Key Concepts

 The behavior of circuit can change dramatically depending

on the frequency operation
 The concept of frequency response is extremely important
for understanding factors that determine the stability of
particular system.
Transfer Function
 Bode Diagram Techniques
 Resonant Frequency of Circuits with Inductors and
Capacitors
 Quality Factors and Bandwidth
 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling
 Low-, High-pass and Band-pass Filter Filters
 Active Filters
 15.1 Transfer Function
 An Important way of describing the frequency response of a
network is through the transfer function
 We are interest in the dependence on frequency of the
network .
 Focus on the case
 Transfer Function
⇒The voltage gain

⇒The current gain

⇒Transfer Impedance

⇒Transfer admittance
 15.1 Transfer Function
 For frequency response, the transfer function can be
represented in phasor(polar) form

 are the frequency-dependence

magnitude and phase.
Determine transfer function of the RC circuit, defined
as . Construct a plot of the magnitude and phase
 15.1 Transfer Function

 The circuit has a pole at

 The natural frequency is at
 Rewrite the transfer function in terms of
 15.1 Transfer Function
 The magnitude and phase are given by

 produced in MATLAB

 Bode Diagram
consists of the
two asymptotic
curves
 15.2 Bode Diagrams
 Consider a method of obtaining an asymptotic curves of
the magnitude(amplitude) and phase variation of a given
transfer function as function of .
 The approximate response curve is called a Bode diagram.
 The Decibel (dB) Scale
 Define the value of in dB

⇒The voltage (or current) gain in dB,

  Determination of Asymptotes

 Consider a zero at ,
written in a standardized form as

 The errors at (called corner frequency)

 The errors at
 Multiple Terms
 Most transfer function will consist of more than a simple zero
(or simple poles)

 We may construct a sketch of by simply graphically

adding the plots of the separate terms.
 Multiple Terms

 We may construct a sketch of by simply graphically

adding the plots of the separate terms.
 Multiple Terms
Obtain the Bode plot of the input impedance of the
network shown in Figure.

 Putting this in standard form,

 are a zero at , leading to a

corner frequency
 Phase Response
 The phase response for the simple zero

 In the asymptote
  Additional Considerations Creating Bode Plots

 Consider simple pole

  Additional Considerations Creating Bode Plots

Obtain the Bode plot for the gain of the circuit shown in
Figure.
 Additional Considerations Creating Bode Plots
 Additional Considerations Creating Bode Plots

Draw the phase plot for the transfer function given by

 15.3 Parallel Resonance
 We define resonance as the condition which exists when
the input impedance of the network is purely resistive.
A network is in resonance when the voltage and current at
the network input terminals are in phase.
We apply the resonance to a parallel RLC network driven by
a sinusoidal current source.
 The steady-state admittance

 The resonance will occur when the reactance is zero.

Resonance Frequency
  Resonance
 The pole-zero configuration of
the admittance function

 is the exponential damping coefficient,

 is the natural resonance frequency

(not the resonance frequency)
  Resonance

 The distance from the origin of the s-

plane to one of the admittance zeros is
numerically equal to
 is slightly greater than , but their
ratio approaches unity as the ratio
of to increases.

 Examine the magnitude of the response as the

frequency of the forcing function is varied.
 The pole-zero plot of the impedance
  Resonance and the Voltage Response

 starts at , reaches
a maximum at , and
then drops to zero as .

 At resonance,

 The net current flowing into the

LC combination is zero
  Quality Factor

 The height of the response depends only on , the

width(bandwidth) depends upon two elements and
⇒ width(bandwidth) is expressed in terms of the quality factor

 Let us determine the value of

at the resonance frequency
 For the current forcing function
  Quality Factor

 The energy stored in the capacitor and inductor

 The total instantaneous stored energy is constant:

 This constant value must be the

maximum value.
  Quality Factor
 The average power absorbed by the resistor

 The quality factor at resonance

 Decreasing the resistance decreases ; the lower the

resistance, the greater amount of energy lost in the element.
 Increasing the capacitance increases , but increasing
inductance leads to a reduction .
  Other Interpretation of
 is also interpreted in terms of the inductor
and capacitor currents at resonance :

 are times source current in amplitude.

 It is out of phase with each other.
 The exponential damping coefficient & the natural resonant
frequency may be expressed in terms of

Where is called the damping factor.

  Quality Factor
Consider a parallel RLC circuit such that ,
and , and . Determine the value of and the
magnitude of the steady-state admittance at

 We obtain a minimum admittance or maximum voltage at

the resonant frequency.
  Quality Factor
 Let us interpret in terms of the pole-zero locations of the
admittance of the parallel RLC circuit.
 As is increased
 the two zeros must move closer to the axis.
 R increase

 This condition may be recalled

as that for critical damping.
 15.4 Bandwidth and High-Q Circuits
 Bandwidth
 The lower half-power frequency and the upper half-power
frequency are the frequencies at which the amplitude of
the input impedance is reduced by a factor of .
 The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is defined as the
difference of these two half-power frequency.
Bandwidth

Lower half
Upper half
power freq.
power freq.
  Bandwidth
 Express the bandwidth in terms of and the resonant
frequency .
 The admittance of the parallel RLC circuit,

 The magnitude of the admittance at resonance is .

 Since at and ,
  Bandwidth
Since at and ,

 Circuit possessing a higher have a narrower bandwidth,

or a sharper response curve; they have greater frequency
selectivity, or higher quality factor.
  Approximations for High-Q Circuits
 Many resonant circuits are designed to have a large for
the narrow bandwidth and high frequency selectivity.
 Let us arbitrary refer to a “high-Q” ( typically, Q>5 ) circuit

 The locations of the two zeros may

be approximated as
  Approximations for High-Q Circuits

 The locations of the two half-power frequencies may be

determined in a concise approximate form,

 In high-Q circuit, each half-power frequencies is

located approximately from

 is approximately equal to the

arithmetic mean for in
high-Q circuit ;
  Approximations for High-Q Circuits

 assume that the test point is close to

 The admittance is given approximately by

 In terms of its Cartesian components,

  Approximations for High-Q Circuits

 Since at the upper half-power frequency,

and at the lower half-power frequency,
 The magnitude of the admittance is
  Approximations for High-Q Circuits
Estimate the location of the two half-power frequencies
of the voltage response of a parallel RLC network for
which ,and determine the approximate
value of the admittance for an operating frequency of .

 Construct an approximate set of equation

 Approximations for High-Q Circuits

 Determine if additional information is required

 Attempt a solution.
  Conclusion of Parallel Resonance
 We conclude our coverage of the parallel resonant circuit
 resonant frequency
 Quality factor
 two half-power frequency :
 approximate for high :

 The half-power bandwidth :

 input admittance in approximate for high circuits :
 15.5 Series Resonance
 The resonant frequency is the frequency
at which the imaginary part of the input
impedance becomes zero.

 The exact and approximate (high-Q) expressions for

 The approximate form for the input admittance

 15.5 Series Resonance
The voltage is applied to a series
resonant circuit composed of . Use both
exact and approximate methods to calculate the current amplitude if
15.5 Series Resonance
 15.6 Other Resonant Forms

 is a hypothetical resistor, which accounts for the

losses in the physical coil (or dielectric for capacitor).

If is sufficiently small it may be

very close to this value
 15.6 Other Resonant Forms
Using the value ,
determine the resonant frequency and the impedance at resonance.
 15.6 Other Resonant Forms
 If were zero,

 The input impedance would be

 The maximum impedance is

 The impedance magnitude at resonance and the maximum

impedance differs by about 16%.
 Such error may be neglected occasionally in practice
 15.6 Other Resonant Forms
Referring to the circuit, let .
Determine the inductance necessary to select a resonant
frequency of
  Equivalent Series and Parallel Combinations

 Let us show that for the series (or

parallel) network

 The ’s of the series and parallel networks

must be equal
  Equivalent Series and Parallel Combinations

Example 15.10 Find the parallel equivalent of the series

combination of . Details of the
network to which this series combination is connected are
unavailable.

 To check the accuracy of the equivalence.

 The accuracy at is also reasonably good

  Equivalent Series and Parallel Combinations

At , Find the parallel network that

is equivalent to the series combination in Figure.
  Equivalent Series and Parallel Combinations

Find a series equivalent for the parallel network shown

in Fig. 15.28b, assuming
 15.7 Scaling
 Consider both magnitude scaling and frequency scaling
 by scaling the element values to permit more convenient
numerical calculations.
 The parallel resonant circuit

 To scale this network in such a way to provide impedance

maximum of at a resonant frequency of
 We may use the same response curve.
 15.7 Scaling
 If every number on the ordinate scale is increased by factor
of and every number on the abscissa scale is increased
by factor of
1. scaling in magnitude by a factor of
2. scaling in frequency by a factor of
 15.7 Scaling

 To scale in magnitude

 To scale in frequency
 15.7 Scaling

Scale the network shown in figure by ,

and then for the scaled network.
 15.7 Scaling
 In scaling the dependent source, only magnitude scaling
need be considered.
 The constant 0.2 has units of A/V, so the factor has units of
admittance.
 It divides by , so the new term is
15.7 Scaling
 15.8 Basic Filter Design
 A filter selects the frequencies that may pass through a
network.
 impedes the passage of signals within a stopband
 pass from input to output relatively unchanged in the
passband.
 An ideal filter has
1) in the stopband
2) in the passband
3) cut off (or half-power or 3-dB or corner) frequency, at
which the gain is 3-dB below its maximum value
15.8 Basic Filter Design
An filters has
1) Low-pass filter
2) High-pass filter
3) Band-pass filter
4) Band-stop filter
5) Notch filter
6) Multiband filter
 Passive Low-Pass
  Passive High-Pass Filter

Example 16.11 Design a high-pass

filter with corner frequency of
  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 The center frequency

  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 cut off (or half-power) frequency

  Passive Band-Pass Filter

Example 15.13 Design a band-pass filter with a

bandwidth of and a high- frequency cutoff
of
 The bandwidth
  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 Arbitrarily selecting
  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 The center frequency

  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 cut off (or half-power) frequency

  Passive Band-Pass Filter

Example 15.13 Design a band-pass filter with a

bandwidth of and a high- frequency cutoff
of
 The bandwidth
  Passive Band-Pass Filter

 Arbitrarily selecting
  Active Filter

 The op amp in filter design can come over many of the

short comings of passive filters.
 replace a inductor to capacitor
 The internal circuitry of op amp contains very small
capacitances  the order of 100pF
 Any op amp circuit will behave as low-pass filter with a
cutoff frequency of or more
Example 15.14 Design an active low-pass filter with a cutoff
frequency of and a voltage gain of
 For frequencies much less than , an amplifier circuit
provide a gain or
 This can be implemented by using a non-inverting
amplifier with
  Active Filter
 To provide a high-frequency corner at
 require low-pass filter
To derive the transfer function, at the
non-inverting input

 At the inverting input

 The maximum value of the gain

  Active Filter

 cut off (or half-power) frequency

 Arbitrarily selecting
  Active Filter

 Our design does not meet the

cut off specification.
 The simulation was performed
op amp
 It turns out that results in a cut
off frequency of
  Practical Application

 This circuit consists of a non inverting op amp circuit.

 The voltage gain is
 Practical Application