CHAPTER 2

Hand processes

Length
Hand tools are used to remove small amounts Point Tang

of material, usually from small areas of the

Edge Single-cut Double-cut
workpiece. This may be done because no machine
is available, the workpiece is too large to go on a Figure 2.1 Single-cut and double-cut files
machine, the shape is too intricate or simply that it
would be too expensive to set up a machine to do smoothness of the file. Three standard grades of
the work. cut in common use, from coarsest to smoothest,
Since the use of hand tools is physically tiring, are bastard, second cut and smooth. In general,
it is important that the amount of material to be the bastard cut is used for rough filing to remove
removed by hand is kept to an absolute minimum the most material in the shortest time, the
and that the correct tool is chosen for the task. second cut to bring the work close to finished
Wherever possible, use should be made of the size and the smooth cut to give a good finish to
available powered hand tools, not only to reduce the surface while removing the smallest amount
fatigue but also to increase the speed of the of material.
operation and so reduce the cost.
2.1.1 File indentification

,
2.1 Engineer’s files Files are identified either by their general shape –
i.e. hand, flat or pillar – or by their cross-section –
Files are used to perform a wide variety of tasks, i.e. square, three-square, round, half-round or
from simple removal of sharp edges to producing knife – Fig. 2.2.
intricate shapes where the use of a machine is
impracticable. They can be obtained in a variety of
shapes and in lengths from 150 mm to 350 mm. Hand
When a file has a single series of teeth cut across Three-square
Pillar
its face it is known as single-cut file, and with two Round
Half-round
sets of teeth cut across its face it is known as Flat

double-cut file, Fig. 2.1. Knife

Square
The grade of cut of a file refers to the spacing
of the teeth and determines the coarseness or Figure 2.2 Types of file
 2 Hand processes

2.1.1.1 Hand file 2.1.1.6 Round file

The hand file is for general use, typically on The round file is of circular cross-section, parallel

2 flat surfaces. It is rectangular in cross-section,

parallel in width along its length, but tapers
slightly in thickness for approximately the last
for approximately two-thirds of its length and
then tapering towards the point. Second-cut and
smooth files are single-cut, while the bastard is
third of its length towards the point. It is double- double-cut. This file is used for enlarging round
cut on both faces, single-cut on one edge and is holes, elongating slots and finishing internal
plain on the second edge. The plain edge with no round corners.
teeth is known as the ‘safe ’ edge and is
designed to file up to the edge of a surface 2.1.1.7 Half-round file
without damaging it. The taper in thickness
The half-round file has one flat and one curved
enables the file to enter a slot slightly less
side. It is parallel for approximately two-thirds
than its full thickness.
of its length, then tapers in width and thickness
towards the point. The flat side is double-cut
2.1.1.2 Pillar file
and the curved side is single-cut on second-cut
This file has the same section as a hand file but of and smooth files. This is an extremely useful
a thinner section. It is used for narrow slots and double-purpose file for flat surfaces and for curved
keyways. surfaces too large for the round file.

2.1.1.3 Flat file 2.1.1.8 Knife file

The flat file is also for general use, typically on The knife file has a wedge-shaped cross-section,
flat surfaces. It is rectangular in cross-section the thin edge being straight while the thick edge
and tapers in both width and thickness for tapers to the point in approximately the last third
approximately the last third of its length of its length. The sides are double-cut. This file is
towards the point. Both faces are double-cut used in filing acute angles.
and both edges single-cut. The tapers in width
and thickness enable this file to be used in 2.1.1.9 Dreadnought files
slots which are narrower than its full width and
When soft material is being filed, the material
thickness and which require filing on length
is more readily removed and the teeth of an
and width.
engineer’s file quickly become clogged. When
this happens, the file no longer cuts but skids over
2.1.1.4 Square file
the surface. This results in constant stoppages
The square file is of square cross-section, parallel to clear the file so that it again cuts properly. To
for approximately two-thirds of its length, then overcome the problem of clogging, files have
tapering towards the point. It is double-cut on all been developed which have deep curved teeth
sides. This file is used for filing keyways, slots and milled on their faces and these are known as
the smaller square or rectangular holes with 90° dreadnought files, Fig. 2.3.
sides.

2.1.1.5 Three-square file

Figure 2.3 Dreadnought file
The three-square or triangular file has a 60°
triangle cross-section, parallel for approximately
These files are designed to remove material faster
two-thirds of its length, then tapering towards
and with less effort, since the deep curved teeth
the point. The three faces are double-cut
produce small spiral filings which clear themselves
and the edges sharp. This file is used for
from the tooth and so prevent clogging. Their
surfaces which meet at less than 90°, angular
principal use is in filing soft materials such as
holes and recesses.
aluminium, lead, white metal, copper, bronze and
34
 2 Hand processes

brass. They can also be used on large areas of file will remove metal faster and produce a flatter
steel, as well as on non-metallic materials such as surface than short rapid strokes.

2
plastics, wood, fibre and slate. As already stated, a smooth-cut file is used to
This type of file is available as hand, flat, give a good finish to the surface while removing
half-round and square, from 150 mm to 400 mm small amounts of material. An even finer finish to
long. The available cuts are broad, medium, the surface can be achieved by a method known
standard, fine and extra fine. as drawfiling. With this method, the file, rather
than being pushed across, is drawn back and forth
2.1.1.10 Needle files along the surface at right angles to its normal
cutting direction.
Needle files are used for very fine work in tool
making and fitting, where very small amounts An even finer finish can be obtained using abrasive
of material have to be removed in intricate cloth supported by the file to keep the surface flat.
shapes or in a confined space. This type of file is Abrasive cloth is available on rolls 25 mm wide,
available from 120 mm to 180 mm long, of which in a variety of grit sizes from coarse to fine. By
approximately half is file-shaped and cut, the supporting the cloth strip on the underside of the
remainder forming a slender circular handle, file and using a traditional filing stroke, extremely
Fig. 2.4. fine surface finishes can be obtained while
removing very small amounts of material. This
process is more of a polishing operation.

Figure 2.4 Needle file 2.1.3 Care of files

A file which cuts well saves you extra work. It is
2.1.2 Filing important, therefore, that all the teeth are cutting.
One of the greatest difficulties facing the Never throw files on top of each other in a drawer,
beginner is to produce a filed surface which is as the teeth may be chipped. Never knock the file
flat. By carefully observing a few basic principles on its edge to get rid of filings in the teeth – use
and carrying out a few exercises, the beginner a file brush. A file brush should be used regularly
should be able to produce a flat surface. to remove filings from the teeth, as failure to
do so will cause scratching of the work surface
Filing is a two-handed operation, and the first stage
and inefficient removal of metal. Always clean
is to grip the file correctly. The handle is gripped in
the file on completion of the job before putting
the palm of the right hand with the thumb on top
it away. Do not exert too much pressure when
and the palm of the left hand resting at the point
using a new file, or some of the teeth may break
of the file. Having gripped the file correctly, the
off due to their sharpness – work lightly until the
second stage is to stand correctly at the vice. The
fine tooth points are worn slightly. For the same
left foot is placed well forward to take the weight
reason, avoid using a new file on rough surfaces
of the body on the forward stroke. The right foot is
of castings, welds or hard scale.
placed well back to enable the body to be pushed
forward. Always use a properly fitted handle of the correct
size – on no account should a file be used without
Remember that the file cuts on the forward stroke
a handle or with a handle which is split; remember,
and therefore the pressure is applied by the left
one slip and the tang could pierce your hand.
hand during the forward movement and is released
coming back. Do not lift the file from the work on
the back stroke, as the dragging action helps clear 2.2 The hacksaw
the filings from the teeth and also prevents the
The hacksaw is used to cut metal. Where large
‘see-saw ’ action which results in a surface which
amounts of waste metal have to be removed,
is curved rather than flat. Above all, take your
this is more easily done by hacksawing away the
time – long steady strokes using the length of the
surplus rather than by filing. If the workpiece is

35
 2 Hand processes

left slightly too large, a file can then be used to more teeth are cutting and the time and effort in
obtain the final size and surface. cutting will be less.

2
The hacksaw blade fits into a hacksaw frame When cutting thin sections such as plate, at least
on two holding pins, one of which is adjustable three consecutive teeth must always be in contact
in order to tension the blade. The hacksaw with the metal or the teeth will straddle the thin
frame should be rigid, hold the blade in correct section. The teeth will therefore have to be closer
alignment, tension the blade easily and have a together, which means more teeth in the blade,
comfortable grip. i.e. 32 teeth per 25 mm.
The blade is fitted to the frame with the teeth Like a file, the hacksaw cuts on the forward
pointing away from the handle, Fig. 2.5, and is stroke, which is when pressure should be applied.
correctly tensioned by turning the wing nut to take Pressure should be released on the return stroke.
up the slack and then applying a further three turns Do not rush but use long steady strokes (around
only. A loose blade will twist or buckle and not cut 70 strokes per minute when using high-speed-
straight, while an overtightened blade could pull steel blades). The same balanced stance should
out the ends of the blade. be used as for filing.
Table 2.1 gives recommendations for the number
Tension of teeth per 25 mm on blades used for hard and
nut
soft materials of varying thickness.

Table 2.1 Selection of hacksaw blades

Teeth pointing
Material thickness No. of teeth per 25 mm
away from
handle (mm) Hard materials Soft materials

Figure 2.5 Hacksaw Up to 3 32 32

3 to 6 24 24
The standard hacksaw blade is 300 mm 6 to 13 24 18
long × 13 mm wide × 0.65 mm thick and is 13 to 25 18 14
available with 14,18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25 mm,
i.e. for every 25 mm length of blade there are Three types of hacksaw blade are available:
14 teeth, 18 teeth and so on. all-hard, flexible and bimetal.
A hacksaw blade should be chosen to suit the type XXAll hard – this type is made from hardened
of material being cut, whether hard or soft, and high-speed steel. Due to their all-through
the nature of the cut, whether thick section or thin. hardness, these blades have a long blade life
Two important factors in the choice of a blade are but are also very brittle and are easily broken if
the pitch, or distance between each tooth and the twisted during sawing. For this reason they are
material from which the blade is made. best suited to the skilled user.
When cutting soft metals, more material will be XXFlexible – this type of blade is also made from
cut on each stroke and this material must have high-speed steel, but with only the teeth
somewhere to go. The only place the material hardened. This results in a flexible blade with
can go is between the teeth, and therefore if the hard teeth which is virtually unbreakable and
teeth are further apart there is more space for can therefore be used by the less experienced
the metal being cut. The largest space is in user or when sawing in an awkward position.
the blade having the least number of teeth, The blade life is reduced due to the problem of
i.e. 14 teeth per 25 mm. The opposite is true fully hardening the teeth only.
when cutting harder metals. Less material will XXBimetallic – this type of blade consists of a
be removed on each stroke, which will require narrow cutting-edge strip of hardened
less space between each tooth. If less space high-speed steel joined to a tough alloy-steel
is required, more teeth can be put in the blade, back by electron beam welding. This blade
combines the qualities of hardness of the
36
 2 Hand processes

all-hard blade and the unbreakable qualities of Fig. 2.8. A large sheet can be supported by using
the flexible blade, resulting in a shatterproof two metal bars securely clamped, Fig. 2.9.

2
blade with long life and fast-cutting properties.

2.3 Cold chisels

Cold chisels are used for cutting metal. They
are made from high-carbon steel, hardened and
tempered at the cutting end. The opposite end,
which is struck by the hammer, is not hardened
but is left to withstand the hammer blows without
chipping.
Figure 2.8 Sheet metal in vice
2.3.1 Cold chisel classification
Cold chisels are classified as ‘flat ’ or ‘cross-cut ’ , Metal bars
for
according to the shape of the point. support

2.3.1.1 Flat
This chisel has a broad flat point and is used to
Clamp
cut thin sheet metal, remove rivet heads or split
corroded nuts. The cutting edge is ground to an
angle of approximately 60°, Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.9 Sheet metal in support bars

60°
To remove a section from the centre of a plate,
the plate can be supported on soft metal. It is best
to mark out the shape required, drill a series of
holes in the waste material, and use the chisel to
Figure 2.6 ‘Flat’ cold chisel
break through between the holes, Fig. 2.10.

2.3.1.2 Cross-cut
Soft metal
This chisel has a narrower point than the flat plate for
support
chisel and is used to cut keyways, narrow
Waste
grooves, square corners and holes in sheet metal part
too small for the flat chisel, Fig. 2.7.

60° Figure 2.10 Chisel cutting a hole supported on

soft metal plate

The chisel should be held firmly but not too tight,

Figure 2.7 ‘Cross-cut’ cold chisel and the head should be struck with sharp blows
from the hammer, keeping your eye on the
2.3.2 Using the chisel cutting edge, not the chisel head. Hold the chisel
When using a cold chisel on sheet-material, great at approximately 40°, Fig. 2.11. Do not hold the
care must be taken not to distort the metal. To chisel at too steep an angle, otherwise it will tend
prevent distortion, the sheet must be properly to dig into the metal. Too shallow an angle will
supported. A small sheet is best held in a vice, cause the chisel to skid and prevent it cutting. Use
a hammer large enough to do the job, grasping it

37
 2 Hand processes

The flat scraper, for use on flat surfaces, resembles

a hand file thinned down at the point, but it does

2
not have any teeth cut on it, Fig. 2.13. The point
40°
is slightly curved, and the cutting edges are kept
10°
sharp by means of an oilstone. The scraper cuts on
60° the forward stroke, the high spots being removed
one at a time by short forward rocking strokes. The
Figure 2.11 Correct angle of chisel flatness is checked with reference to a surface plate.
A light film of engineer’s blue is smeared evenly on
well back at the end of the handle, not at the end the surface plate, and the surface being scraped is
nearest the head. Never allow a large ‘mushroom ’ placed on top and moved slightly from side to side.
head to form on the head of a chisel, as a glancing Any high spots show up as blue spots, and these are
blow from the hammer can dislodge a chip which reduced by scraping. The surface is again checked,
could fly off and damage your face or hand. rescraped and the process is repeated until the
Always grind off any sign of a mushroom head as desired flatness is obtained. Flatness of the surface
it develops, Fig. 2.12. is indicated when the whole area being scraped is
evenly covered by blue from the surface plate.
Wrong
Cutting Cutting
Correct edges edges

HALF-ROUND
FLAT
Sect.

Figure 2.12 Correct chisel

Sect.
Cutting THREE-SQUARE
edges
Cold chisels can be sharpened by regrinding the
edge on an off-hand grinder. When resharpening, Figure 2.13 Scrapers
do not allow the chisel edge to become too hot,
otherwise it will be tempered, lose its hardness The same procedure is used on internal curved
and be unable to cut metal. surfaces, using a half-round scraper slightly
hollow on the underside, to prevent digging in,
and with a cutting edge on each side, Fig. 2.13.
2.4 Scrapers The reference surface in this case is the shaft
Scraping, unlike filing or chiselling, is not done to which is to run in the curved surface and which is
remove a great deal of material. The material is smeared with engineer’s blue. Entry of the shaft
removed selectively in small amounts, usually to in the bearing indicates the high spots, which are
give a flat or a good bearing surface. A surface removed by scraping, and this process is repeated
produced by machining or filing may not be until the desired surface is produced.
good enough as a bearing where two surfaces The three-square or triangular scraper, Fig. 2.13
are sliding or rotating. The purpose of scraping is commonly used to remove the sharp edges
is therefore to remove high spots to make the from curved surfaces and holes. It is not suited
surface flat or circular, and at the same time to to scraping internal curved surfaces, due to the
create small pockets in which lubricant can be held steeper angle of the cutting edges tending to
between the two surfaces. Surface plates and dig into the surface. However, the sharp point is
surface tables are examples of scraping being used useful where a curved surface is required up to a
when flatness is of prime importance. Examples sharp corner.
where both flatness and lubricating properties
are required can be seen on the sliding surfaces 2.5 Engineer’s hammers
of centre lathes and milling, shaping and grinding
machines. The engineer’s hammer consists of a hardened
and tempered steel head, varying in mass from

38
 2 Hand processes

0.1 kg to about 1 kg, firmly fixed on a tough should be used only to tighten or loosen screws.
wooden handle, usually hickory or ash. They should never be used to chisel, open tins,

2
The flat striking surface is known as the face, scrape off paint or lever off tight parts such as
and the opposite end is called the pein. The most collars on shafts. Once a screwdriver blade, which
commonly used is the ball-pein, Fig. 2.14, which is made from toughened alloy steel, has been
has a hemispherical end and is used for riveting bent, it is very difficult to keep it in the screw head.
over the ends of pins and rivets. There are a number of different head drives. The
four most common are slotted, Phillips, Pozidriv
Pein and Torx as shown in Fig. 2.16. Always select the
screwdriver to suit the size and type of head drive.
Use of the incorrect size or type results in damage
to both the screwdriver and the screw head, leading
Face to a screw that is very difficult to loosen or tighten.
Figure 2.14 Ball-pein hammer

For use with soft metal such as aluminium or with

finished components where the workpiece could
be damaged if struck by an engineer’s hammer,
a range of hammers is available with soft faces,
usually hide, copper or a tough plastic such as
nylon. The soft faces are usually in the form of
replaceable inserts screwed into the head or into a
recess in the face, Fig. 2.15.

Figure 2.16 Screw head drives

Copper or rawhide Plastic inserts

inserts Phillips and Pozidriv are numbered with 1, 2 and 3
the most common. Torx cover a range numbered
Figure 2.15 Soft-faced hammers
T5 to T55 from smallest to the largest.
Always use a hammer which is heavy enough to Straight slots in screws are machined with parallel
deliver the required force but not too heavy to be sides. It is essential that any screwdriver used in
tiring in use. The small masses, 0.1 kg to 0.2 kg, such a slot has the sides of the blade parallel to
are used for centre punching, while the 1 kg ones slightly tapered up to about 10°, Fig. 2.17(a). A
are used with large chisels or when driving large screwdriver sharpened to a point like a chisel will
keys or collars on shafts. The length of the handle not locate correctly and will require great force
is designed for the appropriate head mass, and to keep it in the slot, Fig. 2.17(b). Various blade
the hammer should be gripped near the end of lengths are available with corresponding width and
the handle to deliver the required blow. To be thickness to suit the screw size.
effective, a solid sharp blow should be delivered
and this cannot be done if the handle is held too
near the hammer head.
Always ensure that the hammer handle is sound
and that the head is securely fixed. (a) (b)

Figure 2.17 Screwdriver point: (a) right (b) wrong

2.6 Screwdrivers
The screwdriver is one of the most common tools, In the interests of personal safety, never hold the
and is also the one most misused. Screwdrivers work in your hand while tightening or loosening
39
 2 Hand processes

Table 2.2 Tapping sizes for ISO metric threads

a screw – the blade may slip and cause a nasty
injury. Always hold the work securely in a vice or Thread diameter and Drill diameter for tapping
pitch (mm) (mm)

2
clamped to a solid surface.
1.6 × 0.35 1.25
2 × 0.4 1.6
2.7 Taps 2.5 × 0.45 2.05
Tapping is the operation of cutting an internal 3 × 0.5 2.5
thread by means of a cutting tool known as a tap. 4 × 0.7 3.3
When tapping by hand, straight-flute hand taps are 5 × 0.8 4.2
used. These are made from hardened high-speed 6 × 1.0 5.0
steel and are supplied in sets of three. The three 8 × 1.25 6.8
taps differ in the length of chamfer at the point, 10 × 1.5 8.5
known as the lead. The one with the longest lead 12 × 1.75 10.2
is referred to as the taper or first tap, the next
as the second or intermediate tap and the third,
which has a very short lead, as the bottoming Tapping is then started using the taper or first
or plug tap, Fig. 2.18. A square is provided at tap securely held in a tap wrench. The long lead
one end so that the tap can be easily rotated by enables it to follow the drilled hole and keep
holding it in a tap wrench, Fig. 2.19. The chuck square. The tap is rotated, applying downward
type of wrench is used for the smaller tap sizes. pressure until cutting starts. No further pressure
The first stage in tapping is to drill a hole of the is required, since the tap will then screw itself
correct size. This is known as the tapping size and into the hole. The tap should be turned back quite
is normally slightly larger than the root diameter often, to help clear chips from the flutes.
of the thread. Table 2.2 shows the tapping sizes If the hole being tapped passes through the
for ISO metric threads which have replaced most component, it is only necessary to repeat the
threads previously used in Great Britain. operation using the second or intermediate tap.
Where the hole does not pass through – known
Lead as a blind hole – it is necessary to use the plug
or bottoming tap. This tap has a short lead and
therefore forms threads very close to the bottom
Taper or first
Lead
of the hole. When tapping a blind hole, great care
should be taken not to break the tap. The tap
should be occasionally withdrawn completely and
any chips be removed before proceeding to the
Second or intermediate
Lead final depth.
For easier cutting and the production of good-
quality threads, a proprietary tapping compound
Bottoming or plug should be used.

Figure 2.18 Set of taps

2.8 Dies
Dies are used to cut external threads and are
Chuck available in sizes up to approximately 36 mm
type
thread diameter. The common type, for use by
hand, is the circular split die, made from high-
speed steel hardened and tempered and split at
one side to enable small adjustments of size to be
Bar type made, Fig. 2.20.

Figure 2.19 Tap wrenches

40
 2 Hand processes

2.9 Hand reamer

Where a more accurate-size hole with better
surface finish, than can be achieved by drilling, is
required, the hole can be finished using a reamer.
The hole is drilled undersize (see Table 8.2) and
2
the reamer, which has a square at the end of the
shank, to fit a tap wrench, is carefully ‘wound ’
Figure 2.20 Circular split die into the hole, removing the excess material. Hand
reamers have a long lead to assist with cutting
The die is held in a holder known as a die stock, and alignment. A suitable lubricant should be
which has a central screw for adjusting the size used to prevent wear on the tool, improve surface
and two side locking screws which lock in dimples finish and prevent scratching, usually a light oil or
in the outside diameter of the die, Fig. 2.21. The proprietary tapping compound. Always withdraw
die is inserted in the holder with the split lined up the reamer to prevent the flutes becoming
with the central screw. The central screw is then blocked with swarf.
tightened so that the die is expanded, and the two
side locking screws are tightened to hold the die
in position. 2.10 Powered hand tools
The main advantages of powered hand tools are
Centre screw the reduction of manual effort and the speeding
to open die
up of the operation. The operator, being less
Side locking
screws fatigued, is able to carry out the task more
efficiently, and the speeding up of the operation
results in lower production costs. Being portable,
Die stock Die a powered hand tool can be taken to the work,
which can also lead to a reduction in production
Figure 2.21 Die holder
costs. Accuracy of metal-removal operations
is not as good with powered hand tools, since
Dies have a lead on the first two or three threads,
it is difficult to remove metal from small areas
to help start cutting, but it is usual also to have a
selectively. A comparison of hand and powered
chamfer on the end of the component. The die
hand tools is shown in Table 2.3.
is placed squarely on the end of the bar and is
rotated, applying downward pressure until cutting
Table 2.3 Comparison of hand and powered hand
starts, ensuring that the stock is horizontal. No
tools
further pressure is required, since the die then
screws itself forward as cutting proceeds. The die Speed of Cost Accuracy Fatigue
production of tool
should be rotated backwards every two or three
Hand tools Low Low High High
turns, to break up and clear the chips. The thread
can now be checked with a nut. If it is found to Powered High High Low Low
hand tools
be tight, the central screw is slackened, the side
locking screws are tightened equally, and the die
is run down the thread again. This can be repeated Powered hand tools can be electric or air-
until the final size is reached. operated. In general, electric tools are heavier than
the equivalent air tool, due to their built-in motor,
As with tapping, easier cutting and better
e.g. electric screwdrivers weigh 2 kg while an
threads are produced when a proprietary cutting
equivalent air-operated screwdriver weighs 0.9 kg.
compound is used.
The cost of powered tools is much greater than
Dienuts are also available and are generally used the equivalent hand tools and must be taken into
for reclaiming or cleaning up existing threads, not account when a choice has to be made.
for cutting a thread from solid.

41
 2 Hand processes

Air-operated tools can be safely used in most and wood screws. Some models are reversible
work conditions, while electrical tools should and can be used with equal ease to remove

2
not be used in conditions which are wet or damp screws. The tool bits are interchangeable to suit
or where there is a risk of fire or explosion, the different screw-head types, such as slotted,
such as in flammable or dusty atmospheres. ‘supadriv ’, ‘pozidriv ’, hexagon-socket or hexagon-
A selection of air-operated tools is shown in headed. Electric and air-operated screwdrivers are
Fig. 2.22. available with a maximum capacity of about 8 mm
diameter thread with a variety of torque settings
2.10.1 Hand drills to prevent the screw being overtightened or
sheared off, Fig. 2.22(b).
Electric and air-operated drills are available with a
maximum drilling capacity in steel of about 30 mm
2.10.3 Impact wrench
diameter for electric and about 10 mm diameter
for air models. Air-operated tools are more ideally Used for tightening and also, with the reversal
suited to the rapid drilling of the smaller diameter mechanism, for loosening hexagon-headed nuts
holes, Fig. 2.22(a). and screws. Air-powered models are available
with a maximum capacity of 32 mm diameter
threads and with torque settings to suit a range
of thread sizes. They have the advantage of being
able to tighten all nuts or screws to the same
predetermined load, Fig. 2.22(c).

2.10.4 Grinder
Used to remove metal from the rough surfaces
(a) (b) of forgings, castings and welds usually when the
metal is too hard or the amount to be removed
is too great for a file or a chisel. Electric and
air-operated grinders are available with straight
grinding wheels up to 230 mm diameter or with
small mounted points of various shapes and sizes,
Fig. 2.22(d).

(c) (d) 2.10.5 Metal shears

Used to cut metal, particularly where the sheet
cannot be taken to a guillotine or where profiles
have to be cut. Electric or air-operated shears
are available capable of cutting steel sheet up to
2 mm thick by means of the scissor-like action of a
reciprocating blade, Fig. 2.22(e).

(e) (f) 2.10.6 Hammer

Figure 2.22 Air-operated tools: (a) hand drill Can be fitted with a wide range of attachments for
(b) screwdriver (c) impact wrench (d) grinder riveting, shearing off rivet heads, removing scale
(e) metal shears (f) hammer or panel cutting. Air-operated models are available
which deliver between 3000 and 4000 blows per
2.10.2 Screwdriver minute, Fig. 2.22(f).
Used for inserting screws of all types, including
machine, self-tapping, self-drilling and tapping

42