.

For example; 'income' is a variable that can vary between data units in a
population (i.e. the people or businesses being studied may not have the
same incomes) and can also vary over time for each data unit (i.e. income
can go up or down).

Types of variables
There are different ways variables can be described according to the ways
they can be studied, measured, and presented.

Numeric variables

Numeric variables have values that describe a measurable quantity as a

number, like 'how many' or 'how much'. Therefore numeric variables are
quantitative variables.

Numeric variables may be further described as either continuous or

discrete:
  A continuous variable is a numeric variable. Observations can take
any value between a certain set of real numbers. The value given to
an observation for a continuous variable can include values as small
as the instrument of measurement allows. Examples of continuous
variables include height, time, age, and temperature.
 A discrete variable is a numeric variable. Observations can take a
value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values. A
discrete variable cannot take the value of a fraction between one
value and the next closest value. Examples of discrete variables
include the number of registered cars, number of business locations,
and number of children in a family, all of of which measured as
whole units (i.e. 1, 2, 3 cars).

The data collected for a numeric variable are quantitative data.

Categorical variables

Categorical variables have values that describe a 'quality' or

'characteristic' of a data unit, like 'what type' or 'which
category'. Categorical variables fall into mutually exclusive (in one
category or in another) and exhaustive (include all possible options)
categories. Therefore, categorical variables are qualitative variables and
tend to be represented by a non-numeric value.

Categorical variables may be further described as ordinal or nominal:

 An ordinal variable is a categorical variable. Observations can take a

value that can be logically ordered or ranked. The categories
associated with ordinal variables can be ranked higher or lower than
another, but do not necessarily establish a numeric difference
between each category. Examples of ordinal categorical variables
include academic grades (i.e. A, B, C), clothing size (i.e. small,
medium, large, extra large) and attitudes (i.e. strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree).
 A nominal variable is a categorical variable. Observations can take a
value that is not able to be organised in a logical
sequence. Examples of nominal categorical variables include sex,
business type, eye colour, religion and brand.

The data collected for a categorical variable are qualitative data.

Types of variables flowchart

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for
developing the arguments you will use in your own work.

Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make
predictions. In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories that support your research,
showing that your paper or dissertation topic is relevant and grounded in established ideas.

In other words, your theoretical framework justifies and contextualizes your later research, and it’s a
crucial first step for your research paper, thesis, or dissertation. A well-rounded theoretical
framework sets you up for success later on in your research and writing process.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

Developing research questions is a key step of a research process because it enables

writers to understand the research topic quickly. Understanding the factors that comprise a
successful research question can help you collect insightful information that positively
influences your research.

Research question examples are sample questions you can reference to help you prepare
your own inquiries. A research question is an inquiry into a specific concern or relevant
issue. This question typically addresses something that a researcher aims to understand
through analysis and data interpretation upon completing the project. It helps form the
interrogation point of research and set a structure and timeline for the project. It can also
determine the methodology and hypothesis of a research paper.Here are the characteristics
of a research question:
  Focused: The question is often narrow in scope to ensure that the
researcher's methods and inquiry are specific. This also helps to
ensure that the project has an attainable goal established at the
outset.
 Clear: It provides enough detail for both researchers and those
reading the results of the study later to understand its purpose.
 Relevant: Researchers often choose topics that relate to public
interest and their own industry.
 Complex: Rather than a simple answer, a research question of
sufficient complexity requires a thorough investigation and analysis
which yields new information.
 Novel: Researchers create these questions to gain new insights on a
specific topic.
 Interesting: Research questions often border on an interesting topic
that can make a writer review it.
 Ethical: These questions usually follow consent rules that authorities
can approve.

What's the importance of a research question?

Research questions help establish the stages of a study that are to follow, such as inquiry,
analysis, and reporting. Writing a research question enables researchers to determine the
type of research they wish to perform. A researcher can identify the project's specific
objectives with these questions. Research questions aim to create new scientific knowledge
and interpret existing theories.

Types of research questions

Researchers typically classify research questions into two categories, depending on the type
of research they want to perform. The following are the types of research questions you can
use for a study:

Quantitative research questions

Researchers use quantitative research questions to gather quantifiable data. Quantitative

research is direct and specific because it aims at collecting information that researchers can
measure. This research question often involves population study and dependent and
independent variables. Types of quantitative research questions include:

 Descriptive research questions: These questions gather

quantifiable data about the characteristics and attributes of research
subjects. Descriptive research questions often begin with "what."
 Relationship research questions: Researchers design these
questions to define trends and interactions between two or more
 variables. They often include dependent and independent variables
and use words such as trends or associations.
 Comparative research questions: These questions aim to discover
the differences between various research subjects across different
variables. Market research surveys often use these questions to
provide insight into how a product or service matches its competitors.

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions gather non-statistical information relating to research

subjects' experiences, perceptions, and observations. They're more flexible, adaptable, and
non-directional than quantitative questions. Studies using these questions often aim to
explore, discover, explain, and clarify. Categories of qualitative research include:

 Contextual research questions: These questions seek to identify

and describe existing conditions.
 Evaluation research questions: These questions assess the
effectiveness of existing protocols, methods, procedures, or theories.
 Explanatory research questions: Researchers use these questions
to analyze the reason a relationship exists between research
subjects.
 Generative research questions: These questions aim to provide
new ideas for developing new theories.
 Exploratory research questions: These questions seek answers to
the unknown aspect of a particular topic.

Research question examples

The following are research question samples you can use as an inspiration to prepare your
own:

Example 1

Here's a research question example for a new shaving razor product:Clear: What are the
long-term effects of using shaving creams instead of regular shaving razors on the body?
Unclear: What effect do shaving creams have on the body?The first question is specific,
and it defines the concept more clearly. The unclear version of this question doesn't specify
what type of harm shaving creams can cause. Asking a clear research question helps you
establish the effects and the individuals who may be experiencing those effects. It's also
researchable through quantitative and qualitative data collection.

Example 2

Here's a research question example for a childbirth report:Clear: How have family planning
programs and parental education levels affected the rate of childbirth among 25 to 30-year-
old adults?
Unclear: Has there been an increase in the childbirth rate in Canada for the past 12 years?
The unclear version of this question does not require complex inquiry, and suggests that the
answer is a simple "yes" or "no." Meanwhile, the first question is appropriately complex and
requires a significant evaluation or investigation from the writer. It's also open for debate
rather than accepted facts. Researchers can collect data, perform analysis, and form
arguments that may lead to a further discussion using the first question.

Example 3

Here's a research question sample for a social media study:Clear: What effect does
receiving "likes" on video-sharing platforms have on the self-esteem of children under the
age of 15?Unclear: How does social media exposure affect children?The first question uses
specific terms and parameters to define the scope of the study. The unclear version does
not clearly define the terms of its inquiry, such as what exposure means in this context. It
doesn't define what aspect of social media is the focus of the study, such as followers, likes,
comments, or the time children spend on social media. There's also no way writers can
determine what effect means in this context. For example, Does social media affect children
emotionally or physically?

Example 4

Here's a research question sample for a demographic study:Clear: What are the differences
and similarities in the experience of recent Italians, Belgians, and Spanish in France?
Unclear: What are the major immigrant groups in France?The first question is a complex
comparative one that requires a detailed discussion and data collection for writers to answer.
The second question is simple and unfocused. Writers can easily search for it online without
performing in-depth research. They can also give general answers to the question.

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE LOGIC

A research approach is a procedure selected by a researcher to collect,
analyze, and interpret data. Based on the methods of data
collection and data analysis, research approach methods are of
three types: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods.
However, considering the general plan and procedure for
conducting a study, the research approach is divided into three
categories:

1. Inductive Approach
The inductive approach begins with a researcher collecting data
that is relevant to the research study. Post-data collection, a
researcher will analyze this data broadly, looking for patterns in
the data to develop a theory that could explain the patterns.
Therefore, an inductive approach starts with a set of observations
and then moves toward developing a theory.
2. Deductive Approach
The deductive approach is the reverse of the inductive approach.
It always starts with a theory, such as one or more general
statements or premises, and reaches a logical conclusion.
Scientists use this type of reasoning approach to prove thei r research
hypothesis.

Inductive Vs Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning, also called Deductive reasoning is the
induction, constructs or evaluates process of reasoning from
general prepositions derived from general statements to reach a
specific examples logical conclusion

Arguments in deductive
Arguments in inductive reasoning
reasoning are valid or invalid.
are strong or weak.
· If the logic is correct, then
· Strong arguments are
the argument is valid.
cogent if the premise is true.
· If there is no theory, then
· Weak arguments are
deductive reasoning cannot be
uncogent.
conducted.
Conclusions may be incorrect
Conclusions could be proven
even with strong arguments and
valid if the premises are true.
true premises.

Example of Inductive Reasoning:

Example of Deductive Reasoning:
Most men are right-handed. John
All men are mortal. John is a man.
is a man. Therefore, John must be
Therefore, John is mortal.
right-handed.

What Is Inductive Reasoning?

Inductive reasoning moves away from more specific observations
to broader generalizations and theories. Usually, this is against
the scientific method, an empirical method of acquiring results
based on experimental findings. Inductive reasoning makes
generalizations by observing patterns and drawing inferences.

Inductive reasoning is based on strong and weak arguments.

When the premise is true then the conclusion of the argument is
likely to be true. Such an argument is termed a strong or cogent
argument. Meanwhile, weak arguments may be false even if the
premises they are based upon are true. An argument is a cogent
argument if it is weak or the premise is false.

Types of Inductive Reasoning

1. Inductive Generalization
Inductive generalization uses observations about a sample to
conclude the population from which the sample was chosen. In
simple terms, you use statistical results from samples to make
statements about populations. One can evaluate large samples or
random sampling using inductive generalizations.

2. Statistical Generalization
Statistical generalization uses specific numbers to create
statements about populations. This generalization is a subtype of
inductive generalization, and it is also termed statistical
syllogism.

3. Causal Reasoning
Causal reasoning links cause and effect between different aspects
of the research study. A casual reasoning statement starts with a
premise about two events that occur simultaneously, followed by
choosing a specific direction of causality or refuting any other
direction, and concluding a causal statement about the
relationship between two things.

4. Sign Reasoning
Sign reasoning makes correlational connections between different
things. Inductive reasoning works on a correlational relationship
where nothing causes the other thing to occur. However, sign
reasoning proposes that one event may be a ‘sign’ to impact
another event’s occurrence.
5. Analogical Reasoning
Analogical reasoning concludes something based on its
similarities to another thing. It links two things together and then
concludes based on the attributes of one thing which holds for
another thing. Analogical reasoning could be literal or figurative.
However, literal comparison usually uses a much stronger case
while reasoning.

Stages of Inductive Research Approach

1. Begin with an observation
2. Seek patterns in the observation
3. Develop a theory or preliminary conclusion based on the
patterns observed

Limitations of an Inductive Approach

A conclusion drawn based on inductive reasoning cannot be
proven completely, but it can be invalidated.

What Is Deductive Reasoning?

Deductive reasoning starts with one or more general statements
to derive a logical conclusion. Moreover, while conducting
deductive research, a researcher starts with a theory. This theory
could be derived from inductive reasoning. The approach of
deductive reasoning is used to test the stated theory. If the
general statement or theory is true, the conclusion derived is
valid and vice-versa.

Deductive reasoning produces arguments that may be valid or

invalid. If the logic is correct, conclusions flow from the general
statement or theory and the arguments are valid. Researchers
use deductive reasoning to prove their hypotheses. However, if
there is no theory yet, then one cannot conduct deductive
research.

Types of Deductive Reasoning

There are three common types of deductive reasoning:
1. Syllogism
Syllogism takes two conditional statements and forms a
conclusion by combining the hypothesis of one statement with the
conclusion of another. For example —

1. If brakes fail, the car does not stop.

2. If the car does not stop, it will cause an
accident.
3. Therefore, brake failure causes the accident.
2. Modus Ponens
Modus ponens is another type of deductive reasoning that follows
a pattern that affirms the condition of the reasoning. For example
—

1. If a person is born after 1997, then they are a

Gen Z
2. Ryan was born in 1998.
3. Therefore, Ryan belongs to Gen Z.
This type of reasoning affirms the previous statement. Meanwhile,
the first premise sets the conditional statement to be affirmed.

3. Modus Tollens
Modus tollens is yet another type of deductive reasoning known
as ‘the law of contrapositive’. It is the opposite of modus ponens
because it negates the condition of the reasoning. For example —

1. If a person is born after 1997, then they are a

Gen Z
2. Bruce is not a Gen Z.
3. Therefore, Bruce was not born after 1997.

Stages of Deductive Research Approach

1. Begin with an existing theory and create a problem
statement
2. Formulate a hypothesis based on the existing theory
3. Collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis
 4. Decide if you could reject or accept the hypothesis

Limitations of the Deductive Approach

The conclusions drawn from deductive reasoning can only be true
if the theory set in the inductive study is true and the terms are
clear.

Combination of Inductive and

Deductive Reasoning in Research
When researchers conduct a large research project, they begin
with an inductive study. This inductive reasoning assists them in
constructing an efficient working theory. Therefore, post inductive
reasoning, a deductive reasoning could confirm and conclude the
working theory. This helps researchers formulate a structured
project and mitigates the risk of research bias in the research
study.

After doing thorough research in understanding inductive and

deductive reasoning, Karl concluded that:

 Inductive reasoning is known for constructing hypotheses

based on existing knowledge and predictions.
 Deductive reasoning could be used to test an inductive
research approach.
 People tend to rely on information that is easily accessible
and available in the world. While theorizing a research
hypothesis, this tendency could introduce biases in the
study.
 Inductive reasoning could cause biases which can distort the
proper application of inductive argument.
 A good scientific research study must be highly focused and
requires both inductive and deductive research approaches.
MODULE-2
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS

Identifying and formulating research problem:

Diagnosis of symptoms and problem:
Diagnosis is a problem solving research design that consists mainly:

1. Detection of symptoms
2. Evaluating the symptoms
3. Diagnosis or possible explanation of the problem
4. Solution for the problem and
5. Suggestion for the problem solution
Diagnosis can be conducted on large amounts of data collected from different individuals
together. It is, therefore, not as time consuming when using online tools; however, a critical
thinker or good data analyst can determine the patterns in the collected data to diagnose the
real issues or problem areas for resolution.

Advantages of Diagnosis

1. Problem formulation based on symptoms

One of the methods that help researchers trace the cause and effect relationship between
product elements or features and user behavior.

2. Critical thinking
Diagnosis requires critical thinking and analysis to formulate the real problems that need to
be addressed to deduce a solution.

3. Time effective
Diagnosis is quick and time effective when using online tools and can be used to analyze
large chunks of data gathered from large sample groups.

4. Online tools for data analysis

Many online tools can be employed to gather data, carry out analysis on this data to spot
patterns or symptoms which can the ultimate diagnosis of the problem much more
streamlined for the researchers.
Disadvantages of Diagnosis

1. Experienced researcher
An experienced researcher who is familiar with critical or Bayesian thinking would be more
effective at diagnosis than any researcher.

2. Incorrect symptom evaluation

If the symptoms are not evaluated correctly or the researcher fails to ask the right questions,
the diagnosis of the problem and its optimum solution may be way off.
SETTING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
Research objectives are the outcomes you aim to achieve through your research. If your job
involves conducting research, knowing how to develop concise research objectives is an
important skill.In this article, we discuss how to write research objectives and we offer
examples to help you create your own.

Research objectives are the guideposts that help you focus on project goals. They drive
data collection, analysis and conclusions. Many research projects contain more than one
research objective. Typically, research objectives appear either in the introduction of a
research proposal or between the introduction and the research question.

A research objective is a clear and specific goal that a researcher aims to achieve through a
research study. It serves as a roadmap for the research, providing direction and focus.
Research objectives are formulated based on the research questions or hypotheses, and they
help in defining the scope of the study and guiding the research design and methodology.
They also assist in evaluating the success and outcomes of the research.
Types of Research Objectives

There are typically three main types of objectives in a research paper:

1. Exploratory Objectives: These objectives are focused on gaining a deeper

understanding of a particular phenomenon, topic, or issue. Exploratory research
objectives aim to explore and identify new ideas, insights, or patterns that were
previously unknown or poorly understood. This type of objective is commonly used
in preliminary or qualitative studies.
2. Descriptive Objectives: Descriptive objectives seek to describe and document the
characteristics, behaviors, or attributes of a specific population, event, or
phenomenon. The purpose is to provide a comprehensive and accurate account of the
subject of study. Descriptive research objectives often involve collecting and
analyzing data through surveys, observations, or archival research.
 3. Explanatory or Causal Objectives: Explanatory objectives aim to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship between variables or factors. These objectives focus on
understanding why certain events or phenomena occur and how they are related to
each other.

Steps for Writing Objectives in Research Paper

1. Identify the Research Topic:

Clearly define the subject or topic of your research. This will provide a broad context for
developing specific research objectives.
2. Conduct a Literature Review

Review existing literature and research related to your topic. This will help you understand
the current state of knowledge, identify any research gaps, and refine your research objectives
accordingly.
3. Identify the Research Questions or Hypotheses

Formulate specific research questions or hypotheses that you want to address in your study.
These questions should be directly related to your research topic and guide the development
of your research objectives.
4. Focus on Specific Goals

Break down the broader research questions or hypothesis into specific goals or objectives.
Each objective should focus on a particular aspect of your research topic and be achievable
within the scope of your study.
5. Use Clear and Measurable Language

Write your research objectives using clear and precise language. Avoid vague terms and use
specific and measurable terms that can be observed, analyzed, or measured.
6. Consider Feasibility

Ensure that your research objectives are feasible within the available resources, time
constraints, and ethical considerations. They should be realistic and attainable given the
limitations of your study.
7. Prioritize Objectives

If you have multiple research objectives, prioritize them based on their importance and
relevance to your overall research goals. This will help you allocate resources and focus your
efforts accordingly.
8. Review and Refine

Review your research objectives to ensure they align with your research questions or
hypotheses, and revise them if necessary. Seek feedback from peers or advisors to ensure
clarity and coherence.
Key points for Writing Objectives in Research Paper
1. Be Clear and Specific

Clearly state what you intend to achieve with your research. Use specific language that leaves
no room for ambiguity or confusion. This ensures that your objectives are well-defined and
focused.
2. Use Action Verbs

Begin each research objective with an action verb that describes a measurable action or
outcome. This helps make your objectives more actionable and measurable.
3. Align with Research Questions or Hypotheses

Your research objectives should directly address the research questions or hypotheses you
have formulated. Ensure there is a clear connection between them to maintain coherence in
your study.
4. Be Realistic and Feasible

Set research objectives that are attainable within the constraints of your study, including
available resources, time, and ethical considerations. Unrealistic objectives may undermine
the validity and reliability of your research.
5. Consider Relevance and Significance

Your research objectives should be relevant to your research topic and contribute to the
broader field of study. Consider the potential impact and significance of achieving the
objectives.
SMART Goals for Writing Research Objectives

To ensure that your research objectives are well-defined and effectively guide your study,
you can apply the SMART framework. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. Here’s how you can make your research objectives
SMART:

1. Specific: Clearly state what you want to achieve in a precise and specific manner.
Avoid vague or generalized language. Specify the population, variables, or
phenomena of interest.
2. Measurable: Ensure that your research objectives can be quantified or observed in a
measurable way. This allows for objective evaluation and assessment of progress.
3. Achievable: Set research objectives that are realistic and attainable within the
available resources, time, and scope of your study. Consider the feasibility of
conducting the research and collecting the necessary data.
4. Relevant: Ensure that your research objectives are directly relevant to your research
topic and contribute to the broader knowledge or understanding of the field. They
should align with the purpose and significance of your study.
5. Time-bound: Set a specific timeframe or deadline for achieving your research
objectives. This helps create a sense of urgency and provides a clear timeline for your
study.

Examples of Research Objectives

Here are some examples of research objectives from various fields of study:

 To examine the relationship between social media usage and self-esteem among
young adults aged 18-25 in order to understand the potential impact on mental well-
being.
 To assess the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention in reducing stress
levels and improving coping mechanisms among individuals diagnosed with anxiety
disorders.
 To investigate the factors influencing consumer purchasing decisions in the e-
commerce industry, with a focus on the role of online reviews and social media
influencers.
 To analyze the effects of climate change on the biodiversity of coral reefs in a specific
region, using remote sensing techniques and field surveys.

Importance of Research Objectives

Research objectives play a crucial role in the research process and hold significant
importance for several reasons:

1. Guiding the Research Process: Research objectives provide a clear roadmap for the
entire research process. They help researchers stay focused and on track, ensuring that
the study remains purposeful and relevant.
2. Defining the Scope of the Study: Research objectives help in determining the
boundaries and scope of the study. They clarify what aspects of the research topic will
be explored and what will be excluded.
3. Providing Direction for Data Collection and Analysis: Research objectives assist in
identifying the type of data to be collected and the methods of data collection. They
also guide the selection of appropriate data analysis techniques.
4. Evaluating the Success of the Study: Research objectives serve as benchmarks for
evaluating the success and outcomes of the research. They provide measurable criteria
against which the researcher can assess whether the objectives have been met or not.
5. Enhancing Communication and Collaboration: Clearly defined research objectives
facilitate effective communication and collaboration among researchers, advisors, and
stakeholders.

Common Mistakes to Avoid While Writing Research Objectives

When writing research objectives, it’s important to be aware of common mistakes and pitfalls
that can undermine the effectiveness and clarity of your objectives. Here are some common
mistakes to avoid:

1. Vague or Ambiguous Language: One of the key mistakes is using vague or

ambiguous language that lacks specificity. Ensure that your research objectives are
clearly and precisely stated, leaving no room for misinterpretation or confusion.
2. Lack of Measurability: Research objectives should be measurable, meaning that
they should allow for the collection of data or evidence that can be quantified or
observed. Avoid setting objectives that cannot be measured or assessed objectively.
 3. Lack of Alignment with Research Questions or Hypotheses: Your research
objectives should directly align with the research questions or hypotheses you have
formulated. Make sure there is a clear connection between them to maintain
coherence in your study.
4. Overgeneralization: Avoid writing research objectives that are too broad or
encompass too many variables or phenomena. Overgeneralized objectives may lead to
a lack of focus or feasibility in conducting the research.
5. Unrealistic or Unattainable Objectives: Ensure that your research objectives are
realistic and attainable within the available resources, time, and scope of your study.
Setting unrealistic objectives may compromise the validity and reliability of your
research.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

The purpose of a literature review is to collect relevant, timely research on your chosen topic,
and synthesize it into a cohesive summary of existing knowledge in the field. This then
prepares you for making your own argument on that topic, or for conducting your own
original research.
Depending on your field of study, literature reviews can take different forms. Some
disciplines require that you synthesize your sources topically, organizing your paragraphs
according to how your different sources discuss similar topics. Other disciplines require that
you discuss each source in individual paragraphs, covering various aspects in that single
article, chapter, or book.
Within your review of a given source, you can cover many different aspects, including (if a
research study) the purpose, scope, methods, results, any discussion points, limitations, and
implications for future research. Make sure you know which model your professor expects
you to follow when writing your own literature reviews.
Tip: Literature reviews may or may not be a graded component of your class or major
assignment, but even if it is not, it is a good idea to draft one so that you know the current
conversations taking place on your chosen topic. It can better prepare you to write your own,
unique argument.
Benefits of Literature Reviews

 Literature reviews allow you to gain familiarity with the current knowledge in your chosen
field, as well as the boundaries and limitations of that field.
 Literature reviews also help you to gain an understanding of the theory(ies) driving the field,
allowing you to place your research question into context.
 Literature reviews provide an opportunity for you to see and even evaluate successful and
unsuccessful assessment and research methods in your field.
 Literature reviews prevent you from duplicating the same information as others writing in
your field, allowing you to find your own, unique approach to your topic.
 Literature reviews give you familiarity with the knowledge in your field, giving you the
chance to analyze the significance of your additional research.

Essential elements for a review

 Focus on an important, relevant, and operationally defined topic in the psychology of men
and masculinity, and make a strong case for why a literature review of this topic is important.
 Include a critical and inclusive review of previous theory related to the relevant topic.
"Critical" means that the literature review reveals problems, contradictions, controversies,
strengths, next steps, and potentials in the theories. "Inclusive" means that there is an active
evaluation of all of the theory relevant to the topic.
 Include a critical and inclusive review of previous empirical research related to the relevant
topic.
 Critically analyze the distinction between authors' interpretation of their data and the actual
empirical evidence presented. A good review critically analyses how accurately previous
authors have reported their findings and whether they have refrained from asserting
conclusions not supported by data.
 Discuss the methodological diversity of studies reported in the literature review and the
implications of this diversity for new knowledge or future research.
 Raise provocative and innovative questions on the topic not discussed before in the literature.
 Write the review so that theoretical knowledge and empirical research is significantly
advanced in the psychology of men and masculinity, and that there is an overall contribution
to the field's theory, research, and clinical practice.
 Include many "take home messages" (Sternberg, 1991) that generate new theories and
empirical research.
Sections that might be included in a review
 Provide a historical account or background of the development of the theory or research
program reviewed.
 Include persuasive arguments and articulated points of view on the topic from both
theoretical and empirical perspectives.
 Propose novel conceptualizations or theories based on reviews of previous theories and
empirical research.
 Propose new research paradigms or testable hypotheses that advance future research.
 Propose new therapeutic paradigms or testable hypotheses that advance clinical
practice/psychoeducational programming with men.
 Address the frequent gap between reporting theory/research and interpreting the meaning of
the theory and research.

Choosing Your Sources

When selecting your sources to compile your literature review, make sure you follow these
guidelines to ensure you are working with the strongest, most appropriate sources possible.
Topically Relevant
Find sources within the scope of your topic
Appropriately Aged
Find sources that are not too old for your assignment
Credible

Find sources whose authors have authority on your topic

Appropriately “Published”

Find sources that meet your instructor’s guidelines (academic, professional, print, etc.)
Tip: Treat your professors and librarians as experts you can turn to for advice on how to
locate sources. They are a valuable asset to you, so take advantage of them!
Organizing Your Literature Review
Synthesizing Topically
Some assignments require discussing your sources together, in paragraphs organized
according to shared topics between them.
To determine these shared topics, examine aspects including:

 Thesis
 Definition of terms
 Common ground
 Issues that divide
 Rhetorical context

Summarizing Individually
Depending on the assignment, your professor may prefer that you discuss each source in your
literature review individually (in their own, separate paragraphs or sections). Your professor
may give you specific guidelines as far as what to cover in these paragraphs/sections.
If, for instance, your sources are all primary research studies, here are some aspects to
consider covering:
 Purpose
 Scope
 Participants
 Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Limitations
 Implications
 Significance

Each section of your literature review, in this case, will identify all of these elements for each
individual article.
You may or may not need to separate your information into multiple paragraphs for each
source. If you do, using proper headings in the appropriate citation style (APA, MLA, etc.)
will help keep you organized. Both APA and MLA cite sources within a paper by using
parenthetical, in-text references. MLA uses the author’s last name and the page number as
reference. APA uses the author’s last name and the year of publication. If a direct quote is
used, APA requires author’s name, year, and page number

Aim of literature review

The aim of any literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of
existing knowledge in a particular field without adding any new contributions. Being built
on existing knowledge they help the researcher to even turn the wheels of the topic of
research. It is possible only with profound knowledge of what is wrong in the existing
findings in detail to overpower them. For other researches, the literature review gives the
direction to be headed for its success.
The common perception of literature review and reality:
As per the common belief, literature reviews are only a summary of the sources related to the
research. And many authors of scientific manuscripts believe that they are only surveys of
what are the researches are done on the chosen topic. But on the contrary, it uses published
information from pertinent and relevant sources like
Scholarly books
Scientific papers

 Latest studies in the field

 Established school of thoughts

 Relevant articles from renowned scientific journals

and many more for a field of study or theory or a particular problem to do the following:

 Summarize into a brief account of all information

 Synthesize the information by restructuring and reorganizing

 Critical evaluation of a concept or a school of thought or ideas

 Familiarize the authors to the extent of knowledge in the particular field

 Appraise

 Identify

 Evaluate

 Encapsulate

 Correlate

 Compare & contrast

By doing the above on the relevant information, it provides the reader of the scientific
manuscript with the following for a better understanding of it:

 It establishes the authors’ in-depth understanding and knowledge of their field subject

 It gives the background of the research

 Portrays the scientific manuscript plan of examining the research result

 Illuminates on how the knowledge has changed within the field

 Highlights what has already been done in a particular field

 Information of the generally accepted facts, emerging and current state of the topic of

research

 Identifies the research gap that is still unexplored or under-researched fields

 Demonstrates how the research fits within a larger field of study

 Provides an overview of the sources explored during the research of a particular topic

Importance of literature review in research:

The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an
analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance. It adds value to the
legitimacy of the research in many ways:

1. Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of updated developments in the

field to help in establishing the consistency in knowledge and relevancy of existing

materials

2. It helps in calculating the impact of the latest information in the field by mapping their

progress of knowledge.

3. It brings out the dialects of contradictions between various thoughts within the field to
establish facts

4. The research gaps scrutinized initially are further explored to establish the latest facts of

theories to add value to the field

5. Indicates the current research place in the schema of a particular field

6. Provides information for relevancy and coherency to check the research

7. Apart from elucidating the continuance of knowledge, it also points out areas that require

further investigation and thus aid as a starting point of any future research

8. Justifies the research and sets up the research question

9. Sets up a theoretical framework comprising the concepts and theories of the research

upon which its success can be judged

10. Helps to adopt a more appropriate methodology for the research by examining the

strengths and weaknesses of existing research in the same field

11. Increases the significance of the results by comparing it with the existing literature

12. Provides a point of reference by writing the findings in the scientific manuscript

13. Helps to get the due credit from the audience for having done the fact-finding and fact-

checking mission in the scientific manuscripts

14. The more the reference of relevant sources of it could increase more of its

trustworthiness with the readers

15. Helps to prevent plagiarism by tailoring and uniquely tweaking the scientific

manuscript not to repeat other’s original idea

16. By preventing plagiarism, it saves the scientific manuscript from rejection and thus also

saves a lot of time and money

17. Helps to evaluate, condense and synthesize gist in the author’s own words to sharpen the

research focus

18. Helps to compare and contrast to show the originality and uniqueness of the research

than that of the existing other researches

19. Rationalizes the need for conducting the particular research in a specified field

20. Helps to collect data accurately for allowing any new methodology of research than the

existing ones

21. Enables the readers of the manuscript to answer the following questions of its readers for

its better chances for publication

 What do the researchers know?

 What do they not know?

 Is the scientific manuscript reliable and trustworthy?

 What are the knowledge gaps of the researcher?

22. It helps the readers to identify the following for further reading of the scientific
manuscript:

 What has been already established, discredited and accepted in the particular field of

research

 Areas of controversy and conflicts among different schools of thought

 Unsolved problems and issues in the connected field of research

 The emerging trends and approaches

 How the research extends, builds upon and leaves behind from the previous research

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis statement is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. Hypothesis is

the starting point of investigation which translates the research questions into assuming
predictions. Components of hypotheses are variables, variable relations, population. A
research hypothesis is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

Examples of Hypothesis based on their types-

 Simple hypothesis- Consumption of coke every day leads to obesity.

 Null hypothesis- All flower lilies have the same number of petals.
 Directional hypothesis- A person gets 7 hours of sleep, will make him feel less
fatigue than if he sleeps less.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

 Relational hypothesis states the relationship between two variables.

 Hypothesis is specific and limited to the scope for researchers to research easily and it
should also be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its
significance.
  Hypothesis statements should be consistent and obtained from most known facts.
Which means it should be a type of statement which is most likely to occur.
 The hypothesis should be mentioned in clear and precise statements which should
have scope for conducting more tests.

Types of Hypothesis

The various types of Hypothesis are-

1. Simple Hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis defines the relation between the two variables such as independent and
dependent variables. For example – If you exercise, you will lose weight faster. Here,
exercising is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

2. Complex Hypothesis

Complex Hypothesis contains more than one variable, which makes the hypothesis more
complex and harder to understand. It shows the relationship between two or more dependent
variables and two or more independent variables. Eating healthy food and exercising leads to
weight loss, glowing skin, and reduces the risk of heart disease.

3. Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis which predicts that there is no relationship between
the two variables at test. It provides a statement which is always contrary to the hypothesis.
It’s a negative statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

4. Directional Hypothesis

Directional hypothesis predicts the positivity or negativity of an effect prior to the test being
conducted.

5. Non-Directional Hypothesis

Non- Directional hypothesis doesn’t predict the positivity or negativity of the effect of an
independent variable on the dependent variable.

6. Logical Hypothesis
Logical Hypothesis cannot be tested but it has some logical basis in support of our
assumptions.

7. Statistical Hypothesis

Statistical hypothesis makes use of representative statistical models to come to a conclusion

about broader populations.

Sources of Hypothesis

The sources of hypothesis are-

 Resemblance between the phenomenon of hypothesis.

 Observations from past studies, competitors and present-day experiences.
 Scientific theories by researchers.
 The thinking process of people is another source of hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis

Following are the functions performed by the hypothesis statement-

 Hypothesis helps in making an observation made by the researcher.

 Hypothesis becomes the initial point of an investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations made.
 Hypothesis helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

A hypothesis should be precise and accurate

A hypothesis is a clear statement of the information that the researcher intends to investigate.
It is thus a clear statement that is essential before conducting research.
 Figure 1: Aspects identified by
the hypothesis in a thesis
Based on this aspect, the features of the hypothesis are listed below:
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

To formulate a hypothesis, follow these steps:

1. Define the research question: The research question should be clearly defined and specific.

It should guide the formulation of the hypothesis.

2. Review the literature: Review previous research in the area to determine what is already

known and what remains to be explored. This can help to refine the research question and

guide the formulation of the hypothesis.

3. Identify the variables: Identify the variables that will be measured and analyzed..
 4. Determine the type of hypothesis: Determine whether the hypothesis will be directional or

non-directional. A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between

two variables

5. Write the hypothesis: Write the hypothesis in a clear and concise manner.

Formulating a hypothesis is a critical step in the hypothesis testing process.

MODULE 3:

MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION CONCEPTS

Sample Design, steps in sampling process, sampling methods-probability and non-

probability sampling, sampling error, criteria for good sample, determining sample size

(infinite and finite).

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to
the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
Sample design also leads to a procedure to tell the number of items to be included in the
sample i.e., the size of the sample. Hence, sample design is determined before the collection
of data. Among various types of sample design technique, the researcher should choose that
samples which are reliable and appropriate for his research study.

Steps in Sample Design

There are various steps which the researcher should follow. Those are;

1. Type of universe: In the first step the researcher should clarify and should be expert in the
study of universe. The universe may be finite (no of items are know) or Infinite (numbers of
items are not know).
2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting a
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village etc., or
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school etc., or it may be an individual.
3. Source list: Source list is known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
consists the names of all items of a universe. Such a list would be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate and the source list should be a representative of the population.
4. Size of sample: Size of sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe
to constitute a sample. Selection of sample size is a headache to the researcher. The size
should not be too large or too small rather it should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
 which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of
the sample. Cost factor i.e., budgetary conditions should also be taken into consideration.
5. Sampling procedure: In the final step of the sample design, a researcher must decide the
type of the sample s/he will use i.e., s/he must decide about the techniques to be used in
selecting the items for the sample.

Criteria for Sample Design Selection

While selecting samples a researcher must remember that the procedure of sampling analysis
involves two costs viz., (i) the cost of collecting the data and (ii) the cost of an incorrect
inferences resulting from the data. So, far as the cost of collecting data is concerned, it
completely depends on the researcher to reduce it and to some extent it is within the control
of the researcher. But the real problem arises while taking into account about the cost of
incorrect inferences which is again of two types,

1. Systematic bias and

2.[1.] Sampling error.

Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. It can be eliminated by eliminating and correcting
the causes which are responsible for its occurrence. Following are some causes of the
occurrence of systematic bias which requires concern to the researcher.

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased

representation of the universe, then it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: The second cause of occurrence of systematic bias is the
selection of defective measuring devices. The measuring devices may be the interviewers; the
questionnaire or other instrument used to collect data or may be physical measuring devices.
If the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased and/or if the physical measuring device is
defective this will lead to the occurrence of systematic bias.
3. Non-respondents: If the researcher is unable to sample all the individuals initially included in
the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the
likelihood of establishing correct or receiving a response from an individual is often corrected
with the measure of what is to be estimated.
4. Natural bias in the reporting of data: There is usually a downward bias in the individual
income data collected by the income tax department where as an upward bias is found in the
income data collected by some social organizations. People give less income data when asked
for income tax but they overstate when asked for social status.
5. Indeterminacy principle: Same times a researcher finds that individuals act differently when
kept under observations than what they do when kept in non-observed situation.

Sampling errors on the other hand, is the random variations in the sample estimated around
the true population parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in
either direction, their nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of
such errors happens to be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in sample
size and it happens to be a smaller magnitude in case where the population is characterized as
homogeneous. Sampling error can be measured for a given sampling design and size which is
called as ‘a precision of the sampling plan’. If the sample size is increased, the precision can
 be improved but increase in sample size causes limitations like cost of collecting data, and
also increases the systematic bias.

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

The characteristics of a good sample as follows;

1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample,

2.[1.] Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error,
3.[2.] Sampling design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study,
4.[3.] Sample design must be such that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way, and
5.[4.] Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Steps in Sampling Process

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2.[1.] Specifying the sampling frame.
3.[2.] Specifying the sampling unit.
4.[3.] Selection of the sampling method.
5.[4.] Determination of sample size.
6.[5.] Specifying the sampling plan.
7.[6.] Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling
process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent,
and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For
ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its
micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook
(assuming that very few men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include
every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey.
Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all
women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds
Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the research more focused. The
population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher
has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit
the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined as all women
above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of
women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.
2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling
frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn.
Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that
contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20,000. However, in
practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of
a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like
telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players
provide databases developed along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes,
maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an
ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements only
once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the
total population or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in
the sampling frame is over —representation. A telephone directory can be over represented
by names/household that have two or more connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the
population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women
above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it
is possible to identify the exact target audience of the business research, every individual
element would be a sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit.
However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households as the
sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case
of secondary sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The
choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research,
availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be
investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is,
probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of
classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary
importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or
sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods. In
non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of
sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of
analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination.
In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size
after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the
various techniques used to determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the
chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research
process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are
the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in
identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes issues like how is the
interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do
when a house is vacant? What is the recontact procedure for respondents who were
unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the smooth
functioning of the research process. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in
every step of the process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of
most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy
and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample
elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules
outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves
implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required for
the survey.

PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Probability sampling techniques include simple random sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. These techniques will be
discussed further in the next reading objective.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, samples are selected on the basis of judgment or the

convenience of accessing data. As such, non-probability sampling largely depends on a
researcher’s sample selection skills. There are two types of non-probability sampling
methods:

i. Judgmental sampling: This type of sampling involves handpicking elements from a

sample based on a researcher’s knowledge and expertise. It is important to point out
that in this sampling method, the selection of samples is subjective. Obviously, such
data could be skewed by the researcher’s bias and prejudice. Judgmental sampling
consequently generates a sample that is not representative of the entire population.
 ii. Convenience sampling: In this sampling method, a population element is selected
based on how easily a researcher can access the element. Note that in this method,
samples are selected conveniently, so they may not necessarily represent the whole
population. This compromises the sampling accuracy.

All else equal, probability sampling provides a more accurate and reliable representation of
the population than non-probability sampling. A more convenient summary of sampling
techniques is illustrated below:
Determining sample size:

Steps To Determine Sample Size:

sample size

Sample size is the number of people or subjects that are used as a sample in market research.

It differs from the number of samples - the latter means the number of times that you take a

sample from the population.

So, if you take a sample three times in one research study, with each sample size being 25

people, your total sample size would be 75 people.

Step 1 Find out the size of the population

The first step you’ll need to take is to find out exactly the number of people that comprises

your population. For example, if your target population is men between the ages of 20-30,

living in Singapore as citizens or permanent residents, you’ll need to use data from SingStat

as your reference. From there, you can start calculating your sample size through several

statistical methods, which we’ll discuss further below.

Nevertheless, there is a quick rule of thumb that you could use to determine sample size

based on the size of the population. Here’s a table that GMO Research & AI has prepared for

you, based on our in-house technique:

 Population size Estimated sample size
100 80
1,000 279
10,000 370
100,000 383
1,000,000 384
> 1,000,000 384

Step 2 Determine the margin of error

Now, if you’re interested in calculating your own sample size, there are two important

statistical concepts that you’ll need to know: margin of error and confidence level. These two

concepts are integral in determining sample size.

The margin of error, is basically measuring this: “How far does the survey result deviate

from the actual population?"

Step 3 Set confidence level

Confidence level refers to the probability that the sampling result is within the margin of

error. A good confidence level ranges between 90-99%, but a market research study usually

uses a 95% confidence level.

Here’s how confidence level works in practice: A 99% confidence level for a sample means

that you are 99% certain that the response of your sample is reliable enough to describe the

target population.
Step 4 Use a formula to find sample size

 n = Sample size

 λ = Value based on confidence level

 p = Sample proportion

 d = Margin of error

There are two concepts we haven’t covered previously - the λ and p. These two are

determined through statistical rules and conventions used in research studies.

For, λ (lambda), the numerical values are predetermined for each confidence level, and the

frequently used ones are as follows.

Confidence level Value of λ

90% 1.65
95% 1.96
99% 2.58
Sample proportion (p) is determined by the previous research study since it calculates the

ratio of the survey subjects who chose the relevant response.

Typically, you can set the sample proportion value at "50% (0.5 in the formula)" if you don’t

have the data from previous research or pilot study.

Sample size calculation example

As an example, let's calculate the sample size under the following conditions.

 Margin of error: 4% (0.04)

 Confidence level: 99%

 Lambda: 2.58

 Sample proportion: 50% (0.5)

From this formula, we can see that the sample size would be 1,040 people or subjects.
MEASUREMENT-TYPES OF SCALES, SCALING TECHNIQUES:

scale of measurement

The scales of measurement show the accuracy with which variables are captured. A scale of

measurement is a system or framework for classifying and quantifying mutable

characteristics. Numbers or categories express the features of the variables evaluated in this

technique.

The scale of measurement, also known as the level of measurement, describes the accuracy

level that may be achieved while recording data. These four measuring scales were created

by Stanley Smith Stevens in 1946.

The four main measuring scales are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. These levels are

listed in increasing order of the detailed information they provide. The complexity and

accuracy of the degree of measurement are ranked from low (nominal) to high (ratio) in a

hierarchy.
 The four main measuring scales

1. Nominal scale

The nominal scale is the first level of measurement. Numbers are used solely for identifying

an object. This assessment addresses only non-numeric factors or situations where numbers

have no meaning. The nominal scale is the simplest of the four variable measuring scales.

Nominal scale examples

Notice that all the scales are mutually exclusive, and none have any numerical significance.

Some examples are given below to better explain the nominal scale.

#1 - What is your favorite car brand?

 Toyota

 Ford
 Mercedes-Benz

 Jeep

 Audi

 Ferrari

 BMW

Only the brand names are significant to the poll's consumer researcher in this question. For

these brands, there is no need for a particular order. When collecting nominal data,

however, researchers examine the data using pertinent tags.

When a survey respondent chooses Toyota as their favorite brand, the selected option will

be “1” in the measurement scale example above. This made it easier to quantify and

respond to the last query, which asked how many respondents selected Toyota, Audi, and

Ford, and which was the highest. The nominal scale is the most fundamental research scale

and is the foundation for quantitative research.

2. Ordinal scale

The ordinal scale, the second measurement level, reports the ranking and ordering of the

data without determining the degree of variance among them. Ordinal data

is quantitative information with naturally existing orders, and how they vary is uncertain.

An ordinal scale is a variable measurement scale in statistics used to show the order of

variables rather than the differences between them. Generally, these scales represent non-

mathematical concepts like pleasure, happiness, and frequency.

Ordinal scale examples

 The ordinal scale often measures satisfaction, preferences, frequency, and agreement. Below,

we have shared a sample question that a health research company used to measure the

monthly exercise frequency of individuals. You can better understand the ordinal scale by

examining the example below:

#2 - How often do you exercise?

 Very often

 Often

 Sometimes

 Rarely

 Never

Researchers can use the ordinal scale to acquire more data than they would with a nominal

scale. The order of the answer options in this case, as well as their labeling, is crucial. The

researcher finds it convenient to analyze the findings according to the results’ order and

name.

3. Interval scale

The interval scale is the third of four measurement levels. The interval scale is

a quantitative measuring scale with order, significant and equal differences between the two

variables, and arbitrary zero presence.

The interval scale measures variables along a standard scale at equal intervals. The measures

used to calculate the distance between the variables are highly reliable. These scales are

effective as they open doors for the statistical analysis of provided data.
Interval scale examples

Interval measurements can be used to assign metrics to data values. No real zero point exists,

but you may categorize, rank, and infer equal gaps between adjacent data points. The

following example may make the interval scale easier to understand.

The Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scale is a well-known example of an interval scale

since “0” is arbitrary because negative temperature values can exist. The difference between

these two temperatures, 50 and 30 degrees, is equal to the difference

between 30 and 10 degrees; hence 50 is always higher than 30.

4. Ratio scale

The ratio scale is the fourth level of measurement in research and has a zero

point or character of origin. A ratio scale of measurement is quantitative, with absolute zero

and equal gaps between nearby points. The ratio scale has no negative values since there is a

zero value.

Researchers can use the ratio scale to work on data by determining the mean, median, and

mode for a central tendency.

Ratio scale examples

Physical properties of people and objects may be quantified using ratio scales;

consequently, height, weight, and kilogram calories are instances of ratio measurement.

Below are examples of ratio scales; you can better understand the ratio scale by looking at

these examples:

What is your current weight in kilograms?

 Less than 49 kilograms

 50- 69 kilograms

 70- 89 kilograms

 90- 109 kilograms

 More than 110 kilograms

Weight in kilograms is an excellent example of ratio data. If something weighs 0 kilos, it

weighs nothing, especially when compared to temperature, where a figure of zero degrees

represents no temperature but rather extremely cold.

Best question types for measurement scales

The question type determines the data type created by a survey, and the data type limits the

data analysis that may be conducted. The most frequent survey question is an interval rating

scale question, which we utilize to record the respondent’s degree of sentiment about the

issue of interest.

Ordinal questions commonly feature a list of response alternatives, but the answer list is

distinguished by the fact that the response options are ordered somehow. The ratio scale

questions occur when respondents are requested to answer to a physical measure. Here are

the best question types listed for measurement scales:

1 - Open-ended questions

Asking open-ended questions is a great way to learn more about a topic. When you request an

open question, you allow the other person to elaborate and provide a detailed explanation.

A nominal scale can be used for open-ended question type. You can

ask how, what, why, when, explain, and describe questions like the example below.
 What is your favorite color?

Open-ended question example

2 - Rating questions

Rating questions enable participants to weigh or assign numerical values to responses using a

graphical interface, employing a basic 1-5 star rating system or 0-100 slider scale where a

higher number equals a better score. Ordinal scales and interval scales can be used for rating

question types.

 How likely are you to recommend this product to a friend?

Rating question example

 3 - Likert scale questions

Likert scale questions are critical in determining a respondent's opinion or attitude toward a

particular issue and are essential to market research. A Likert is a five, seven, or nine-

point agreement scale used to assess respondents’ agreement with various claims. Interval

scales and ordinal scales can be used for Likert scale question types.

 What was your level of satisfaction with our product?

- Extremely satisfied

- Very satisfied

- A little satisfied

- A little dissatisfied

- Not satisfied at all

Likert scale question example

 4 - Multiple choice questions

Multiple-choice questions are classic surveys because they provide respondents with multiple

choices. They can contain single or multi-select options. Ratio scales and nominal scales can

be used for multiple-choice questions:

 How much time do you spend on social media per day?

- Less than 1 hour

- 2-3 hours

- 3-4 hours

- 4-6 hours

- More than 6 hours

 Ratio scale multiple-choice question example

What is your favorite phone brand?

- Apple

- Samsung

- Xiaomi

- Oppo

- Huawei

Nominal scale multiple-choice question example

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE:

 A semantic differential scale is a survey or questionnaire rating scale that asks people to rate
a product, company, brand, or any 'entity' within the frames of a multi-point rating option.
These survey answering options are grammatically on opposite adjectives at each end. For
example, love-hate, satisfied-unsatisfied, and likely to return-unlikely to return with
intermediate options in between.

Surveys or questionnaires using the semantic differential question is the most reliable way to
get information on people’s emotional attitude towards a topic of interest.

Charles Egerton Osgood, a famous American psychologist, invented the semantic differential
scale so that this 'connotative meaning' of emotional attitude towards entities can be recorded
and put to good use.

Osgood conducted this research on an extensive database and found that three scales were
commonly useful, irrespective of race or culture or difference in language:

 Estimate: Combination similar to good-bad.

 Authority: Pairs on the lines of powerful-weak.
 Activeness: Combos like active-passive.

Researchers can measure a wide variety of subjects using these combinations, like customers’
outlooks about an upcoming product launch or employee satisfaction.

Researchers use the semantic differential scale questions to ask respondents to rate products,
organization, or services with multi-point questions with polar adjectives at the extremes of
this scale like likely/ unlikely, happy/sad, loved the service/ hated the service.

Semantic differential scale examples & question types

1. Slider rating scale: Questions that feature a graphical slider give the respondent a more
interactive way to answer the semantic differential scale question.

2. Non-slider rating scale: The non-slider question uses typical radio buttons for a more
traditional survey look and feel. Respondents are more used to answering.
3. Open-ended questions: These questions give the users ample freedom to express their
emotions about your organization, products, or services.

4. Ordering: The ordering questions offer the scope to rate the parameters that the
respondents feel are best or worst according to their personal experiences.

5. Satisfaction rating: The easiest and eye-catchy semantic differential scale questions are
the satisfaction rating questions.
 Advantages of semantic differential

 The semantic differential has outdone the other scales like the Likert scale in vitality,
rationality, or authenticity.
 It has an advantage in terms of language too. There are two polar adjectives for the factor to
be measured and a scale connecting both these polar.
 It is more advantageous than a Likert scale. The researcher declares a statement and expects
respondents to either agree or disagree with that.
 Respondents can express their opinions about the matter in hand more accurately and entirely
due to the polar options provided in the semantic differential.
 In other question types like the Likert scale, respondents have to indicate the level of
agreement or disagreement with the mentioned topic. The semantic differential scale offers
extremely opposite adjectives on each end of the range. The respondents can precisely
explain their feedback that researchers use for making accurate judgments from the survey.

 Researchers can gain perception of concepts, attitudes, and opinions using the verbally
different terms as a measuring tool using the semantic differential scale.
 THURSTONE SCALE:

Thurstone scale is defined as a unidimensional scale that is used to track respondent’s

behavior, attitude or feeling towards a subject. This scale consists of statements about a
particular issue or topic where each statement has a numerical value that indicates the
respondents attitude towards the topic as favorable or unfavorable. Respondents indicate the
statements that they agree with, and an average is computed. A mean score of the agreements
or disagreements is calculated as the attitude of the respondent towards the topic.

This scale was developed by Robert Thurstone to approximate measurement in equal-

appearing interval levels. The Thurstone scale is built upon the fundamentals of the Likert
scale, but this method of constructing an attitude scale not only takes value of each item of
into consideration while evaluating the final attitude score but also caters to neutral items.

An example of a Thurstone scale survey is to understand the attitude of employees in an

organization towards diversity hiring in that organization. There are 2 distinct milestones in
the Thurstone scale question; to derive the final questions and administer the Thurstone scale
question and conduct its analysis.

Derive the Final Question

There are 5 distinctive steps to derive the final question. They are:

1. Step 1 – Develop statements: Develop a large number of agree/disagree statements

on a certain topic. For example, if you wanted to find out people’s attitudes towards
the policy of diversity hiring in an organization, your statements may include:
o Policy on diversity hiring is wrong.
o Diversity hiring takes away jobs from deserving candidates.
o Diversity hiring brings different viewpoints to the team.
o Diversity hiring brings out the best in the local community.
o Diversity hiring aids in increasing the reputation of a brand.
2. Step 2 – Rank each statement with a panel of judges: The next step would be to
have a panel of judges rate each item on a scale of 1 to 11 where 1 is the least
favorable attitude towards the common vector – diversity hiring and 11 is an
extremely favorable attitude. It is important to note that the judges are required to rate
each option and not agree or disagree with them.
3. Step 3 – Calculate median and/or mean and Interquartile range (IQR): The data
collected from all judges is to then be analyzed to draw up a table with the mean or
median values in the ascending order. Using median or mean is a personal choice and
the options throw up accurate results in the use of either. If you have 50 statements,
you need to have 50 means/medians and 50 IQR’s.
 4. Step 4 – Sorting the table: The data has to be sorted on the basis of smallest to
largest median/mean and the IQR’s for each median/mean have to be in a descending
order.
5. Step 5 – Selecting final variables or options: Select options on the basis of the
above table. For example, you could select one item from each mean/median value.
You want the statements with the most agreement between judges. For each median
value, this is the item with the lowest interquartile range. This is a “Rule of Thumb”:
you don’t have to choose this item. If you decide it’s poorly worded or ambiguous,
choose the item above it (with the next lowest IQR).

Characteristics of a Thurstone Scale Question

Some distinct characteristics of a Thurstone scale question are:

 They are two stepped: A Thurstone scale question is never administered at the first
iteration stage without the rating by judges. This is an important characteristic of this
question as the options that a respondent sees are weighted and there is consensus of
them being in the survey.
 Mean or median is always calculated: Since each option is weighted, the mean or
median is calculated for each option. This also forms the basis of the selection method
for use in the final survey.
 Only agree or disagree options: The respondent makes a selection only on the basis
of the agreement or disagreement with the statement.

Use of a Thurstone Scale Survey

The Thurstone scale survey is used to measure the respondents attitudes on a particular
subject. The scale can be applied to a wide range of market research surveys, in market
research including:

 Surveys that measure opinions: The Thurstone scale question produces quantifiable
data about the measures of strength of the respondents opinions.
 Those that gauge attitudes or feelings: This scale is used effectively in customer
satisfaction to predict future purchasing trends and in employee engagement to calculate
turnover.

MULTI DIMENSIONAL SCALING:

Multidimensional scaling is a visual representation of distances or dissimilarities between

sets of objects. “Objects” can be colors, faces, map coordinates, political persuasion, or any
kind of real or conceptual stimuli (Kruskal and Wish, 1978). Objects that are more similar (or
have shorter distances) are closer together on the graph than objects that are less similar (or
have longer distances). As well as interpreting dissimilarities as distances on a graph, MDS
can also serve as a dimension reduction technique for high-dimensional data (Buja et. al,
2007).

The term scaling comes from psychometrics, where abstract concepts (“objects”) are
assigned numbers according to a rule (Trochim, 2006). For example, you may want to
quantify a person’s attitude to global warming. You could assign a “1” to “doesn’t believe in
global warming”, a 10 to “firmly believes in global warming” and a scale of 2 to 9 for
attitudes in between. You can also think of “scaling” as the fact that you’re
essentially scaling down the data (i.e. making it simpler by creating lower-dimensional data).
Data that is scaled down in dimension keeps similar properties. For example, two data points
that are close together in high-dimensional space will also be close together in low-
dimensional space (Martinez, 2005). The “multidimensional” part is due to the fact that you
aren’t limited to two dimensional graphs or data. Three-dimensional, four-dimensional and
higher plots are possible.

MDS is now used over a wide variety of disciplines. It’s use isn’t limited to a specific matrix
or set of data; In fact, just about any matrix can be analyzed with the technique as long as the
matrix contains some type of relational data (Young, 2013). Examples of relational data
include correlations, distances, multiple rating scales or similarities.

When to Use MDS

Let’s say you were given a list of city locations, and were asked to create a map that included
distances between cities. The procedure would be relatively straightforward, involving
nothing more complicated than taking a ruler and measuring the distance between each city.
However, what if you were given only the distances between the cities (i.e. their similarities)
— and not their locations? You could still create a map — but it would involve a fair amount
of geometry, and some logical deductions. Kruskal & Wish (1978) — the authors of one of
the first multidimensional scaling books — state that this type of logic problem is ideal for
multidimensional scaling. You’re basically given a set of differences, and the goal is to create
a map that will also tell you what the original distances where and where they were located.
Back to Top

A Simple Example

Multidimensional scaling uses a square, symmetric matrix for input. The matrix shows
relationships between items. For a simple example, let’s say you had a set of cities in Florida
and their distances:
The scaling produces a graph like the one below.

The very simple example above shows cities and distances, which are easy to visualize as
a map. However, multidimensional scaling can work on “theoretically” mapped data as
well. For example, Kruskal and Wish (1978) outlined how the method could be used to
uncover the answers to a variety of questions about people’s viewpoints on political
candidates. This could be achieved by reducing the data and issues (say, partisanship
and ideology) to a two-dimensional map.
Features of the Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

1. MDS is based on the concept of distance and aims to find a projection of the data that
minimizes the differences between the distances in the original space and the distances
in the lower-dimensional space. This allows MDS to preserve the relationships between
the data points, and to highlight patterns and trends that may not be apparent in the
original space.
2. MDS can be applied to a wide range of data types, including numerical, categorical, and
mixed data. This makes MDS a versatile tool that can be used with many different kinds
of data and allows it to handle complex multi-modal data sets.
3. MDS is implemented using numerical optimization algorithms, such as gradient descent
or simulated annealing, to minimize the difference between the distances in the original
and lower-dimensional spaces. This makes MDS a flexible and adaptable technique that
can handle complex, nonlinear data, and can find projections that are different from
those produced by linear techniques, such as principal component analysis (PCA).
4. MDS is widely used in many fields, including machine learning, data mining, and
pattern recognition. This makes it a well-established and widely-supported technique
that has been extensively tested and validated, and that has a large and active user
community.
Overall, MDS is a powerful and flexible technique for reducing the dimensionality of high-
dimensional data, and for revealing hidden patterns and relationships in the data. Its key
features include its ability to handle a wide range of data types, its flexibility and
adaptability, and its widespread use and support in many fields.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) is used to go from a proximity matrix between a series of
N objects to the coordinates of these same objects in a p-dimensional space. p is generally
fixed at 2 or 3 so that the objects may be visualized easily.

For example, with MDS, it is possible to reconstitute the position of towns on a map very
precisely from the distances in kilometers (the dissimilarity in this case being the Euclidean
distance) between the towns, modulo a rotation and a symmetrical transformation.
Practically, MDS is often used in psychometry (perception analysis) and marketing (distances
between products obtained from consumer classifications) but there are applications in a large
number of domains.

TYPES OF MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING: MDS AND NMDS

There are two types of MDS depending on the nature of the dissimilarity observed: metric
and non metric MDS. All the following options are available in XLSTAT.

Metric MDS

With Metric MDS, the dissimilarities are considered as continuous and giving exact
information to be reproduced as closely as possible. There are 4 sub-models in XLSTAT:

 Absolute MDS: the distances obtained in the representation space must correspond as
closely as possible to the distances observed in the starting dissimilarity matrix.
 Ratio MDS: the distances obtained in the representation space must correspond as
closely as possible to the distances observed in the initial matrix using a near
proportionality factor (the factor being identical for all pairs of distances).
 Interval MDS: the distances obtained in the representation space must correspond as
closely as possible to the distances observed in the initial matrix using a near linear
relationship (the linear relationship being identical for all pairs of distances).
 Polynomial MDS: the distances obtained in the representation space must correspond
as closely as possible to the distances observed in the initial matrix using a near 2nd-
degree polynomial relationship (the polynomial relationship being identical for all
pairs of distances).

Note: the absolute model is used to compare distances in the representation space with those
in the initial space. The other models have the advantage of speeding up the calculations.

Non metric MDS or NMDS

With Non metric MDS or NMDS, only the order of the dissimilarities counts. In other
words, the MDS algorithm does not have to try to reproduce the dissimilarities but only their
order. Two models are available:

 Ordinal (1): the order of the distances in the representation space must correspond to
the order of the corresponding dissimilarities. If there are two dissimilarities of the
same rank, then there are no restrictions on the corresponding distances. In other
 words, dissimilarities of the same rank need not necessarily give equal distances in the
representation space.
 Ordinal (2): the order of the distances in the representation space must correspond to
the order of the corresponding dissimilarities. If dissimilarities exist in the same rank,
the corresponding distances must be equal.

MEANING OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

market research data can be split into primary and secondary data sources, although from a
best practices perspective, secondary research should always be performed first.
 What Is Secondary Data?

Secondary data is publicly available or relatively inexpensive to obtain and can be used as the
foundation for any analysis or business decision — so long as you can feel comfortable
regarding the source, something FCR can assist with.

Secondary Data Examples

Sources of secondary data include, but are not limited to, the following:

Company Websites

 Advantages — Public companies tend to have investor relations sections on their websites
that are full of reports and other investor documents that can provide insights on both the
company, as well as the industry overall.
 Disadvantages — Private companies are not required to report sales or other types of
financial information, while public companies only have to report certain information, so if
you are seeking information on a specific segment or product, details may be lacking.
 Applications — Company websites can be used across a number of research workflows.
Revenue information can be used for market sizing, as well as market share analyses, while
investor information can offer insights on sales splits and expected sales.

Government Statistics

 Advantages — This data is widely available and easily accessible online. Topics range from
product shipments and trade, to patents, pricing inflation, and building trends, to name a few.
 Disadvantages — Data is organized in very specific manner, meaning it is often not
presented specifically as needed, so further manipulation/analysis tends to be required.
 Applications — Government statistics tend to be utilized in market sizing exercises and the
identification of market trends overall.

Industry Associations

 Advantages — These groups often share lots of valuable information on their websites —
including industry overviews, industry participants, product and company news, and other
details regarding industry trends.
 Disadvantages — Industry associations tend to compile industry data for their members, so
access to this information is likely not available to everyone. Additionally, industry data
typically only accounts for a certain share of overall activity. As such, further investigation as
to the portion of the market represented is required.
 Applications — Industry association data can be a great initial source of information when
performing a market sizing analysis, as well as identification of industry trends. The
information contained in these sources can also be used to identify key players in the market
and areas of focus.

Published Market Research Reports

 Advantages — These reports, for a fee, can provide a great overview of an industry,
including quantitative data you might not find elsewhere related to market size, growth rates,
and industry participant market share.
 Disadvantages — Because they are targeting as broad an audience as possible, these reports
tend to be rather broad, with relatively standard segmentation. For those interested in greater
detail on certain product segments or geographies, these reports may not be the best option.
 Applications — As noted, published market research often includes high-level quantitative
information, which can assist in market size and share analyses. Depending on the report,
details on major manufacturers involved in the industry may be available.

Trade Publications

 Advantages — Sources like periodicals and news articles, many of which are available
online, are a great industry-specific source for in-depth product, industry, and competitor
data. Oftentimes, these sources include commentary from leading executives about new
technologies, industry trends, and future plans.
 Disadvantages — While certain periodicals are known for their data collection, the data from
these organizations has similar disadvantages to those outlined above for industry
 associations. Quantitative details from newspaper articles tend to be derived from other
secondary sources.
 Applications — Information from trade publications can be used for both qualitative and
quantitative analyses. While the information might not get you as far as you need — in either
instance — it can serve as a strong starting point.

As noted, there are often limitations to relying solely on secondary sources, especially if you
are interested in a niche product or a new technology. In these cases, the information may be
outdated or not accurately reflect the industry situation as a whole. You might be asking a
question that no one has tried to answer before.

Primary Data

A primary resource is information that is collected specifically for your purposes, directly
from people who are involved in the industry that is being examined. Methods of primary
data collection will vary based on the goals of the research and the level of detail being
sought.

Primary Data Examples

Examples of primary data sources include:

Focus Groups

 Advantages — Focus groups allow companies to get very specific demographic end-user
thoughts (qualitative data) on a new product or service that are still in the early stages of
development.
 Disadvantages — Feedback comes from small groups, so unless multiple focus groups are
conducted and responses are compared, there may be sampling error issues.
 Applications — Focus groups can provide qualitative feedback on what end-users like,
dislike, are confused by, or would do differently, in regard to the new offering.

In-Depth Interviews

 Advantages — In-depth interviews allow for the targeting of key industry experts who can
offer both quantitative and qualitative details that can help provide clarity to your current
analysis. Not only do these allow for conversation regarding the research objectives, but they
often can result in new paths of examination that arise organically from the conversation.
 Disadvantages — The more detailed the information you are seeking, the fewer people there
are that can provide the desired information. As such, not just anyone can perform in-depth
interviews. They require significant contacts within the industry being studied, as well as
extensive experience engaging experts on their level.
 Applications — In-depth interviews present the opportunity to gather detailed qualitative and
quantitative insights from leading industry players about their business, competitors, and the
industry at large.

Social Media Monitoring

 Advantages — Social media monitoring shows that you don’t have to always participate in
the conversation to learn from it.
 Disadvantages — Without engaging with the market, you are often left to draw inferences
from the information that is uncovered. If you have questions about why a group is saying
something, you’re left to wonder.
 Applications — Social media monitoring allows for passive data gathering in the form of
questions like: How much are people talking about your brand compared to competitive
brands? Is what they’re saying positive or negative? Is the public clamoring for something the
industry currently doesn’t provide? How are your competitors portraying themselves via
social media, and what does that say about their strategy?

Surveys

 Advantages — Surveys are a great way to collect significant amounts of representative

quantitative data via primary research methods.
 Disadvantages — Whereas in-depth interviews are dynamic in nature, surveys are static, and
don’t allow for follow-up or further probing as to the “why” someone does something.
Additionally, the development of the questions used in a survey is critical to the success of
the research, meaning that it’s more complex than simply saying, “This is what I want to
know.”
 Applications — Surveys can be used to describe a given population in terms of who they are,
what they do, what they like, and if they’re happy, among many other characteristics.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA

Key Difference Between Primary And Secondary Data

Primary and secondary data are two types of data that researchers and analysts use for
various purposes. Here are the key differences between them:

Criteria Primary Data Secondary Data

Original data is collected directly Data that has been collected by

Definition from the source for a specific someone else for a purposSe other than
purpose. the current research.

Obtained from existing sources such as

Collected firsthand through
Collection government publications, academic
surveys, interviews, observations,
Source journals, books, databases, and
experiments, etc.
additional sources.
 Criteria Primary Data Secondary Data

It is generally considered more Reliability may vary depending on the

Reliability reliable as it is tailored to the source and the methods used in the
specific research objectives. original data collection.

Control over Researchers have control over the Limited control, as data is collected by
Methods data collection methods. someone else for a different purpose.

Limited customization options as

Highly customizable to suit the
Customization researchers are bound by the existing
unique requirements of the study.
data.

Time for Can be time-consuming and

Generally, it is more cost-effective and
Collection and expensive due to the need for
time-saving, as the data already exists.
Cost direct data collection.

Typically, it is more up-to-date

since it is collected for a specific May not be as current as primary data,
Timeliness
research project and not from especially in rapidly changing fields.
outdated sources.

Often more confidential as it is May have varying levels of

Confidentialit
collected directly from confidentiality depending on the
y
participants. source.

Can cover a wide range of topics and

Limited to the specific research
Scope may be used for various research
question or topic.
purposes.

Enables researchers to compare and

Comparative Limited in terms of comparing
contrast data from various sources,
Analysis data from different sources.
enhancing analysis.
 QUALITATIVE TEHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

 Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical analysis. Qualitative data is analyzed

by grouping the data into categories and themes.

Qualitative Marketing Research?

Qualitative marketing research is particularly important because it allows the researcher

to understand consumers’ beliefs, experiences and points of view. Conducting market
research often involves inducing consumers to share the things that influence their
behavior and buying habits.

Types of Qualitative Marketing Research

These professionals use a variety of qualitative marketing research methods to gain

insight into consumer habits, such as:

 Focus groups
 Interviews
 Observation
 Ethnography
 Community forums

Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative Marketing Research

Qualitative marketing research has many advantages over quantitative marketing

research. When you are conducting research for your DBA in Marketing degree program,
employing qualitative market research methods will enable you to interact with
consumers in a way that feels natural for them while also being informative for you.
Some other major advantages of qualitative marketing research are that it:

 Leads to collecting detailed information

 Is adaptive and allows for flexibility in questioning
 Uses open-ended questions to encourage transparency from respondents
 Helps consumers communicate with a brand (and vice versa)
 Allows products to remain relevant and meet customer needs

The disadvantages of qualitative marketing research mostly concern time, cost and
outcome. Qualitative marketing research can take days, weeks or even months to
complete — and when it comes to research, time really is money. Furthermore, the
outcomes of qualitative marketing research are inherently subjective; two consumers may
feel very differently about the same product or service. In other words, there is no
standardization in qualitative research, so it may be difficult to use the data to make
accurate assumptions or predictions.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Now that you understand the essentials of qualitative data, it’s time to take a look at the
qualitative data collection methods you may be working with. These are some of the
leading data collection methods used by marketing research doctoral candidates for their
dissertations:

 Surveys and questionnaires

 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Observations
 Records and archival review

Most of these qualitative data collection methods allow you to gather primary data.
Primary (or “raw”) data is gathered directly from the primary source. For example, if you
distribute a questionnaire or interview people directly, you are collecting primary data.

The only secondary data collection method listed here is the last one: records and archival
review. With this method, you are reviewing data that was already collected by someone
else. For instance, you might review census records or salary data collected by a job
posting website.

Developing Qualitative Surveys or Questionnaires

This is one of the most popular options for graduate students conducting research for their
dissertations, regardless of whether it is quantitative vs. qualitative market research.
Qualitative research demands open-ended questions, whereas quantitative requires closed-
ended questions.

Conducting Interviews to Collect Qualitative Data

Another qualitative data collection method is one-on-one interviews. Compared to

surveys, interviews offer a more personal way to collect data, which is why many
qualitative researchers prefer this approach.

A qualitative, data-driven interview can be unstructured and informal, in contrast to the

necessary structure and formality of a quantitative interview. The qualitative researcher is
free to deviate from the interview script, asking follow-up questions as they occur and
pursuing any topics of interest that may arise during the conversation.
Holding a Focus Group for Your Dissertation Research

Focus groups are a classic method of data collection for qualitative research. Note that in
a focus group, participants’ answers may be influenced by the responses of other
participants, or even by their mere presence.

Conducting a focus group is quite simple. Limit the participants in each group to no more
than six to ten. Lay some ground rules ahead of time, such as no interrupting or
judgmental comments about other participants. You will serve as the discussion
moderator. Write down some questions in advance, although spontaneous follow-up
questions may occur to you during the session. Remember to record your focus group
sessions for later analysis.

Collecting Qualitative Data via Observations

Observations are a useful method of collecting qualitative data, particularly when it’s
necessary to observe participants in their natural environment. For example, you might go
to a classroom to observe the behaviors of the students.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN, PROCESS OF DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRE:

A questionnaire is a research tool consisting of a set of questions or other ‘prompts’ to collect
data from a set of respondents.

When used in most research, a questionnaire will consist of a number of types of questions
(primarily open-ended and closed) in order to gain both quantitative data that can be analyzed
to draw conclusions, and qualitative data to provide longer, more specific explanations.

Survey vs. questionnaire

Survey definition

A survey is the process of collecting data from a set of respondents and using it to gather
insights.

Survey research can be conducted using a questionnaire, but won’t always involve one.

Questionnaire definition

A questionnaire is the list of questions you circulate to your target audience.

In other words, the survey is the task you’re carrying out, and the questionnaire is the
instrument you’re using to do it.

By itself, a questionnaire doesn’t achieve much.

It’s when you put it into action as part of a survey that you start to get results.

Advantages vs disadvantages of using a questionnaire

While a questionnaire is a popular method to gather data for market research or other studies,
there are a few disadvantages to using this method (although there are plenty of advantages to
using a questionnaire too).

Advantages of using a questionnaire

1. Questionnaires are relatively cheap

Depending on the complexity of your study, using a questionnaire can be cost effective
compared to other methods.

You simply need to write your survey questionnaire, and send it out and then process the
responses.

You can set up an online questionnaire relatively easily, or simply carry out market research
on the street if that’s the best method.

2. You can get and analyze results quickly

Again depending on the size of your survey you can get results back from a questionnaire
quickly, often within 24 hours of putting the questionnaire live.

It also means you can start to analyze responses quickly too.

3. They’re easily scalable

You can easily send an online questionnaire to anyone in the world and with the right
software you can quickly identify your target audience and your questionnaire to them.

4. Questionnaires are easy to analyze

If your questionnaire design has been done properly, it’s quick and easy to analyze results
from questionnaires once responses start to come back.
This is particularly useful with large scale market research projects.

Because all respondents are answering the same questions, it’s simple to identify trends.

5. You can use the results to make accurate decisions

As a research instrument, a questionnaire is ideal for commercial research because the data
you get back is from your target audience (or ideal customers) and the information you get
back on their thoughts, preferences or behaviors allows you to make business decisions.

6. A questionnaire can cover any topic

One of the biggest advantages of using questionnaires when conducting research is (because
you can adapt them using different types and styles of open ended questions and closed ended
questions) they can be used to gather data on almost any topic.

There are many types of questionnaires you can design to gather both quantitative data and
qualitative data - so they’re a useful tool for all kinds of data analysis.

Disadvantages of using a questionnaire

1. Respondents could lie

This is by far the biggest risk with a questionnaire, especially when dealing with sensitive
topics.

Rather than give their actual opinion, a respondent might feel pressured to give the answer
they deem more socially acceptable, which doesn’t give you accurate results.

2. Respondents might not answer every question

There are all kinds of reasons respondents might not answer every question, from
questionnaire length, they might not understand what’s being asked, or they simply might not
want to answer it.

If you get questionnaires back without complete responses it could negatively affect your
research data and provide an inaccurate picture.
3. They might interpret what’s being asked incorrectly

This is a particular problem when running a survey across geographical boundaries and often
comes down to the design of the survey questionnaire.

If your questions aren’t written in a very clear way, the respondent might misunderstand
what’s being asked and provide an answer that doesn’t reflect what they actually think.

Again this can negatively affect your research data.

4. You could introduce bias

The whole point of producing a questionnaire is to gather accurate data from which decisions
can be made or conclusions drawn.

But the data collected can be heavily impacted if the researchers accidentally introduce bias
into the questions.

This can be easily done if the researcher is trying to prove a certain hypothesis with their
questionnaire, and unwittingly write questions that push people towards giving a certain
answer.

In these cases respondents’ answers won’t accurately reflect what is really happening and
stop you gathering more accurate data.

5. Respondents could get survey fatigue

One issue you can run into when sending out a questionnaire, particularly if you send them
out regularly to the same survey sample, is that your respondents could start to suffer from
survey fatigue.

In these circumstances, rather than thinking about the response options in the questionnaire
and providing accurate answers, respondents could start to just tick boxes to get through the
questionnaire quickly.

.
Questionnaire examples and templates

There are free questionnaire templates and example questions available for all kinds of
surveys and market research, many of them online. But they’re not all created equal and you
should use critical judgement when selecting one. After all, the questionnaire examples may
be free but the time and energy you’ll spend carrying out a survey are not.

If you’re using online questionnaire templates as the basis for your own, make sure it has
been developed by professionals and is specific to the type of research you’re doing to ensure
higher completion rates.

Pros and Cons of Using Questionnaires in Research:

While questionnaires offer numerous advantages in research, they also come with some
disadvantages that researchers must be aware of and address appropriately. Careful
questionnaire design, validation, and consideration of potential biases can help mitigate these
disadvantages and enhance the effectiveness of using questionnaires as a data collection
method.

Structured vs Unstructured Questionnaires

Structured Questionnaire:
A structured questionnaire consists of questions with predefined response options.
Respondents are presented with a fixed set of choices and are required to select from those
options. The questions in a structured questionnaire are designed to elicit specific and
quantifiable responses. Structured questionnaires are particularly useful for collecting
quantitative data and are often employed in surveys and studies where standardized and
comparable data are necessary.

Advantages of Structured Questionnaires:

 Easy to analyze and interpret: The fixed response options facilitate straightforward
data analysis and comparison across respondents.
 Efficient for large-scale data collection: Structured questionnaires are time-efficient,
allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of respondents.
 Reduces response bias: The predefined response options minimize potential response
bias and maintain consistency in data collection.

Limitations of Structured Questionnaires:

 Lack of depth: Structured questionnaires may not capture in-depth insights or nuances
as respondents are limited to pre-defined response choices. Hence, they may not
reveal the reasons behind respondents’ choices, limiting the understanding of their
perspectives.
 Limited flexibility: The fixed response options may not cover all potential responses,
therefore, potentially restricting respondents’ answers.
Unstructured Questionnaire:
An unstructured questionnaire consists of questions that allow respondents to provide
detailed and unrestricted responses. Unlike structured questionnaires, there are no predefined
response options, giving respondents the freedom to express their thoughts in their own
words. Furthermore, unstructured questionnaires are valuable for collecting qualitative data
and obtaining in-depth insights into respondents’ experiences, opinions, or feelings.

Advantages of Unstructured Questionnaires:

 Rich qualitative data: Unstructured questionnaires yield detailed and comprehensive

qualitative data, providing valuable and novel insights into respondents’ perspectives.
 Flexibility in responses: Respondents have the freedom to express themselves in their
own words. Hence, allowing for a wide range of responses.

Limitations of Unstructured Questionnaires:

 Time-consuming analysis: Analyzing open-ended responses can be time-consuming,

since, each response requires careful reading and interpretation.
 Subjectivity in interpretation: The analysis of open-ended responses may be
subjective, as researchers interpret and categorize responses based on their judgment.
 May require smaller sample size: Due to the depth of responses, researchers may need
a smaller sample size for comprehensive analysis, making generalizations more
challenging.

Types of Questions in a Questionnaire

In a questionnaire, researchers typically use the following most common types of questions to
gather a variety of information from respondents:

1. Open-Ended Questions:
These questions allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses in their own
words. Open-ended questions are valuable for gathering qualitative data and in-depth
insights.

Example: What suggestions do you have for improving our product?

2. Multiple-Choice Questions
Respondents choose one answer from a list of provided options. This type of question is
suitable for gathering categorical data or preferences.

Example: Which of the following social media/academic networking platforms do you use to
promote your research?

 ResearchGate
 Academia.edu
 Facebook
 Twitter
  LinkedIn

3. Dichotomous Questions
Respondents choose between two options, typically “yes” or “no”, “true” or “false”, or
“agree” or “disagree”.

Example: Have you ever published in open access journals before?

 Yes
 No

4. Scaling Questions
These questions, also known as rating scale questions, use a predefined scale that allows
respondents to rate or rank their level of agreement, satisfaction, importance, or other
subjective assessments. These scales help researchers quantify subjective data and make
comparisons across respondents.

There are several types of scaling techniques used in scaling questions:

i. Likert Scale:
The Likert scale is one of the most common scaling techniques. It presents respondents with a
series of statements and asks them to rate their level of agreement or disagreement using a
range of options, typically from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.For example: Please
indicate your level of agreement with the statement: “The content presented in the webinar
was relevant and aligned with the advertised topic.”

 Strongly Agree
 Agree
 Neutral
 Disagree
 Strongly Disagree

ii. Semantic Differential Scale:

The semantic differential scale measures respondents’ perceptions or attitudes towards an
item using opposite adjectives or bipolar words. Respondents rate the item on a scale between
the two opposites. For example:

 Easy —— Difficult
 Satisfied —— Unsatisfied
 Very likely —— Very unlikely

iii. Numerical Rating Scale:

This scale requires respondents to provide a numerical rating on a predefined scale. It can be
a simple 1 to 5 or 1 to 10 scale, where higher numbers indicate higher agreement,
satisfaction, or importance.
iv. Ranking Questions:
Respondents rank items in order of preference or importance. Ranking questions help identify
preferences or priorities.

Example: Please rank the following features of our app in order of importance (1 = Most
Important, 5 = Least Important):

 User Interface
 Speed
 Functionality
 Customer Support
 Cost

By using a mix of question types, researchers can gather both quantitative and qualitative
data, providing a comprehensive understanding of the research topic and enabling meaningful
analysis and interpretation of the results. The choice of question types depends on
the research objectives, the desired depth of information, and the data analysis requirements.

Methods of Administering Questionnaires

There are several methods for administering questionnaires, and the choice of method
depends on factors such as the target population, research objectives, convenience, and
resources available.

Here are some common methods of administering questionnaires:

Each method has its advantages and limitations. Online surveys offer convenience and a large
reach, but they may be limited to individuals with internet access. Face-to-face interviews
allow for in-depth responses but can be time-consuming and costly. Telephone surveys have
broad reach but may be limited by declining response rates. Researchers should choose the
method that best suits their research objectives, target population, and available resources to
ensure successful data collection.

How to Design a Questionnaire

Designing a good questionnaire is crucial for gathering accurate and meaningful data that
aligns with your research objectives. Here are essential steps and tips to create a well-
designed questionnaire:

1. Define Your Research Objectives: Clearly outline the purpose and specific information
you aim to gather through the questionnaire.

2. Identify Your Target Audience: Understand respondents’ characteristics and tailor the
questionnaire accordingly.

3. Develop the Questions:

  Write Clear and Concise Questions
 Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
 Sequence Questions Logically
 Group Related Questions
 Include Demographic Questions

4. Provide Well-defined Response Options: Offer exhaustive response choices for closed-
ended questions.

5. Consider Skip Logic and Branching: Customize the questionnaire based on previous
answers.

6. Pilot Test the Questionnaire: Identify and address issues through a pilot study.

7. Seek Expert Feedback: Validate the questionnaire with subject matter experts.

8. Obtain Ethical Approval: Comply with ethical guidelines, obtain consent, and ensure
confidentiality before administering the questionnaire.

9. Administer the Questionnaire: Choose the right mode and provide clear instructions.

10. Test the Survey Platform: Ensure compatibility and usability for online surveys.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

A good questionnaire possesses several essential elements that contribute to its effectiveness.
Furthermore, these characteristics ensure that the questionnaire is well-designed, easy to
understand, and capable of providing valuable insights. Here are some key characteristics of a
good questionnaire:

1. Clarity and Simplicity: Questions should be clear, concise, and unambiguous. Avoid
using complex language or technical terms that may confuse respondents. Simple and
straightforward questions ensure that respondents interpret them consistently.

2. Relevance and Focus: Each question should directly relate to the research objectives and
contribute to answering the research questions. Consequently, avoid including extraneous or
irrelevant questions that could lead to data clutter.

3. Mix of Question Types: Utilize a mix of question types, including open-ended, Likert
scale, and multiple-choice questions. This variety allows for both qualitative and quantitative
data collections.

4. Validity and Reliability: Ensure the questionnaire measures what it intends to measure
(validity) and produces consistent results upon repeated administration (reliability).
Validation should be conducted through expert review and previous research.

5. Appropriate Length: Keep the questionnaire’s length appropriate and manageable to

avoid respondent fatigue or dropouts. Long questionnaires may result in incomplete or rushed
responses.
6. Clear Instructions: Include clear instructions at the beginning of the questionnaire to
guide respondents on how to complete it. Explain any technical terms, formats, or concepts if
necessary.

7. User-Friendly Format: Design the questionnaire to be visually appealing and user-

friendly. Use consistent formatting, adequate spacing, and a logical page layout.

8. Data Validation and Cleaning: Incorporate validation checks to ensure data accuracy and
reliability. Consider mechanisms to detect and correct inconsistent or missing responses
during data cleaning.

By incorporating these characteristics, researchers can create a questionnaire that maximizes

data quality, minimizes response bias, and provides valuable insights for their research.