RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists rely on quantitative and quantitative research to better understand human

thought and behavior.
• Qualitative research involves collecting and evaluating non-numerical data in
order to understand concepts or subjective opinions.
• Quantitative research involves collecting and evaluating numerical data.

Psychologists rely on a few methods to measure behavior, attitudes, and feelings. These
include:

• Self-reports, like surveys or questionnaires

• Observation (often used in experiments or fieldwork)
• Implicit attitude tests that measure timing in responding to prompts
Most of these are quantitative methods. The result is a number that can be used to assess
differences between groups.

However, most of these methods are static, inflexible (you can't change a question
because a participant doesn't understand it), and provide a "what" answer rather than a
"why" answer.
Sometimes, researchers are more interested in the "why" and the "how." That's where
qualitative methods come in.

Qualitative research is about speaking to people directly and hearing their words. It is
grounded in the philosophy that the social world is ultimately unmeasurable, that no
measure is truly ever "objective," and that how humans make meaning is just as
important as how much they score on a standardized test.

Quantitative Research Methods

Basic Assumptions
Quantitative methods assume:

1. That the world is measurable

2. That humans can observe objectively
3. That we can know things for certain about the world from observation

Cross-Sectional Research Methods

Cross-sectional research involves looking at different groups of people with specific
characteristics. The data is collected cross-sectionally, as the name would suggest.

For example, a researcher might evaluate a group of young adults and compare the
corresponding data from a group of older adults.

The benefit of this type of research is that it can be done relatively quickly; the research
data is gathered at the same point in time. The disadvantage is that the research aims to
make a direct association between a cause and an effect. This is not always so easy. In
some cases, there may be confounding factors that contribute to the effect.

Longitudinal Research Methods

Longitudinal research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended
period of time.

Data is collected at the outset of the study and gathered repeatedly through the course
of study. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last for several decades or be open-
ended. One such example is the Terman Study of the Gifted, which began in the 1920s
and followed 1528 children for over 80 years.

The benefit of this longitudinal research is that it allows researchers to look at changes
over time. By contrast, one of the obvious disadvantages is cost. Because of the expense
of a long-term study, they tend to be confined to a smaller group of subjects or a narrower
field of observation.

Correlational Research Methods

Correlational research aims to determine if one variable has a measurable association
with another.

In this type of non-experimental study, researchers look at relationships between the two
variables but do not introduce the variables themselves. Instead, they gather and
evaluate the available data and offer a statistical conclusion.

For example, the researchers may look at whether academic success in elementary
school leads to better-paying jobs in the future. While the researchers can collect and
evaluate the data, they do not manipulate any of the variables in question.
A correlational study can be appropriate and helpful if you cannot manipulate a variable
because it is impossible, impractical, or unethical.
For example, imagine that a researcher wants to determine if living in a noisy environment
makes people less efficient in the workplace. It would be impractical and unreasonable
to artificially inflate the noise level in a working environment. Instead, researchers might
collect data and then look for correlations between the variables of interest.

Correlational research has its limitations. While it can identify an association, it does not
necessarily suggest a cause for the effect. Just because two variables have a relationship
does not mean that changes in one will affect a change in the other.

Types of Correlational Research

There are three types of correlational research: naturalistic observation, the survey
method, and archival research. Each type has its own purpose, as well as its pros and
cons.
1. Naturalistic Observation
The naturalistic observation method involves observing and recording variables of
interest in a natural setting without interference or manipulation.

2. Surveys
Surveys and questionnaires are some of the most common methods used for
psychological research. The survey method involves having a random sample of
participants complete a survey, test, or questionnaire related to the variables of interest.
Random sampling is vital to the generalizability of a survey's results.
 3. Archival Research
Many areas of psychological research benefit from analyzing studies that were
conducted long ago by other researchers, as well as reviewing historical records and case
studies

Experimental Research Methods

Unlike correlational research, experimentation involves both the manipulation and
measurement of variables. This model of research is the most scientifically conclusive
and commonly used in medicine, chemistry, psychology, biology, and sociology.

Experimental research uses manipulation to understand cause and effect in a sampling

of subjects. The sample is comprised of two groups: an experimental group in whom the
variable (such as a drug or treatment) is introduced and a control group in whom the
variable is not introduced.

Deciding the sample groups can be done in a number of ways:

1. Population sampling, in which the subjects represent a specific population

 2. Random selection, in which subjects are chosen randomly to see if the effects of
the variable are consistently achieved

Challenges in Experimental Research

While the statistical value of an experimental study is robust, it may be affected by
confirmation bias. This is when the investigator's desire to publish or achieve an
unambiguous result can skew the interpretations, leading to a false-positive conclusion.

One way to avoid this is to conduct a double-blind study in which neither the participants
nor researchers are aware of which group is the control. A double-blind randomized
controlled trial (RCT) is considered the gold standard of research.

Correlation and Causation

A basic principle of statistics is that correlation is not causation. Researchers can only
claim a cause-and-effect relationship under certain conditions:4

The study was a true experiment.

The independent variable can be manipulated (for example, researchers cannot
manipulate gender, but they can change the primer a study subject sees, such as a
picture of nature or of a building).
The dependent variable can be measured through a ratio or a scale.
So when you read a report that "gender was linked to" something (like a behavior or an
attitude), remember that gender is NOT a cause of the behavior or attitude. There is an
apparent relationship, but the true cause of the difference is hidden.

The Reliability and Validity of Research in Psychology

Reliability and validity are two concepts that are also critical in psychology research. In
order to trust the results, we need to know if the findings are consistent (reliability) and
that we are actually measuring what we think we are measuring (validity).

1. Reliability
Reliability is a vital component of a valid psychological test. What is reliability? How do
we measure it? Simply put, reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is
considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.

2. Validity
When determining the merits of a psychological test, validity is one of the most important
factors to consider. What exactly is validity? One of the greatest concerns when creating
a psychological test is whether or not it actually measures what we think it is measuring.

For example, a test might be designed to measure a stable personality trait but instead
measures transitory emotions generated by situational or environmental conditions. A
valid test ensures that the results accurately reflect the dimension undergoing
assessment.

Qualitative Approaches
There are many different approaches to qualitative research, with their own philosophical
bases. Different approaches are best for different kinds of projects. For example:

1. Case studies and narrative studies are best for single individuals. These involve
studying every aspect of a person's life in great depth.
2. Phenomenology aims to explain experiences. This type of work aims to describe
and explore different events as they are consciously and subjectively
experienced.
3. Grounded theory develops models and describes processes. This approach
allows researchers to construct a theory based on data that is collected,
analyzed, and compared to reach new discoveries.5
4. Ethnography describes cultural groups. In this approach, researchers immerse
themselves in a community or group in order to observe behavior