SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

More than 90 percent of electric energy is generated by a-c machines. A great portion of
the energy is converted to direct current for use in many types of industry, in railway transportation,
on the farm, in communication systems (telephones, telegraphs, and radio), and in the home. A
substantial part of the gigantic electrochemical industry, for example, depends upon direct current
for such electrolytic processes as electroplating, electro refining (copper, gold, and other precious
metals), electrotyping, the production of aluminum, and the manufacture of fertilizers. Also, many
motor applications such as elevators, printing presses, many kinds of machine tools, and certain
kinds of steel-mill equipment are generally superior when operated by d-c systems. In these and
others, the incoming alternating current must be converted to direct current.
The advantages of a-c generation are, however, apparent when it is recognized that it can
be accomplished economically in large power plants that may be located where fuel and water are
abundant. The industrial applications of alternating current are, of course, wide spread. These
include the many types of induction motor, ranging in size from the mighty midgets to the giants
employed in wind tunnels and reclamation projects, transformer equipment used in connection
with welders and many kinds of control devices, communication systems, and many others.
It should be emphasized that electric energy is, for the most part, generated as alternating
current even though it may finally develop as direct current. This is particularly true in the d-c
generator. Another important difference between d-c and a-c system concerns the transmission and
distribution potentials. Since it is not feasible to raise or lower the voltages in d-c systems, energy
must be transmitted from generator to consumer at essentially the same emf as it is generated; this
is usually restricted to such low values as 250,000 and 1,500 volts, a condition that limits both the
amount and distance of transmission. These limitations are not imposed upon a-c systems where
efficient transformer equipment is used to raise or lower the voltage as required. In a typical a-c
system, for example, the generated emf of 13,800 volts might be raised to 132,000 volts for long-
distance transmission, say 100 miles, where in several successive step-down phases the so-called
secondary lines might operate at 13,000, 6,600, 2,300, 230, and 115 volts. These changes are, of
course, made to save copper, reduce copper loss, and provide some element of safety.

GENERATION OF ALTERNATING EMF

Electromotive force – voltage which is produced by moving a conductor winding in a magnetic

field or by altering the direction of the flux.

Alternating voltage can be produced by:

1. changing the flux in the coil
d
e=N x 10-8 V induced voltage
dt
where: N = no. of turns in a coil
d
= rate at which flux in Maxwell changes through the coil
dt
2. moving the coil through a magnetic field so that the flux cutting results

3. altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil

e = vx10 −8 V generated voltage
 where:  = flux density, lines/ in2;  = /A
 = length of the wire in inch that is moving relative to the flux
v = velocity of the wire, in inch/sec with respect to the flux

Example:

1. Calculate the average induced voltage in a coil of 300 turns through which the flux changes
from 250,000 to 20,000 Maxwell’s in 0.15 sec.

Given:
N = 300 turns
1 = 250,000 maxwells or lines
2 = 20,000 maxwells or lines
d = ?
dt = 0.15 sec.

Solution:
d
e=N x10 −8 V
dt

d = 1 −  2
d = 250,000 – 20,000
d = 230,000 maxwells
(300turnsx230,000 max wells) x10 −8
e=
0.15
e = 4.6 V

Generation of a Sine Wave of Voltage

The voltage developed in a coil of generator changes

1. In a magnitude from instant to instant as varying values of flux are cut per second.

2. In a direction as coil side changes position under north and south poles implies that an
alternating emf is generated.

Note:
+ → Current carrying conductor away from the observer
- → Current carrying conductor towards the observer
Let e = xy
Em = ay
e
sin  = ; e= Emsin
Em
 where:
e = instantaneous voltage (volts)
Em = maximum voltage (volts)
Alternating emf – voltage that varies in magnitude and direction periodically

Period (T) – smallest time separating recurring values of a cycle

T = 1/ƒ
where f = frequency

Frequency (ƒ) – number of rotation of generation. i.e. 60 rpm, 1 rps, 1cps, 1 Hz.

Em

e = Em sin 

alternation ∞
1 cycle
-Em

In a sinusoidal wave, the frequency is given in cycle per second.

For a two – pole machine ( 1 pair ):

One cycle takes place from 0 - 2 radian. If the rate of rotation of the coil is expressed in
rev/sec, since 1 rev = 360 = 2 rad, then frequency (f) = cycle/sec or 1 cycle takes place at a
revolution of the coil.

For a machine of P number of poles:

One cycle takes place between P/2 pair of poles or there are P/2 cycle/1 rev. If the coil
rotates N rev/sec; then

P
cycle
2 Nrev
f = x
rev sec

PN
f =
cycles / sec
 where:
P = no. of poles
N = rev/sec, speed of rotation of the coil

If N is expressed in rev/min

PN PN
f = f = cycles / sec
2(60) 120

Example:

1. The maximum value of sinusoidal voltage wave generated in one coil of alternator is 12
volts. How many electrical degrees from zero point in the cycle (increasingly positively)
will the voltage be a) + 8.5 V b) – 8.5 V?

Given:
Em = 12 V

Solution:
a) from e = Em sin α
when e = 8.5 ; α1 = ?

8.5 = 12 sin  1 8.5 V

8.5
 1 = sin −1 8.5 =
12 0 /2  3/2 2
 1 = 45 1
- 8.5 V
2
 2 = 180 −  1
3
 2 = 180 − 45 4
 2 = 135
b)
 3 = 180 +  1  4 = 360 −  1
 3 = 180 + 45  4 = 360 − 45
 3 = 225  4 = 315

The voltage will be +8.5 volts at 45 and 135, -8.5 volts at 225 and 315.

2. An alternator has 6 poles. a) At what speed must the machine be driven to develop 60 cycles?
25 cycles? b) What frequency is developed if the speed is 1000 rpm? 1600 rpm?

Solution:
a) N60 and N25
PN
f =
120
 (120)(60)
N60 =
6
= 1200 rpm

(120)(25)
N25 =
6
= 500 rpm

b) f1000 and f1600

(1000)(6)
f1000 =
120
= 50 cps or Hz

(1600)(6)
f1600 =
120
= 80 cps

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING CURRENT

i
R

By Ohm’s Law: i = e/R ; e = Em sin α

e
i = ; e = Em sin 
R
Em sin  Em
i= ; but Im =
R R
therefore i = Im sin 

If the voltage wave is sinusoidal, also the current wave is sinusoidal. For a 2-pole machine,
1 cycle takes place at 2 rad or at 1/f sec.

1cycle 2rad rad

= = 2 f
1 / f sec 1 / f sec sec
rad
2 f x t sec = 2  ft rad
sec
 Let  = 2ft rad
from i = Im sin 
i = Im sin 2ft rad; since  = 2f

i = Im sin t ; where  = angular displacement

Im = maximum value of current
i = instantaneous value of current

Example:

1. A 60 cycle current has a maximum value of 6.5 ampere. What will be the instantaneous value
of current a) 0.0025 sec. after the wave passes through zero in a positive direction, b) 0.01042
sec. After the wave passes zero in a positive direction?
Im

0 /2  3/2 2

-Im

Solution:
i = Im sin t
i = 6.5 sin 2ft
i = 6.5 sin 377t
a) when t = 0.0025 sec.
180 
i = 6.5 sin 377 (0.0025 sec.) rad x
 rad
i = 5.239 A
b) when t = 0.01042 sec.
180
i = 6.5 sin 377(0.01042 sec.) rad x
rad
i = -4.6 Ampere

ALTERNATING – CURRENT AMPERE

Is the current which is flowing through a given ohmic resistance will produce heat at the same rate
as direct current ampere?

• Average and Effective or Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Voltage and Current
 1. Average Value of Voltage and Current

Em

e = Em sin ωt

ωt

- Em
A
Eave = ; where: A = area of the curve
Base

A=LxW

Integrating both sides

 dA =  e dωt
A =  Em sin ωt dωt
A = Em [-cos ωt] 0
A = - Em [cos π– cos 0]
A = 2 Em

Base = 
2 Em
 Eave =

Eave = 0.637 Em
where
Eave = Average value of voltage (volts)

2 Im
Iave =


Iave = 0.637 Im

where
Iave = Average value of current (ampere)
 2. Effective Value of Voltage and Current or RMS

Em2

E2 e2 = Em2 sin2 ωt
Em
e = Em sin ωt
E

ωt

- Em dwt

A
E2 =
Base
where:

A = the square of the curve

Integrating both sides:

 dA =  e2 dωt
A =  Em2 sin2 ωt dωt
1 1
A = Em2  ( - cos 2 t ) dt
2 2
2
Em
A = (  dt -  cos 2 t dt
2
Em 2
A = ( t )│ 0
2
Em 2
A = ( -0)
2
Em 2
A =
2
Base =
Em 2 Em 2
 E2 = =
2 2

 Em
E =
2

E = 0.707 Em

Also,
Im
I=
2
I = 0.707 Im
where:
E = effective or RMS value of voltage (volts)
I = effective or RMS value of current (ampere)

Example:

1. A sinusoidal voltage wave having an effective value of120 V is impressed across a 50-
ohm resistor. Calculate the RMS and maximum value of current.

Given:
E = 120 V
R = 50Ω

Required:
I and Im

Eave (AC) = 0

Solution:
E 120
I = =
R 50
I = 2.4 Ampere
Im = 2 I = 2 (2.4)
 Im = 3.39 Ampere

SCALARS AND VECTORS QUANTITIES

Scalar – is a quantity that is completely determined by its magnitude alone.

Vector – has direction as well as magnitude.

Example:
force, velocity, acceleration, weight, etc.

Wave and Vector Representation of Sinusoidal Wave

WAVE DIAGRAM VECTOR

Positive Sine Waves:

A
A cos ωt
y = A sin ωt
ωt
A sin ωt

-A -A cos ωt
Negative sine wave

A
y = -Asin ωt -A sin ωt
 Positive cosine wave

A A cos ωt

y = A cos ωt
-A

Negative cosine wave

y = - A cos ωt

- A cos ωt
Leading and Lagging Sine Wave

Wave Diagram

leading y = A2 sin ωt

y = A3 sin (ωt – Ө)

lagging
y = A1 sin (ωt + Ө)
Vector Diagram
 A1
leading

A2 sin ωt

lagging A3

Leading and Lagging Cosine Wave

Wave Diagram

y = A2 cos ωt

y = A3 cos (ωt – Ө)

y = A1 cos (ωt + Ө)
 Vector Diagram

A2

A1 A3

Leading Lagging

Example:

Given:
I2 leads I1 by 30˚
I3 lags I1 by 45˚ (use I1 as reference wave)
Assume I1 = I2 = I3 = 10 A

Draw the vector and wave diagram.

Solution:

I2 = 10 A
30° I1 = 10 A
45°

I3 = 10 A
i = Im sin ωt
i1 = Im1 sin ωt
i1 = 2 I1 sin ωt
1 = 2 (10 A) sin ωt
i1 = 14.14 sin ωt

i2 = Im2 sin (ωt +  ) i3 = Im3 sin (ωt -  )

i2 = 2 I2 sin (ωt + 300) i3 = 2 I3 sin (ωt - 450)
i2 = 2 (10 A) sin (ωt + 300) i3 = 2 (10 A) sin (ωt - 450)
i2 = 14.14 sin (ωt + 300) i3 = 14.14 sin (ωt - 450)
i2 = 14.14 sin (ωt +  / 6
Wave diagram

I1 = 14.14 sin ωt

i2 = 14.14 sin (ωt – π/6)

i2 = 14.14 sin (ωt + π/6)

Example:

I2 leads I1 by 30˚, I3 lags I1 by 30˚, I4 leads I3 by 90˚, I5 leads I4 by 30˚

i5 = 6A

i4 = 5A
30°
30°
30°
i2 = 3A
30°
i1 = 2A

i3 = 2A

Assume I2 as reference wave (I1 = 2A, I2 = 3A, I3 = 4 A, I4 = 5A, and I6 = 6A). Draw the vector
and wave diagram if the frequency of the given wave is 60 cps.

Solution:
I = Im sin ωt ; 2 f = 2  (60) = 120 
i2 = Im2 sin 120  t
180o
i2 = 2 I sin (377t rad x )
rad
i2 = 2 (30) sin 21600.509t
i2 = 4.243 sin 21600t
i2 = 4.243 sin 377t
i1 = Im1 sin (120  t -  )
 180
i1 = 2 (2) sin (120  t rad x - 30˚)
rad
i1 = 2.828 sin (377t - 30˚)

i3 = Im3 sin (120  t -  )

i3 = 2 (4) sin (21600t – 60˚)
i3 = 5.657 sin (21600t - 60˚)
i4 = Im4 sin (120  t -  )
i4 = 2 (4) sin (21600t + 30˚)
i4 = 7.071 sin (21600t + 30˚)

i5 = Im5 sin (120 t −  )

i5 = 2 (6) sin (21600t + 60˚)
i5 = 8.0485 sin ( 21600t + 60˚)

Example:

1. A 50- cycle alternating current has maximum instantaneous value of 42.42 A. It crosses the time
axis in a positive direction when time is zero.

Determine:

a. time when first reaches the value of 30 A.

b. time when current, after having gone through its maximum positive value, reaches a value
of 36.7 A.
c. time when current first reaches a negative value of 21.22 A.

Given:
f = 50 cps
Im = 42.42 A
Solution:

42.42
36.7
30
21.21

tz
t1
tx
0.01

t2

t3
0.02
 i = Im sin ωt

i = 42.42 sin 2ft

i = 42.42 sin 2 (50 )t
i = 42.42 sin 314.16t

a. let t1 = is the time when the current first reaches a value of 30 A

i1 = Im sin t1 ; t1 = ?

When i1 = 30 A

30 = 42.42 sin 314.16 t1

30
314.16 t1 = sin1
42.42
314.16 t1 = 45 (  rad/1800)
0

t1 = 0.0025 sec

b. Let t2 = is the time when current after having gone through its maximum positive value, reaches
a value of 36.7 A.

t2 = 0.01 – tx → 1
Ix = 42.42 sin 314.16 tx ; tx = ?

When ix= 36.7

36.7
= sin 314.16 tx
42.42

30
314.16 tx = sin1
42.42
600 (rad )
tx =
1800 (314.16)
tx = 0.0033 sec.

subs. tx to eq. 1:
t2 = 0.01 – 0.0033
t2 = 0.0067 sec
Alternative solution:

By getting the equivalent positive cosine wave and set time equals to 0.

tz
0.05

0.015

ty = ?
When iy = 36.7 A

iy = 42.42 cos 314.16 ty

36.7
cos1 = 314.16 ty
42.42
300 (rad )
ty =
1800 (314.16)
ty = 0.00167 sec

t2 = 0.005 + ty
t2 = 0.005 + 0.00167

t2 = 0.00667 sec

c. Let t3 = is the time when current first reaches a negative value of 21.21 A.

iz = 42.42 sin 314.16 tz; tz = ?

When iz = 21.21 A

21.21 A = 42.42 sin 314.16 tz

21.21
sin1 = (314.16) tz
42.42
 300 (rad )
tz =
1800 (314.16)

tz = 0.00167 sec.
t3 = 0.01 + tz
t3 = 0.01 + 0.00167

= 0.01167 sec.

SUMMATION OF IN- PHASE SINUSOIDAL WAVE

When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in phase and have the same frequency,
they maybe added to yields a sine wave of the same frequency. The resultant wave then has a
maximum value that is equal to the arithmetic sum of the maximum values of the component.

Example:

Given:
e1 = 10 sin ωt
e2 = 12 sin ωt
e3 = 15 sin ωt

a. Find the equation of the resultant wave.

b. Draw the wave and vector diagrams.

Solution:
er = e1 + e2 + e3
er = 10 sin ωt + 12 sin ωt + 15 sin ωt
er = 37 sin ωt

Emr er=37 sin wt

Em3 e3=15 sin wt
Em2 e2=12 sin wt
Em1 e1=10 sin wt

sin ωt
Em1 Em2 Em3 Emr

Wave diagram Vector Diagram

 SUMMATION OF OUT - OF – PHASE SINUSOIDAL WAVE

When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are out of phase but have the same
frequency, they may be added to yield a sine wave at the same frequency. However, a point-by-
point summation will not yield a maximum value for the resultant of the maximum of the
individual waves. The reason is that the maximum values of the individual waves do not occur at
the same instants of time.
e1 = Em1 sin ωt
e2 = Em2 cos ωt

as waves:

er = e1 + e2

er = Em1 sin ωt + Em2 cos ωt → 1

Em2
sin  = cos ωt
Emr
Em2
Em1
cos  =
Emr
sin ωt
Em2
tan  = Em1
Emr

Em2
 = tan1
Em1

By Pythagorean Theorem:

Em1 + Em2
2 2
Emr =

Multiply and divide the right side of the equation 1 by Emr

 Em Em2 
er = Emr  1 sin t + cost 
 Emr Emr 

but sin ωt cos  + cos ωt sin  – sin (ωt +  )

 er = Emr sinwt
Example:

Given:
i1 = 10 sin (ωt - π /4)
i2 = 15 sin (ωt + π /2)
i3 = 20 sin (ωt + π /2)

Find the equation of the resultant wave using a.) as waves, b.) as vector and also draw the wave
diagram.

Solution:

a. as wave:

ir = i1 + i2 + i3
ir = 10 sin (ωt - π /4)+ 5 sin (ωt + π /2)+20 sin (ωt + π /2)
ir = 7.07 sin ωt -7.07 cos ωt + 35 cos ωt
ir = 7.07 sin ωt + 27.93 cos ωt → 1

Imr =
7.07 27.93
cos  = sin  =
28.81 28.81
 = 75.790  = 75.800

27.9
tan  =  = 75.700
7.07
Multiply and Divide the right side of equation 1by 28.81.

 7.07 27.93 
ir = 28.81  sin t + cost 
 28.81 28.81 
ir = 28.81 [ cos  sin t + sin  cos t ]
ir = 28.81 sin ( t +  )
ir = 28.81 sin ( t + 75.790)
b. as vector
ImB = 20 A Imr = 28.81

Im2

𝜋
4
 Im1

c. by component method

F x = Im cos 150
F x = 10 cos 450
F x = 7.07 A
F y = Im sin 450 + 35 sin 900
F y = 10(0.707) + 35
F y = 27.93 A

Imr =  Ix +  Iy
2 2

Imr = 7.07 2 + 27.932

Imr = 28.81 A

tan  =
 Iy ; = tan1 27.93
 Ix 7.07

θ= 75 .79 

IT = 28.81 sin sin (ωt + 75 .79  )

FARADAY’S LAW
Electromagnetic induction is the process by which a current can be induced to flow due to a
changing magnetic field.

Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of
experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry. From the experimental observations, Faraday
concluded that an emf is induced when the magnetic flux across the coil changes with time.
Therefore, Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states the following:
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If
the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced, which is called induced current.

Changing the Magnetic Field Intensity in a Closed Loop

Magnetic field intensity in a closed loop

There are different ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:

• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that
The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. The flux linkage is the
product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux associated with the coil. The formula of
Faraday’s law is given below:

where ε is the electromotive force, Φ is the magnetic flux, and N is the number of turns.
And so, with N = 1, ∆ϕ = 0.05 Wb and ∆t = 5 seconds:
 0.05𝑊𝑏
𝜀 = −1
5𝑠
𝜀 = −0.01𝑉
The minus sign shows the direction of the emf induced in the solenoid.

Applications of Faraday’s Law

Following are the fields where Faraday’s law finds applications:

1. Electrical equipment like transformers works on the basis of Faraday’s law.

2. Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction, which is based on the principle
of Faraday’s law.
3. By inducing an electromotive force into an electromagnetic flowmeter, the velocity of the
fluids is recorded.
4. Electric guitar and electric violin are musical instruments that find an application of
Faraday’s law.
5. Maxwell’s equation is based on the converse of Faraday’s laws which states that a change
in the magnetic field brings a change in the electric field.
COULOMB’S LAW
According to Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged
bodies is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. It acts along the line joining the two charges considered to
be point charges.
Coulomb’s Formula

where,

• ε is absolute permittivity,
• K or εr is the relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity
• ε0 is the permittivity of free space
• K or εr is also called a dielectric constant of the medium in which the two charges are
placed.

The value of 1/4πε0 is equal to 9 × 109 Nm2/C2.

Example:
1. A positive charge of 6×10-6 C is 0.040m from the second positive charge of 4×10-6 C.
Calculate the force between the charges.
Given:
Q1 = 6×10-6 C
Q2 = 4×10-6 C
r = 0.040 m

Solution:
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 1 2 2
𝑟

9
(6𝑥10−6 ) (4𝑥10−6 )
𝐹𝑒 = 9.0 𝑥 10
(0.04)2
𝐹𝑒 = 135𝑁
2. Two-point charges, q1 = +9 μC and q2 = 4 μC, are separated by a distance r = 12 cm. What
is the magnitude of the electric force?

Given:
Q1 = 9×10-6 C
Q2 = 4×10-6 C
r = 0.12 m

Solution:
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 1 2 2
𝑟

9
(9𝑥10−6 ) (4𝑥10−6 )
𝐹𝑒 = 9.0 𝑥 10
(0.12)2
𝐹𝑒 = 22.5𝑁
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 1

1. Calculate the average voltage induced in a coil of 300 turns through which the flux changes
from 250,000 to 20,000 maxwells in 0.15 seconds.

2. How many turns of wire are there in a coil in which 357 volts are induced when the flux
through it increases uniformly at the rate of 3 x 106 maxwells per second?

3. A square coil, 2 inches on a side, has 240 turns of wire and is placed between the poles of
a magnet that are slightly more than 1 inches apart. If the horizontally directed field has a
uniform flux of density of 11,180 maxwells per square inch and the coil is rotated from a
vertical plane to a horizontal in 0.05 seconds, calculate the average generated voltage.

4. A voltage wave has the equation e=170 sin α. Calculate the instantaneous values of voltage
for the following angles: 30º, 60º, 75º, 105º, 135º, 180º, 270º and 330º.

5. A current wave has the equation 𝑖 = 21.2 sin 𝛼. At what angles will the instantaneous
values of current be the following: 7.25 amp, 15 amp, 19.9 amp, 13.6 amp, -13.6 amp, -
19.9 amp and -12.2 amp.

6. Three resistors having ohmic values that are respectively, 9, 12.5 and 16 ohms are
connected in series to a sinusoidal source of emf whose effective voltage is 120. Calculate
the current through the circuit and the voltage drop across the individual resistor.

7. Four incandescent lamps (resistor) having ratings of 50, 60, 75, and 100 watts, respectively
are connected in parallel to a sinusoidal emf whose effective voltage is 120. Calculate the
current through each lamp and the total current.

8. Two units, connected in parallel, are energized by an ac-source. If the component currents
are 12 and 16 amp respectively and the corresponding sinusoidal waves are out of phase
by 60 electrical degree, calculate the rms values of the total current.

9. The voltage drop across two series connected units A and B are 60 and 90 volts,
respectively. Assuming EA to be the reference phasor, calculate he resultant voltage and
the angle it makes with the x-axis reference (a) if EB lags behind EA by 90º, (b) if EB leads
EA by 60º.
 RESISTANCE(R), INDUCTANCE (L), CAPACITANCE (C) CIRCUIT
1. A pure resistance in an ac circuits take a current in phase with the impressed voltage. This
implies that the power factor is unity.
2. A pure inductor in an ac circuits take a current that lags the impressed voltage by 900.
3. A pure capacitor in an ac circuits take a current that leads the impressed voltage by 900.

Basic Types of Circuit

R – ckt L – ckt C – ckt

Basic Types of Series Circuit

E E E

R L C

R–L R–C

E E

R L R C

L–C R–L-C

E E

L C R L C

1. Resistance Circuit (R – ckt):

e = Em sin ωt
 I E

P = ei
P =(Em sin t ) ( Im sin t )
P = Em Im sin2 t )
P = EI – EI cos 2 t

Power Wave and its Component in a Resistor Circuit

Derivation of Average Power (Pave or P):

dA = P d t

integrating both sides:

 dA =  Pdt
A =  ( EI − EI cos 2t ) dt
A = EI
Base =
EI
Pave = P=

P = EI
Where E and I = effective values of voltage and current

Example:

1. A large room is illuminated by twenty 50 W lamps. If The circuit voltage is 116V, calculate
the total current.
E = 116 V

Solution:
P = EI
P = ( 20 )(50 )
P = 1000 W
I = 1000/116
I = 8.62 Ampere 2650 W

2. Inductance Circuit (L-ckt)

e = Em sin wt

π
i = (Im sin (ωt − 2 )
Em

Im
Referring to the circuit diagram:

By KVL:

In pure inductance ckt, current lags by 900 with respect to voltage

di
e-L =0
dt
di
e=L ; since e = Em sin t dt
dt
di Em
Em sin  = L ; di = sin t dt
dt L

Integrating both sides:

 di =  Em / L sin wt dt
i = Em / L(− cos t )(1 /  )
 i = - Em / L cos t ;
let L = XL XL =2 fL

where XL = inductive reactance

i = Em / L cos t ; but Em / X L = Im
i = - Im cos t
i = Im (-cos t );

also –cos t = sin (t −  / 2)

I = Im sin (t −  / 2)

P = ei
P = ( Em sin t )[Im sin ( t −  / 2 )]
P = -EI sin 2 t

Derivation of Pave or P (using power wave diagram)

Pave or P = 1/   Pdt
Pave = 0

Energy in Inductive Circuit: (W), (Using Power Wave Diagram)

where:
L = inductance (henry)
I = Efficiency value of current

− LI 2
Wo - 3  / 4 = joules
2

Example:

1. An inductance of 0.106 henry is connected to a 120V, 60 cycle source. Calculate a.)

inductive reactance, b.) current in the circuit, c.) power average, d.) Write the equation for
current and power, e.) Pmax.

Solution:
a.) XL = 2  fL
= 2  (60)(0.106)
= 39.96  40 
E 120
b.) I = = = 3 Ampere
XL 40

c.) Pave = 0

d.) i= Im sin( t -  /2)

= 2 I sin( t -  /2)
= 4.24 sin(377t -  / 2)
p = -EI sin 2 t
= - 120(3) sin 754t
= - 360 W
P = 360 W
2. When 117 volt, 60 cycle source is connected to a pure inductor, the current is 3.9 Ampere.
(a) Write the equation for the current in the circuit, (b) Determine energy stored in the
inductor between  /2 and  , (c) the energy stored in the inductor between  /4 and 3 
/4, and (d) the energy stored in the inductor between  /4 and  .

Solution:
a.) I = Im sin(  t -  /2)
= 2 (3.9) sin 2  (60) -  /2

= 5.515 sin (377t -  /2)

b.)

W /2 -  = LI2
Xl = 2  fL
E 117
= =
I 3.9
= 30 
30
L =
2  (60)
= 0.0796 h

W /2 -  = (0.0796) (3.92)
= 1.21 joules

− LI 2 LI 2
c.) W  . / 4−3 / 4 = +
2 2
=0

− LI 2
d.) W  . / 4 − = + LI2
2
1.21
=
2
= 0.605 joules
3. Capacitance Circuit (C-ckt)

Circuit Diagram Vector Diagram

e = Em sin ωt Im

i = Im sin (ωt + 90 Em

by KVL:
e – q/c = 0
Vc = q/c
E = q/c ; since e = Em sin t

Where q = CEm sin t

Differentiate q with respect to t:

dy
= CEm (cos t ) 
dt
dq dq
=  C Em cos t ; but =i
dt dt
1
I =  C Em cos t ; let  C =
Xc
1
Where C=
2fc
E
I = m cos t ;
Xc
E
Also m = Im
Xc
cos t = sin( t +  /2)
I = Im sin ( t -  /2)
Wave Diagram

e=Em sin wt

p=EI sin 2wt

 i=Im sin (wt+π/2)

P = (Em sin t )[Em sin ( t +  / 2 )

P = EI sin 2 t

Derivation of Pave or P:
(Using power wave)

Pave = area of the curve / Base

Pave = 2/   p d t
Pave = 0

Energy in Capacitance Circuit: (W)

(Use Power Diagram)
 W 0− / 2 = CE2 joules
W  / 2 = - CE2 joules

Example:

1. A 127 f capacitor is connected to a 125 V, 50 Cycle’s source. Calculate

a.) the capacitive reactance
b.) the current in the circuit
c.) maximum power delivered to the capacitor in returned to the source
d.) write the equation for current and power

Solution:
10 6 10 6
a.) Xc = =
2fc 2 (50)(127)
= 25.06   25 

E = 125 V
E 125
b.) I = = f = 50
Xc 25
= 5 amp I

C = 127µf
c.) Pmax = EI = (125) (5)
= 625 KW
d.) i = Im sin( t +  / 2 )
= 2 (5) sin[ (2 )(50)t +  / 2 ]
= 7.07 sin[ (314 .16t +  / 2 ]
p = EI sin 2 t
= 625 sin 2(314.16t)
= 625 sin 628.32t

2. The current in the circuit is 1.96 A when a capacitor is connected to a 250 V, 50 cycle source.
a.) write the equation for current and power. b.) determine the energy stored in the capacitor
during the positive half cycle of power wave.

Solution:
a.) I = Im sin( t +  / 2 )
= 2 (1.96) sin[ (2 )(50)t +  / 2 ]
= 2.77 sin[ (314 .16t +  / 2 ]
 p = EI sin 2 t
= (250)(1.96) sin 2(314.16t)
= 490 sin 628.32t

b.) W 0− / 2 = CE2

E 250
Xc = =
I 1.96
= 127.55 
10 6 10 6
Xc = =
2fc 2 (50)(127.55)
c = 24.97 f

4. Resistance – Inductance Circuit (R –L Ckt):

e = Em sin ωt

E
i = Im sin (ωt -
I
ER EL

EL EL

E E

ER = IR
I ER
Wave diagram

P = ei
 = [Em sin t ][Im sin( t -  )
= EI (cos  -cos2 t cos  -sin2 t sin  )

Referring to the voltage triangle 

ER + EL – E = 0
ER + EL
2 2
E2 =
I R + I XL
2 2
E = S P

I 2 (R 2 + X L )
2
E =

R2 + X L
2
E = I Q
 E = Iz

R2 + X L
2
where z=
z = circuit impedance: (inductive) 
E IR R P
cos  = R = = =
E Iz z S

where cos  = power factor of the circuit

1
Q= ;  = figure of merit
cos

EL IX L XL
sin  = = =
E Iz Z

Voltage triangle impedance triangle

E = IZ Z
XL
θ θ

ER = IR R

Derivation of Pave or P:
(Use of Power Wave)
 Pave = area of the curve / Base ; Base = 
P = 1/   pdt ; p = EI cos 

Example:

1. A 240 V, 60 cycle source is connected to a coil of wire that has resistance of 7  , an inductance
of 0.0471 henry. Calculate the following; a.) impedance, b.) current, c.) power, d.) power factor.

Given:
E = 240 V
f = 60

R=7 L = 0.477 H

Solution:

R2 + X L Xl = 2  fL
2
a.) z = ;

= 7 2 + 17 .98 2 = 2  (60)(0.0477)
= 19.297  = 17.98 

b.) P = EI cos 

R 7
cos  = = = 0.36 lagging
Z 19.297

P = (240) (12.437) (0.36) = 1074.56 W

 P = I2R = (12.437)2 (7) = 1082.753 W

5. Resistance – Capacitance Circuit (R –C Ckt.):

E = Em sin ωt

i = Im sin ωt

R C

P = ei
P = [Em sin t ][Im sin( t +  )
P = EI (cos  2 t cos  +sin2 t sin  )

Wave diagram

e = Emsint P = EI (cos Ө - cos 2 t cost sin2t sinθ)

i = Imsin ( t +  )

Vector diagram

I ER
I

E E
EC
 ER + Ec = E
E R + EC
2 2
E2 =
I R + I XC
2 2
E =

I 2 (R 2 + X C )
2
E =
R2 + X C
2
E = I
 E = Iz

R2 + X C
2
where z =
z = circuit impedance: (capacitive) 

Derivation of Pave: (Use Power Wave)

Pave = area of the curve / Base

Pave = 1/   p d t
Pave = EI cos 
6. Inductance – Capacitance Circuit (L–C Ckt.):

e = Em sin ωt

i = Im sin (ωt

L C

EL EC
E = ± EL ± EC

Case I: If XL > Xc, the circuit behaves just like a simple inductance circuit.

Circuit diagram vector diagram

EL
e = Em sin ωt
E = EL – EC

i = Im sin (ωt - I
L C

EC

E = EL -Ec
E = IXL - IXc
E = I(XL – XC)

Let Xeq = ( XL – XC )

Where Xeq = equivalent inductance reactance

 E = IXeq
Case II: if XC > XL, the circuit behave just like a simple capacitance circuit.

e = Em sin ωt

i = Im sin (ωt +
I
L C
E = EC = EL

E = Ec - EL
E = IXc - IXL
E = I(XC – XL)
let Xeq = (XC – XL)
where Xeq = equivalent inductance reactance

 E = IXeq

Example:

1. A series circuit consisting of a 0.0795 henry inductor and a 117  f capacitor is connected to a
120 V, 60 cycle source. Calculate a.) the equivalent reactance of the circuit, b.) the circuit
current, indicated whether the latter lags or leads.

E = 120 V

I
L C

Solution:
a.) Xeq = XL + Xc
XL = 2  fL
= 2  (60)(0.0795)
= 30 
10 6
Xc =
2fC
10 6
=
2 (60)(177)
= 22.67 

XL > XC → pure L ckt

 Xeq = XL - XC
= 30 – 22.67 
= 7.3 

E 120
b.) I = =
X eq 7.3
= 18.438 lags the impressed voltage 900

2. A 5 f capacitor is connected in series with a variable inductor to a 220 V, 796 cycle source.
For what value of inductance will be the current, a.) 2 A lagging, b.) 2 A leading.

E = 220 V

I
L C

Solution:
a.) L = ? ; if I = 2 A lagging
Xeq = XL – Xc (inductive)
Xeq = E/I
= 20/2
= 10 
10 6 10 6
Xc = =
2fC 2 (796)(5)
= 40 

Xl = Xeq + Xc
= 10 + 40
= 50 

Xl = 2fL
50
L =
2 (796)
= 0.01 henry

b.) L = ? ; I = 2 A leading

Xeq = Xc - XL
Xc = 40 

XL = Xc - Xeq
= 40 – 10
= 30 
 XL = 2fL
30
L =
2 (796)
= 0.006 henry

7. Resistance – Inductance – Capacitance (R – L – C ckt)

Circuit Diagram

e = Em sin ωt

i = Im sin (ωt ±  )

R L C

ER EL ± EC

Vector diagram

EL

EL – EC


I

EC – EL

EC
Case I; if XL > Xc, the circuit behaves just like R –L ckt.

Circuit Diagram Vector diagram

EL - EC EL
e = Em sin ωt
E
i = Im sin ωt
I
R L C ER

ER EC – EL

EC

E = ER + (EL – EC)
E2 = ER2 + (EL – EC)2
E R + ( E L − EC ) 2
2
E =
E = I 2 R2 + I 2 (X L − X C )2
E =I R2 + (X L − X C )2
E = Iz

where z = R2 + (X L − X C )2

= circuit impedance (inductive)

E R IR R
cos  = = =
E Iz z
( E − E C ) I ( X L − X C ) ( X L − X C ) X eq
sin  = L = = =
E Iz z z

Pave = EI cos 
Case II; if Xc > XL, the circuit behave just like a R-C circuit

Circuit diagram Vector diagram

e = Em sin at EL

ER
I I

ER EC – EL E

EC – EL
EC

E = ER + (Ec – El)
E2 = ER2 + (Ec – El)2
ER + ( X C − X L ) 2
2
E =
E = I 2 R 2 + I 2 ( X C − X L )2
E =I R2 + (X L − X C )2
E = Iz

where z= R 2 + ( X C − X L )2

= circuit impedance (capacitive)

E R IR R
cos  = = =
E Iz z
( E − EL ) I ( X C − X L ) ( X C − X L ) X eq
sin  = C = = =
E Iz z z

Pave = EI cos 

Case III; if Xl = Xc, the circuit behave just like a pure resistance circuit (resonance condition).

Example:

1. A series circuit consisting of the an 80  resistor, a 0.03 henry inductor, and a 50 f

capacitor is connected to a 120 V, 60 cycle source. Calculate the following a.)equivalent
impedance of the circuit b.) current, c.) voltage drop across the several units, d.) power
factor and power.
Solution:

a.) z =? E = 120 V
f = 60
Xl = 2fL
= 2 (60 )(0.3) R L C
= 113.1 

106 106
Xc = =
2fc 2 (60)(50)
= 53.05 

 XL > XC

Xeq = XL - XC
= 113.1 – 53.09
= 60.05 

z = R 2 + Xeq 2
= 80 2 + 60 .05 2
= 100 
E 120
b.) I = =
z 100
= 1.2 

c.) ER = IR = (1.2)(80)
= 96 V
EL = IXL = (1.2)(113.1)
= 135.72 V
EC = IXC = (1.2)(53.05)
= 63.66 V

d.) p = EI cos 
= I2R = (1.2)2(80)
= 115.2 W
R 80
cos  = =
z 100

= 0.8 lagging

2. A telephone receiver has an impedance of 306  at 800 cps and a resistance of 60  . For
what value of capacitance of capacitor in series with the coil will the power factor be unity
at 1000 cps.
Solution:
XL = z 2 − R2
= 306 2 − 60 2
= 300.06  f = 800 cps
XL = 2  fL

300.06
L = R = 60  L
2 (800)
= 0.06 henry

When capacitor is connected in series at a f = 1000 cps, the power factor of the circuit is
unity.

XL = XC
= 2  fL
= 2  (1000)(0.06)
= 377  = XC

102
XL =
2fc
106
C =
2 (1000)(377)

= 0.42  f

f = 100

R = 60 L C
8. Impedance Coil Resistance

Circuit Diagram

Er EL ER

r L R

Vector Diagram

E EL = EZ sin
EZ
 
I
ER Er = EZ cos

E = (ER + Er) + EL

E2 = (ER + EZ cos  )2 + ( EZ sin  )2

E2 = ER2 + 2ErEZ cos  + EZ2 cos2  + EZ2 sin2 

E2 = ER2 + 2ErEZ cos  + EZ2 (sin2  + cos2  )

E2 = ER2 + 2ErEZ cos  + EZ2

2ErEZ cos  = E2 – ER2 – EZ2

E − E R − EZ
cos  =
2 E R EZ
where cos  = power factor of coil
E Ir r
cos  = R = =
EZ IZz Zz
 EL IX L X
sin  = = = L
EZ IZz Zz

= where Zz = impedance of the coil

E2 = (ER + Er)2 + EL2

E = ( IR + Ir ) 2 + ( IX L ) 2
I 2 ( R + r ) 2 + IX L
2
E =

( R + r )2 + X L
2
E =I
( R + r )2 + X L
2
Let z =

Where z = impedance of the coil

E + Er IR + Ir (R + r)
cos  = R = =
E Iz z

EL IX L X
sin  = = = L
E Iz z

Where cos  = power factor of the circuit

Example:

1. A 115 V, 60 cycle source is connected to a series circuit consisting of a fixed resistor

and an impedance coil. If the resistor and coil voltage drops are 55.4 V and 80 V,
respectively under which condition the current is 1.69 A. Calculate the resistance and
the inductance of the impedance coil.

Solution:
Circuit Diagram

E = 115 V

I = 1.69 A

r L R
 Ez 80
Zz = =
I 1.69
= 47.337 
E 2 − ER − Ez 2
2
cos  =
2 E R EZ
1152 − 55.422 − 802
cos  =
2(80)(55.4)

cos  = 0.424 lagging

r
cos  =
zz

r = (0.424)(47.337)
= 20.058 

EL = Zz 2 − r 2
= 47 .337 2 − 20 .058 2
= 42.877 

Check:

cos  = 0.424 ; = 64.91o

sin  = XL/Zz

XL = sin 64.91o(47.337)
= 42.871 

42.871
L =
2 (60)
= 0.114 henry
 VOLT-AMPERE (VA) AND REACTIVE VOLT-AMPERE (VARS)

Power Triangle

EI cos P Watt

  
E Q VAR
EI S VA

where:

S = apparent power (VA or KVA)

Q = reactive power (VAR or KVAR)
P = real power or true power (W or KW)
cos  = p.f. = P/S = watt/VA = EI cos  /EI
sin  = r.f. = Q/S = VAR/VA = EI sin  /EI

S = p2 + Q2

Summary:

1. R – circuit:
P = EI = S
Q=0

2. L – circuit:
P=0
Q = S = EI sin  ;  = 90o
= EI

3. C – circuit:
P=0
Q = S = EI

4. R – L circuit:
P = EI cos 
Q = EI sin 
S = EI

5. R – C circuit:
P = EI cos 
Q = EI sin 
S = EI
6. L – C circuit:
if XL > XC
P=0
S = Q = EI
If XC > XL (3)
P=0
Q = S = EI

7. R – L – C circuit:
if XL > XC (4)
P = EI cos 
Q = EI sin 
S = EI
If XC > XL (5)
P = EI cos 
Q = EI sin 
S = EI
if XL = XC (1)
P=0
Q = S = EI ;  = 90o

8. r – L – R circuit:
PT = PR + Pr
QT = EI sin 
SZ = EzI
Pr = EzI cos 
QL = EzI sin 
S = EI
PR = EI cos 
QL = EI sin 

ST
S2 QL = QT
 

PR Pr

PT
Example:

1. A load of 250 KVA, operating at a power factor of 0.86 lagging is connected to a 2,300
volt ac source. Calculate a.) power, b.) current, c.) reactive kilovolt – ampere, d.)
reactive factor.

Solution:
a.) P = ? E = 2300
cos  = P/S
= (250 x 103)(0.86)
= 215 KW I

b.) I =?

S = EI
250 x103
=
2300
= 108.69 A

c.) Q = ?
= S 2 − P2
= 250 2 − 215 2

= 127.57 KVARS or

Q = EI sin 

= (2300)(108.96) sin (cos 2 0.86)

= 127.57 KVARS (inductive)

Parallel and Series Parallel Circuit

IA IB IC

Load A Load B Load C

 Unity pf Lagging pf Leading pf IC
E  E

E
IB

IA IB IC

E = 250V
A B C

IC

C IA E

B

IB

By Component Method:

IT =  Ix +  I r

I R = IA + IB cos  B + IC cos  C

I Y = -IB sin  B + IC sin  C

IT = ( I A + I B cos B + I C cosC ) 2 + (− I B sin  B + I C sin C ) 2

PT = (  I X )(E)
 = (IA + Ib cos  B + Ic sin  C)(E)

QΣ = QB + Qc

PT = PA + PB + PC

P T + QT
2 2
ST =

Example:

1. The following is given in connection with 3 loads that are connected in parallel to a 230V
ac line; load A 4.6 KW at unity power factor of 0.62; load C 5.52 KW at a leading power
factor of 0.8. calculate a.) total current, b.) overall power factor, c.) total power, d.) total
reactive kilovolt – ampere.

Given:

Load A :PA = 4.6 KW

p.f.= 1

Load B : SB = 11.5 KVA

p.f. = 0.62 lagging

Load C : PC = 5.52 KW
p.f. = 0.8 leading

Solution:

a.) IT =?

cos  = PB/SB IT IA IB IC
PB = (11.5 x 10 3)(0.62)
= 7.13 KW
PT = PA + PB + PC E = 250 V Load A Load B Load C
= 4.6 + 7.13 + 5.52
= 17.25 KVA

Check:
PA = 4.6 KW
= EAIA = EIA
4.6 x103
IA =
230
= 20 Ampere
 SB = 11.5 KVA PT

SB 11.5 x103
IB = = PA PB QT
E 0.8
= 50 Ampere ST

cos  C = PC/SC
5.52 x103 Ic
SC = PC
0.8
= 6.9 KVA
IA E
S 6.9 x103
IC = C =
E 230
= 30 Ampere
IB

 Ix +  Iy
2 2
IT =

 Ix = 20 + 50(0.62) + 30(0.8)
= 75 Ampere

 Iy = -50 sin(cos −1 0.62) + 30 sin(cos −1 0.8)

= -21.23 Ampere

2
IT = 752 + (−21.23)
= 77.95 Ampere

PT = EI T cos  T

tan  T =
I Y − 21.23
=
I
X 75
= -15.81
b.) cos  T = cos(-15.81)
= 0.96 lagging

c.) PT = (230)(77.95)(0.96)
= 17.25 KW

d.) QT =?
sin  T = QT/ST
tan  T = QT/PT
QT = tan  TPT
= tan (-15.81)(17.25)
= 4.885 KVAR (inductive)