MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS

MATHEMATICS
STUDENT’S TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9 STUDENT’S TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9

STUDENT’ S TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

FDRE
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION MoE
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
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 MATHEMATICS
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 9
Authors:
Gurju Awgichew Zergaw (PhD)

Adem Mohammed Ahmed (PhD)

Editors:
Mohammed Yiha Dawud (PhD) (Content Editor)

Akalu Chaka Mekuria (MA) (Curriculum Editor)

Endalfer Melese Moges (MA) (Language Editor)

Illustrator:
Bahiru Chane Tamiru (MSc)

Designer:
Aknaw H/mariam Habte (MSc)

Evaluators:
Matebie Alemayehu Wasihun (MED)
Mustefa Kedir Edao (BED)
Dawit Ayalneh Tebkew (MSc)
Tesfaye Sileshi Chala (MA)

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
First Published August 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of
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Welcoming Message to Students.

Dear grade 9 students, you are welcome to the first grade of secondary level education.
This is a golden stage in your academic career. Joining secondary school is a new
experience and transition from primary school Mathematics education. In this stage,
you are going to get new knowledge and experiences which can help you learn and
advance your academic, personal, and social career in the field of Mathematics.

Enjoy it!

Introduction on Students’ Textbook.

Dear students, this textbook has 9 units namely: Further on sets, the number system,
Solving Equations, Solving Inequalities, Introduction to Trigonometry, Regular
Polygons, Congruency and Similarity, Vectors in two Dimensions and Statistics and
Probability respectively. Each of the units is composed of introduction, objectives,
lessons, key terms, summary, and review exercises. Each unit is basically unitized, and
lesson based. Structurally, each lesson has four components: Activity, Definition,
Examples, and Exercises (ADEE).

The most important part in this process is to practice problems by yourself based on
what your teacher shows and explains. Your teacher will also give you feedback,
assistance and facilitate further learning. In such a way you will be able to not only
acquire new knowledge and skills but also advance them further. Basically, the four
steps of each of the lessons are: Activity, Definition/Theorem/Note, Example and
Exercises.
Activity
This part of the lesson demands you to revise what you have learnt or activate your
background knowledge on the topic. The activity also introduces you what you are
going to learn in new lesson topic.
Definition/Theorem/Note
This part presents and explains new concepts to you. However, every lesson may not
begin with definition, especially when the lesson is a continuation of the previous one.
Example and Solution
Here, your teacher will give you specific examples to improve your understanding of
the new content. In this part, you need to listen to your teacher’s explanation carefully
and participate actively. Note that your teacher may not discuss all the examples in the
class. In this case, you need to attempt and internalize the examples by yourself.
Exercise
Under this part of the material, you will solve the exercise and questions individually,
in pairs or groups to practice what you learnt in the examples. When you are doing the
exercise in the classroom either in pairs or groups, you are expected to share your
opinions with your friends, listen to others’ ideas carefully and compare yours with
others. Note that you will have the opportunity of cross checking your answers to the
questions given in the class with the answers of your teacher. However, for the
exercises not covered in the class, you will be given as a homework, assignment, or
project. In this case, you are expected to communicate your teacher for the solutions.

This symbol indicates that you need some time to remember what you have
learnt before or used to enclose steps that you may be encouraged to perform
mentally. This can help you connect your previous lessons with what it will
come in the next discussions.
 Contents

Unit 1 FURTHER ON SETS….……………………… 1

1.1 Sets and Elements_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2
1.2 Set Description_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 4
1.3 The Notion of Sets_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 7
1.4 Operations on Sets_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 12
1.5 Application_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 20
Summary_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 22
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 25

Unit 2 THE NUMBER SYSTEM……………………… 27

2.1 Revision on Natural Numbers and

Integers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 28

2.2 Rational Numbers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 45

2.3 Irrational Numbers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 51
2.4 Real Numbers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 61
2.5 Application_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 95
Summary_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ 99
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 102

Unit 3 SOLVING EQUATIONS ……………………… 105

3.1 Revision on Linear Equation in One

Variable_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 106

3.2 Systems of Linear Equations in Two

Variables _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 109

3.3 Solving Non-linear Equations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 123

3.4 Applications of Equations _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 143
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 147
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 149
Unit 4 SOLVING INEQUALITIES …………………… 151
4.1 Revision on Linear Inequalities in One
Variable _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 152
4.2 Systems of Linear Inequalities in Two
Variables _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 157
4.3 Inequalities Involving Absolute Value _ _ 166
4.4 Quadratic Inequalities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 171
4.5 Applications of Inequalities_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 176
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 182
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 183

Unit 5 INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY …….. 185

5.1 Revision on Right-angled Triangles _ _ _ _ 186
5.2 Trigonometric Ratios _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 190
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 202
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 204

Unit 6 REGULAR POLYGONS ……………………… 207

6.1 Sum of Interior Angles of a Convex
Polygon _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 208
6.2 Sum of Exterior Angles of a Convex
Polygon _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 216
6.3 Measures of Each Interior Angle and
Exterior Angle of a Regular Polygon_ _ _ 221
6.4 Properties of Regular Polygons_ _ _ _ _ _ 224
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 233
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 235
Unit 7 CONGRUENCY AND SIMILARITY ……….… 239
7.1 Revision on Congruency of Triangles _ _ 240
7.2 Definition of Similar Figures _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 245
7.3 Theorems on Similar Plane Figures _ _ _ 249
7.4 Ratio of Perimeters of Similar Plane

Figures _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ 259

7.5 Ratio of Areas of Similar Plane Figures_ 262

7.6 Construction of Similar Plane Figure_ _ _ 265
7.7 Applications of Similarities_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 267
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 273
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 274

Unit 8 VECTORS IN TWO DIMENTIONS …………… 277

8.1 Vector and Scalar Quantities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 279
8.2 Representation of a Vector_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 282
8.3 Vectors Operations_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 288
8.4 Position Vector _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 299
8.5 Applications of Vectors in Two

Dimensions__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 303
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 307
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 308

Unit 9 Statistics and Probability …………………….. 311

9.1 Statistical Data_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 313
9.2 Probability _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 346
Summary_ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 358
Review Exercise_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 360
 Unit 1: Further on Sets

UNIT
FURTHER ON SETS
1
Unit Outcomes

Explain facts about sets.

Describe sets in different ways.
Define operations on sets.
Demonstrate set operations using Venn diagram.
Apply rules and principles of set theory for practical situations.

Unit Contents
1.1 Sets and Elements
1.2 Set Description
1.3 The Notion of Sets
1.4 Operations on Sets
1.5 Application
Summary
Review Exercise

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

• subset • symmetric difference

• set description • Venn diagram

• empty set • intersection • absolute complement

• union • proper subset • complement set

Introduction
In Grade 7 you have learnt basic definition and operations involving sets. The
concept of a set serves as a fundamental part of the present day mathematics. Today
this concept is being used in almost every branch of mathematics. We use sets to
define the concepts of relations and functions.
In this unit, you will discuss some further definitions, operations and applications
involving sets.

Activity 1.1

1. Define a set in your own words.

2. Which of the following are well defined sets and which are not? Justify your
answer.
a. Collection of students in your class.
b. Collection of beautiful girls in your class.
c. Collection of consonants of the English alphabet.
d. Collection of hardworking teachers in a school.

1.1 Sets and Elements

A set is a collection of well-defined objects or elements. When we say a set is well-
defined, we mean that if an object is given, we are able to determine whether the
object is in the set or not.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Note

i) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters like 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍, etc.

ii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters like 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, etc.

If 𝑎 is an element of set 𝐴, we say “𝑎 belongs to 𝐴”. The Greek symbol ∈ (epsilon) is

used to denote the phrase “belongs to”. Thus, we write 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 if 𝑎 is a member of set
𝐴. If 𝑏 is not an element of set 𝐴, we write 𝒃 ∉ 𝑨 and read as “𝑏 does not belong to
set 𝐴” or “𝑏 is not a member of set A”.

Figure 1.1
Example 1

a. The set of students in your class is a well-defined set since the elements of the set
are clearly known.
b. The collection of kind students in your school. This is not a well-defined set
because it is difficult to list members of the set.
c. Consider 𝐺 as a set of vowel letters in English alphabet. Then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑜 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑖 ∈ 𝐺,
but 𝑏 ∉ 𝐺.

Example 2

Suppose that 𝐴 is the set of positive even numbers. Write the symbol ∈ or ∉ in the
blank spaces.
a. 4 _____ 𝐴 b. 5_____ 𝐴 c. −2_____ 𝐴 d. 0____ 𝐴
Solution:
The positive even numbers include 2, 4, 6, 8, … . Therefore,

a. 4 ∈ 𝐴 b. 5 ∉ 𝐴, c. −2 ∉ 𝐴, d. 0 ∉ 𝐴.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Exercise 1.1

1. Which of the following is a well-defined set? Justify your answer.

a. A collection of all boys in your class.
b. A collection of efficient doctors in Black Lion Hospital.
c. A collection of all natural numbers less than 100.
d. The collection of songs by Artist Tilahun Gessese.
2. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol ∈ or ∉ in the blank spaces:
a. 5____𝐴 b. 8 ____ 𝐴 c. 0____𝐴 d. 4____ 𝐴 e. 7____𝐴

1.2 Set Description

Sets can be described in the following ways.
i) Verbal method (Statement form)
In this method, the well-defined description of the elements of the set is written in an
ordinary English language statement form (in words).

Example 1

a. The set of whole numbers greater than 1 and less than 20.
b. The set of students in this mathematics class.
ii) Listing Methods
a) Complete listing method (Roster Method)
In this method, all elements of the set are completely listed. The elements are
separated by commas and are enclosed within set braces, { }.

Example 2

a. The set of all even positive integers less than 7 is described in complete listing
method as {2, 4, 6}.
b. The set of all vowel letters in the English alphabet is described in complete listing
method as {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢 }.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

b) Partial listing method

We use this method, if listing of all elements of a set is difficult or impossible but the
elements can be indicated clearly by listing a few of them that fully describe the set.
Example 3

Use partial listing method to describe the following sets.

a. The set of natural numbers less than 100.
b. The set of whole numbers.

Solution:
a. The set of natural numbers less than 100 are 1, 2, 3 , … , 99. So, naming the set as
𝐴, we can express 𝐴 by partial listing method as 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, … , 99}. The three
dots after element 3 and the comma above indicate that the elements in the set
continue in that manner up to 99.
b. Naming the set of whole numbers by 𝕎 , we can describe it as
𝕎 = {0, 1, 2, 3, … }.
So far, you have learnt three methods of describing a set. However, there are sets
which cannot be described by these three methods. Here, below is another method of
describing a set.

iii) Set builder method (Method of defining property)

The set-builder method is described by a property that its member must satisfy the
common property. This is the method of writing the condition to be satisfied by a set
or property of a set.
In set brace, write the representative of the
elements of a set, for example 𝑥, and then
write the condition that 𝑥 should satisfy
after the vertical line (|) or colon (:)

Figure 1.2

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Note

The set of natural numbers, whole numbers, and integers are denoted by ℕ, 𝕎,
and ℤ, respectively. They are defined as
ℕ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }
𝕎 = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . },
ℤ = {. . . . −3, −2, −1, 0 , 1, 2, 3, . . . }.

Example 4

Describe the following sets using set builder method.

i) Set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3 … 10} can be described in set builder method as:
𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ and 𝑥 < 11}. We read this as “𝐴 is the set of all elements of
natural numbers less than 11.”
ii) Let set 𝐵 = {0, 2, 4, … . }. This can be described in set builder method as:
𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℤ and 𝑥 is a non-negative even integer} or
𝐵 = {2𝑥 | 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … } 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = {2𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝕎}.

Exercise 1.2

1. Describe each of the following sets using a verbal method.

a. 𝐴 = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} b. 𝑀 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
c. 𝐺 = {8, 9, 10, … . } d. 𝐸 = {1, 3, 5, … , 99}
2. Describe each of the following sets using complete and partial listing method (if
possible):
a. The set of positive even natural numbers below or equal to 10.
b. The set of positive even natural numbers below or equal to 30.
c. The set of non-negative integers.
d. The set of even natural numbers.
e. The set of natural numbers less than 100 and divisible by 5.
f. The set of integers divisible by 3.
3. List the elements of the following sets:

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

a. 𝐴 = {3𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝕎} b. 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ and 5 < 𝑥 < 10}

4. Write the following sets using set builder method.
a. 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5 …. } b. 𝐵 = {2, 4, 6, 8}
c. 𝐶 = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25} d. 𝐷 = {4, 6, 8, 10, … , 52 }
e. 𝐸 = {−10, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, … , 5} f. 𝐹 = {1, 4, 9, … . }

1.3 The Notion of Sets

Empty set, Finite set and Infinite set

Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, void set or null set.
The empty set is denoted mathematically by the symbol { } or Ø.

Example 1

Let set 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 1 < 𝑥 < 2, 𝑥 ∈ ℕ}. Then, 𝐴 is an empty set, because there is no
natural number between numbers 1 and 2.
Finite set and Infinite set

Definition 1.1
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set. A set
which is not finite is called an infinite set.

Example 2

Identify the following sets as finite set or infinite set.

a. The set of natural numbers up to 10 b. The set of African countries
c. The set of whole numbers

Solution:
a. Let 𝐴 be a set and 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Thus, it is a finite set because it has definite (limited) number of elements.

b. The set of African countries is a finite set.
c. The set of whole numbers is an infinite set.
Note

The number of elements of set 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ. For instance, in the above
example 2𝑎, 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ = 10. Read 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ as number of elements of set 𝐴

Exercise 1.3

1. Identify empty set from the list below.

a. 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ and 5 < 𝑥 < 6}
b. 𝐵 = {0}
c. C is the set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2.
d. 𝐷 = { }
2. Sort the following sets as finite or infinite sets.
a. The set of all integers
b. The set of days in a week
c. 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a multiple of 5}
d. 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 < −1}
e. 𝐷 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a prime number}

Equal Sets, Equivalent Sets, Universal Set, Subset and

Proper Subset
Equal Sets

Definition 1.2
Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal if and only if they have exactly the same
or identical elements. Mathematically, it is denoted as 𝐴 = 𝐵.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Example 1
Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {4, 3, 2, 1}. Then, 𝐴 = 𝐵. Set 𝐴 and set 𝐵 are equal.

Equivalent Sets

Definition 1.3
Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equivalent if there is a one-to-one correspondence
between the two sets. This is written mathematically as 𝐴 ↔ 𝐵 (or 𝐴~𝐵).

Note

Observe that two finite sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equivalent, if and only if they have equal
number of elements and we write mathematically this as 𝑛 ሺ𝐴ሻ = 𝑛 ሺ𝐵ሻ.

Example 2

Consider two sets 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}.

In set 𝐴 there are four elements and in set 𝐵 also there are four elements. Therefore,
set 𝐴 and set 𝐵 are equivalent.
Universal Set (∪)

Definition 1.4
A universal set (usually denoted by U) is a set which has elements of all the
related sets, without any repetition of elements.

Example 3

Let set 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, . . . } and 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, . . . }. The universal set U consists of all
natural numbers, such that 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }. Therefore, as we know all even and
odd numbers are part of natural numbers. Hence, set U has all the elements of set A
and set B.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Subset (⊆)

Definition 1.5
Set 𝐴 is said to be a subset of set 𝐵 if every
element of 𝐴 is also an element of 𝐵. Figure
1.3 shows this relationship. Mathematically,
we write this as 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 . If set 𝐴 is not a
subset of set 𝐵, then it is written as 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵.
Figure 1.3

Example 4

Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4} be sets. Here, set 𝐴 is a subset of set 𝐵,

or 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, since all members of set 𝐴 are found in set 𝐵.
In the above set 𝐴, find all subsets of the set. How many subsets does set 𝐴 have?
Solution:
The subsets of set 𝐴 are {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, { }. The number of
subsets of set 𝐴 is 8.
Note

i) 𝐴ny set is a subset of itself.

ii) Empty set is a subset of every set.
iii) If set 𝐴 is finite with 𝑛 elements, then the number of subsets of set 𝐴 is 2𝑛 .

In the above Example 3.b, 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ = 3. Then, the number of subsets is 23 = 8.

Proper Subset (⊂)

Definition 1.6
If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵, then 𝐴 is called the proper subset of set 𝐵 and it can be
written as 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Example 5
Given that sets 𝐴 = {2, 5, 7} and 𝐵 = {2, 5, 7, 8}. Set 𝐴 is a proper subset of set 𝐵,
that is, 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 since 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. Observe also that 𝐵 ⊄ A.
In the above set 𝐴, find all the proper subsets. How many proper subsets does set 𝐴
have?
Solution:
The proper subsets of set 𝐴 are {2}, {5}, {7}, {2, 5}, {5, 7}, {2, 7}, { }. There are seven
subsets.
Note

i) For any set 𝐴, 𝐴 is not a proper subset of itself.

ii) The number of proper subsets of set 𝐴 is 2𝑛 − 1.
iii) Empty set is the proper subset of any other sets.
iv) If set 𝐴 is subset of set 𝐵 ሺ𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵ሻ, conversely 𝐵 is super set of 𝐴 written as
𝐵 ⊃ 𝐴.

Exercise 1.4

1. Identify equal sets, equivalent sets or which are neither equal nor equivalent.
a. 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {4, 5}
b. 𝐶 = {𝑞, 𝑠, 𝑚} and 𝐷 = {6, 9, 12}
c. 𝐸 = {3, 7, 9, 11} and 𝐹 = {3, 9, 7, 11}
d. 𝐺 = {𝐼, 𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐿} and 𝐻 = {𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐼, 𝐿}
e. 𝐼 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝕎, 𝑥 < 5} and 𝐽 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 ≤ 5}
f. 𝐾 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a multiple of 30} and 𝐿 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a factor of 10}
2. List all the subsets of set 𝐻 = {1, 3, 5}. How many subsets and how many proper
subsets does it have?
3. Determine whether the following statements are true or false.
a. {𝑎, 𝑏} ⊄ {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎}
b. {𝑎, 𝑒} ⊆ {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a vowel in the English alphabet} c. {𝑎} ⊂ { 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 }

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

4. Express the relationship of the following sets, using the symbols ⊂, ⊃, or =

a. 𝐴 = {1, 2, 5, 10} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20}
b. 𝐶 = {𝑥 |𝑥 is natural number less than 10} and 𝐷 = {1, 2, 4, 8}
c. 𝐸 = {1, 2} and 𝐹 = {𝑥 | 0 < 𝑥 < 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℤ}
5. Consider sets 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6}, 𝐵 = {1, 3 7, 9, 11} and 𝐶 = {4, 8, 11}, then
a. Find the universal set
b. Relate sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝑈 using subset.

1.4 Operations on Sets

There are several ways to create new sets from sets that have already been defined.
Such process of forming new set is called set operation. The three most important set
operations namely Unionሺ∪ሻ, Intersectionሺ∩ሻ, Complementሺ′ሻ and Difference ሺ−ሻ
are discussed below.

Union and Intersection

Activity 1.2
Let the universal set is the set of natural numbers ℕ which is less than 12, and
sets 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
a. Can you write a set consisting of all natural
numbers that are in 𝐴 or in 𝐵?
b. Can you write a set consisting of all natural
numbers that are in 𝐴 and in 𝐵?
c. Can you write a set consisting of all natural
numbers that are in 𝐴 and not in 𝐵? Figure 1.4

Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representation of the sets involved in the
discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal set. Figure 1.4 above is an
example of Venn diagram.

Definition 1.7
The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, which is denoted
by 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩, is the set of all elements that are either
in set 𝐴 or in set 𝐵 (or in both sets). We write
this mathematically as
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Figure 1.5

Definition 1.8
The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted
by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of all elements that are
both in set 𝐴 and in set 𝐵 . We write this
mathematically as
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ={𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
Figure 1.6

Note
Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint if 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅

Figure 1.7

Example 1

Let 𝐴 = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7} be sets. Draw the Venn diagram and
find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Solution:
Figure 1.8 shows Venn diagram of set 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Thus, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 3, 7}.

Figure 1.8
Example 2

Let 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … } and 𝐵 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, … } be sets. Then, find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
Solution:
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive integer that is either even or a multiple of 3}
= {2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . . }
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive integer that is both even and a multiple of 3}
= {6, 12, 18, 24, . . . . }
Note

i) Law of ∅ and 𝑈: ∅ ∩ 𝐴 = ∅, 𝑈 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴.
ii) Commutative law: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴.
iii) Associative Law: ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ ሺ𝐵 ∩ 𝐶ሻ.

Exercise 1.5

1. Let 𝐴 = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} and 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Draw the Venn Diagram and
find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
2. Let 𝐴 be the set of positive odd integers less than 10 and 𝐵 is the set of positive
multiples of 5 less than or equal to 20. Find a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
3. Let 𝐶 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a factors of 20}, 𝐷 = {𝑦 | 𝑦 is a factor of 12}.
Find a) 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷, b) 𝐶 ∩ 𝐷.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Complement of sets

Definition 1.9
Let 𝐴 be a subset of a universal set 𝑈 . The
absolute complement (or simply complement)
of 𝐴, which is denoted by 𝑨′ , is defined as the
set of all elements of 𝑈 that are not in 𝐴. We
write this mathematically as
𝐴′ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}. Figure 1.9

Example 1

a. Let 𝑈 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐴 = {3, 4}. Then, 𝐴′ = {0, 1, 2}.

Example 2
Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, … , 10} be a universal set,
𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive factor of 10 in 𝑈} and
𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is an odd integer in 𝑈} be sets.
a. Find 𝐴′ and 𝐵′.
b. Find ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ′ and 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′. What do you observe from the answers?
Solution:
a. 𝐴 = {1, 2, 5, 10}, 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, Thus,
𝐴′ = {3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}, 𝐵 ′ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
b. First, we find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. Hence, 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9,10} and
ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ′ = {4, 6, 8}.
On the other hand, from 𝐴′ and 𝐵 ′ , we obtain 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ = {4, 6, 8} . Hence, we
immediately observe ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′.
In general, for any two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 , ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′. It is called the first
statement of De Morgan’s law.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

De Morgan’s Law
For the complement set of 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ⋂ 𝐵,
1st statement: (𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵ሻ′ = 𝐴′ ⋂ 𝐵 ′ , 2nd statement: (𝐴 ⋂ 𝐵ሻ′ = 𝐴′ ⋃ 𝐵 ′ .

Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11

Exercise 1.6
1. If the universal set 𝑈 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and 𝐴 = {4, 5}, then find 𝐴′ .
2. Let the universal set 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, … , 20}, 𝐴 = {𝑥 |𝑥 is a positive factor of 20}
and 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is an odd integer in 𝑈}. Find 𝐴′ , 𝐵 ′ , ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ′ and 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ′ .
3. Let the universal set be 𝑈 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 ≤ 10}. When 𝐴 = {2, 5, 9}, and
𝐵 = {1, 5, 6, 8}, find a) 𝐴′ ⋂ 𝐵′ and b) 𝐴′ ⋃ 𝐵′.

Difference of sets
Definition 1.10
The difference between two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵,
which is denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 , is the of all
elements in 𝐴 and not in 𝐵; this set is also
called the relative complement of 𝐴 with
respect to 𝐵. We write this mathematically
as 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}. Figure 1.12

Note
The notation 𝐴 − 𝐵 can be also written as 𝐴\𝐵.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Example 1

If sets 𝐴 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and 𝐵 = {3, 4}, then 𝐴 − 𝐵 or 𝐴\𝐵 = {0, 1, 2}.

Example 2

Let 𝑈 be a universal set of the set of one-digit numbers, 𝐴 be the set of even
numbers, 𝐵 be the set of prime numbers less than 10. Find the following:
a. 𝐴 − 𝐵 or 𝐴\𝐵 b. 𝐵 − 𝐴 or 𝐵\𝐴
c. 𝐴∪𝐵 d. 𝑈 − ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ or 𝑈\ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ

Solution:

Here, 𝐴 = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5, 7}. Then,

we illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as
follows. From the Venn diagram we observe:
a. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {0, 4, 6, 8}
b. 𝐵 − 𝐴 = {3 ,5, 7}
c. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
d. 𝑈 − ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = {1, 9} Figure 1.13

Example 3

For the same sets in Example 2, find the following. What can you say from Example
2 a. and b.? What about d. and Example 2, a.?
a. 𝐴′ b. 𝑈 − 𝐴
c. 𝐵′ d. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′

Solution:

a. 𝐴′ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} b. 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
c. 𝐵′ = {0, 1, 4, 6, 8, 9} d. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ = {0, 4, 6, 8}
From a. and b., we can say, 𝐴′ = 𝑈 − 𝐴. From d. and Example 2, a., we can say,
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′.

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Theorem 1.1
For any two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, each of the following holds true.
ሺ𝐴′ ሻ′ = 𝐴 𝐴′ = 𝑈 − 𝐴
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝐵 ′ ⊆ 𝐴′

Exercise 1.7
From the given Venn diagram, find each of the following:
a. 𝐴 − 𝐵 or 𝐴\𝐵 b. 𝐵 − 𝐴 or 𝐵\𝐴
c. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 d. 𝑈 − ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ or 𝑈\ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ

Symmetric Difference of Two Sets

Definition 1.11 Symmetric Difference

For two sets A and B, the symmetric difference between these two sets is
denoted by 𝐴∆𝐵 and is defined as:
𝐴∆𝐵 = ሺ𝐴\𝐵ሻ ∪ ሺ𝐵\𝐴ሻ , which is ሺ𝐴 − 𝐵ሻ ∪ ሺ𝐵 − 𝐴ሻ
or
= ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ\ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ
In the Venn diagram, the shaded part represents 𝐴∆𝐵 Figure 1.14

Example 1
Consider sets 𝐴 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 8} and 𝐵 = {2, 3, 5, 7}.
Then, find 𝐴∆𝐵.
Solution:
First, let us find 𝐴\𝐵 = {1, 4, 8} and 𝐵\𝐴 = {3, 7}.
Hence, 𝐴∆𝐵 = ሺ𝐴\𝐵ሻ ∪ ሺ𝐵\𝐴ሻ
Figure 1.15

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

= {1, 4, 8} ∪ {3, 7} = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8}.

Or 𝐴∆𝐵 = ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ\ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8}.

Example 2

Given sets 𝐴 = {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓} and 𝐵 = {4, 5, 6}. Then, find 𝐴∆𝐵.

Solution:

First, we find 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓} and 𝐵\𝐴 = {4,5,6}.

Hence, 𝐴∆𝐵 = ሺ𝐴\𝐵ሻ ∪ ሺ𝐵\𝐴ሻ
= {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓} ∪ {4, 5, 6} = {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓, 4, 5, 6}.
Figure 1.16
Exercise 1.8

1. Given 𝐴 = {0, 2, 3, 4, 5} and 𝐵 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Then, find 𝐴∆𝐵.

2. If 𝐴∆𝐵 = ∅, then what can be said about the two sets?
3. For any two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, can we generalize 𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐵∆𝐴 ? Justify your answer.

Cartesian Product of Two Sets

Definition 1.12 Cartesian Product of Two Sets

The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of all
ordered pairs ሺ𝑎, 𝑏ሻ where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. This also can be expressed as
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {ሺ𝑎, 𝑏ሻ: 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.

Example 1

Let 𝐴 = {1, 2} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏}. Then, find a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 b) 𝐵 × 𝐴

Solution:
a. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {ሺ1, 𝑎ሻ, ሺ1, 𝑏ሻ, ሺ2, 𝑎ሻ, ሺ2, 𝑏ሻ}
b. 𝐵 × 𝐴 = {ሺ𝑎, 1ሻ, ሺ𝑎, 2ሻ, ሺ𝑏, 1ሻ, ሺ𝑏, 2ሻ}

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Example 2

If 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {ሺ1, 𝑎ሻ, ሺ1, 𝑏ሻ, ሺ2, 𝑎ሻ, ሺ2, 𝑏ሻ, ሺ3, 𝑎ሻ, ሺ3, 𝑏ሻ}, then find sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Solution:
𝐴 is the set of all first components of 𝐴 × 𝐵, that is, 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, and
𝐵 is the set of all second components of 𝐴 × 𝐵, that is, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏}.

Exercise 1.9

1. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐵 = {𝑒, 𝑓}. Then, find a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 b) 𝐵 × 𝐴.

2. If 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {ሺ7,6ሻ, ሺ7,4ሻ, ሺ5,4ሻ, ሺ5,6ሻ, ሺ1,4ሻ, ሺ1,6ሻ}, then find sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.
3. If 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} , 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝐶 = {3, 4}, then find 𝐴 × ሺ𝐵 ∪ 𝐶ሻ.
4. If 𝐴 = {6, 9, 11}, then find 𝐴 × 𝐴.
5. If the number of elements of set 𝐴 is 6 and the number of elements of set 𝐵 is 4,
then the number of elements of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is _____________________.

1.5 Application

Number of Elements of union of two sets

For the two subsets 𝐴 and 𝐵 of a universal set 𝑈,
the following formula on the number of elements
holds. That is
𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ + 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ − 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ.

Especially in the case 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅, thus, Figure 1.17

𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ = 0, and the following holds:
𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ + 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ.
If 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ ∅, then
𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ + 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ − 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ.

Figure 1.18

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 Unit 1: Further on Sets

Example

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two finite sets such that 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ = 20, 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ = 28, and
𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 36, then find 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ.
Solution:
Using the formula 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ + 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ − 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ we have
36 = 20 + 28 − 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ.
This gives 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ = ሺ20 + 28ሻ − 36 = 48 − 36 = 12.

Exercise 1.10

1. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two finite sets such that 𝑛ሺ𝐴ሻ = 34, 𝑛ሺ𝐵ሻ = 46 and
𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∪ 𝐵ሻ = 70. Then, find 𝑛ሺ𝐴 ∩ 𝐵ሻ.
2. There are 60 people attending a meeting. 42 of them drink tea and 27 drink
coffee. If every person in the meeting drinks at least one of the two drinks, find
the number of people who drink both tea and coffee. (Hint: Use a Venn diagram).

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 Summary and Review Exercise

Summary
1. A set is a collection of well-defined objects or elements. When we say a set is
well-defined, we mean that given an object we are able to determine whether the
object is in the set or not.
2. Sets can be described in the following ways:
Verbal method (Statement form)
In this method, the well-defined description of the elements of the set is written
in an ordinary English language statement form (in words).
Complete listing method (Roster Method)
In this method all the elements of the sets are completely listed. The elements
are separated by commas and are enclosed within set brace, { }.
Partial listing method
We use this method, if listing of all elements of a set is difficult or impossible
but the elements can be indicated clearly by listing a few of them that fully
describe the set.
Set builder method (Method of defining property)
The set-builder method is described by a property that its member must satisfy.
This is the method of writing the condition to be satisfied by a set or property of
a set.
3. A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set, void set or null
set. The empty set is denoted mathematically by the symbol { } or Ø.
4. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and only if they have exactly same or
identical elements. Mathematically, we write this as 𝐴 = 𝐵.
5. Set 𝐴 is said to be a subset of set 𝐵 if every element of 𝐴 is also an element of
𝐵. Mathematically, we write this as 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
• Any set is a subset to itself.
• Empty set is a sub set of every set.

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 Summary and Review Exercise

• If set 𝐴 is finite with 𝑛 elements, then the number of subsets of set 𝐴 is 2𝑛 .

6. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵, then 𝐴 is called the proper subset of 𝐵 and it can be
written as 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
• For any set 𝐴, 𝐴 is not a proper subset to itself.
• If set 𝐴 is finite with 𝑛 elements the number of proper subsets of set 𝐴 is
2𝑛 − 1.
• Empty set is a proper subset of any other sets.
7. A universal set (usually denoted by 𝑈) is a set which has elements of all the
related sets, without any repetition of elements.
8. The union of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, which is denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of all
elements that are either in set 𝐴 or in set B (or in both sets). We write this
mathematically as
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
9. The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, which is denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of
all elements that are in set 𝐴 and in set 𝐵. We write this mathematically as
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
10. The difference between two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, which is denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵, is the set
of all elements in set 𝐴 and not in set 𝐵; this set is also called the relative
complement of set 𝐴 with respect to set 𝐵. We write this mathematically as
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.
11. Let 𝐴 be subset of a universal set 𝑈. The absolute complement (or simply
complement) of set 𝐴, which is denoted by 𝐴′, is defined as the set of all
elements of 𝑈 that are not in 𝐴. We write this mathematically as
𝐴′ = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.
12. A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representation of the sets involved in
the discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of
which is enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal set.

23
 Summary and Review Exercise

13. For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 the symmetric difference between these two sets is
denoted by 𝐴∆𝐵 and is defined as 𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴\𝐵) ∪ (𝐵\𝐴) = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)\(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).
14. For any two finite sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, 𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).

Review Exercise

1. Express following sets using the listing method.

a. 𝐴 is the set of positive factors of 18
b. 𝐵 is the set of positive even numbers below or equal to 30
c. 𝐶 = {2𝑛 | 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … }
d. 𝐷 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 2 = 9}
2. Express following sets using the set-builder method.
a. {2, 4, 6, … . . }
b. {1, 3, 5, … , 99}
c. {1, 4, 9, … , 81}
3. Find all the subsets of the following sets.
a. {3, 4, 5}
b. {𝑎, 𝑏}
4. Find 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ⋂ 𝐵 of the following.
a. 𝐴 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} and 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 8, 11}
b. 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is the factor of 12} and 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is the factor of 18}
c. 𝐴 = {3𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 ≤ 20 } and 𝐵 = {4𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 ≤ 15}

5. If 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ′ = {1, 4, 5}, and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then find set 𝐵.

6. Let 𝐴 = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9}, 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 6, 10} and
𝐶 = {𝑥 | ∈ ℤ, 3𝑥 + 6 = 0 or 2𝑥 + 6 = 0}.
Find a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
b) Is (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)?

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 Summary and Review Exercise

7. Suppose the universal set 𝑈 be the set of one-digit numbers, and

set 𝐴 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is an even natural number less than or equal to 9 }.
Describe each set by complete listing method:
a. 𝐴′
b. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′
c. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′
d. (𝐴′)′
e. 𝜙 \ 𝑈
f. 𝜙′
g. 𝑈′
8. Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, … … . ,10}, 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5, 7}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Evaluate
𝑈\(𝐴∆𝐵).
9. Consider a universal set 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 14}, 𝐴 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11},
𝐵 = {2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11}. Then, which one of the following is true?
A. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = {1, 4, 6, 12, 13, 14}
B. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵 ′
C. 𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′
D. 𝐴\𝐵 = {3, 5, 7}
E. None
10. Let 𝐴 = {3, 7, 𝑎2 } and 𝐵 = {2, 4, 𝑎 + 1, 𝑎 + 𝑏} be two sets and all the elements
of the two sets are integers. If 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {4, 7}, then find a and b. In addition,
find 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵.
11. In a survey of 200 students in Motta Secondary School, 90 students are
members of Nature club, 31 students are members of Mini-media club, 21
students are members of both clubs. Answer the following questions.
a. How many students are members of either of the clubs?
b. How many students are not members of either of the clubs?

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 Summary and Review Exercise

c. How many students are only in Nature club?

12. A survey was conducted in a class of 100 children and it was found out that 45
of them like Mathematics whereas only 35 like Science and 10 students like
both subjects. How many like neither of the subjects?
A) 70 B) 30 C) 100 D) 40

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 Unit 2: The Number System

UNIT
THE NUMBER SYSTEM
2
Unit Outcomes

Describe rational numbers.

Locate rational numbers on number line.
Describe irrational numbers.
Locate some irrational numbers on a number line.
Define real numbers.
Classify real numbers as rational and irrational.
Solve mathematical problems involving real numbers.

Unit Contents
2.1 Revision on Natural Numbers and Integers
2.2 Rational Numbers
2.3 Irrational Numbers
2.4 Real Numbers
2.5 Applications
Summary
Review Exercise

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 Unit 2: The Number System

• perfect square • significant digits

• greatest common • significant figures

factor

• division algorithm • principal nth root • terminating decimal

• fundamental theorem of • prime factorization • least common

arithmetic multiple (LCM)

• rationalizing factor • repeating decimal • real number

• irrational number • scientific notation • radicand

• rationalization • bar notation • composite number

Introduction
In the previous grades, you learned number systems about natural numbers, integers
and rational numbers. You have discussed meaning of natural numbers, integers and
rational numbers, the basic properties and operations on the above number systems. In
this unit, after revising those properties of natural numbers, integers and rational
numbers, you will continue to learn about irrational and real numbers.

2.1 Revision on Natural Numbers and Integers

Activity 2.1
1. List five members of :-
a. Natural numbers
b. Integers
2. Select natural numbers and integers from the following.
a. 6 b. 0 c. −25
3. What is the relationship between natural numbers and integers?

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 Unit 2: The Number System

4. Decide if the following statements are always true, sometimes true or never
true and provide your justification.
a. Natural numbers are integers
b. Integers are natural numbers
c. -7 is a natural number
5. Draw diagram which shows the relationship of Natural numbers and Integers.

The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a set. The word well-defined
refers to a specific property which makes it easy to identify whether the given object
belongs to the set or not. The word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a set must be all
different.
From your grade 7 mathematics lessons, you recall that
• The set of natural numbers, which is denoted by ℕ expressed as
ℕ = {1, 2, 3, … }.
• The set of integers, which is denoted by ℤ is expressed as
ℤ = {… , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … }.
Example

Categorize each of the following as natural numbers and integers.

3, −2, 11, 0, −18, 15, 7

Solution:

All the given numbers are integers and 3, 11, 15 and 7 are natural numbers.

Exercise 2.1

1. Categorize each of the following as natural numbers and integers.

8, −11 , 23, 534, 0, −46, −19, 100
2. What is the last integer before one thousand?

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 Unit 2: The Number System

3. Consider any two natural numbers 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 .

a. Is 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 a natural number? Explain using example.
b. Is 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 a natural number? Explain using example.
c. What can you conclude from (a) and (b)?
4. If the perimeter of a triangle is 10 and lengths of the sides are natural
numbers, find all the possible lengths of sides of the triangle.
5. Assume 𝑚 and 𝑛 are two positive integers and 𝑚 + 𝑛 < 10. How many different
values can the product 𝑚𝑛 (𝑚 multiplied by 𝑛) have?

2.1.1 Euclid’s Division lemma

Activity 2.2
1. In a book store there are 115 different books to be distributed to 8 students. If
the book store shares these books equally, how many books will each student
receive and how many books will be left?
2. Divide a natural number 128 by 6. What is the quotient and remainder of this
process? Can you guess a remainder before performing the division process?

From your activity, using the process of dividing one positive integer by another, you
will get remainder and quotient as described in the following theorem.

Theorem 2.1 Euclid’s Division lemma

Given a non-negative integer 𝑎 and a positive integer 𝑏, there exist unique non-
negative integers 𝑞 and 𝑟 satisfying
𝑎 = 𝑏 × 𝑞 + 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.

In theorem 2.1, 𝑎 is called the dividend, 𝑞 is called the quotient, 𝑏 is called the divisor,
and 𝑟 is called the remainder.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example

Find the unique quotient and remainder when a positive integer.

a. 38 is divided by 4 b. 5 is divided by 14
c. 12 is divided by 3 d. 2,574 is divided by 8
Solution:
a. Here, it is given that the dividend is 𝑎 = 38 and
the divisor is = 4 . So that we need to determine
the unique numbers 𝑞 and 𝑟.When we divide 38
by 4, we get a quotient 𝑞 = 9 and a remainder
𝑟 = 2. Hence, we can write this as 38 = 4 × 9 + 2.
b. The number 5 is less than the divisor 14. So, the
quotient is 0 and the remainder is 5.

That is, 5 = 14 × 0 + 5.

c. When we divide 12 by 3, we obtain 4 as a

quotient and the remainder is 0. That is
12 = 3 × 4 + 0.

d. Using long division if 2,574 is divided by 8,

we get 321 as a quotient and 6 as a remainder.
We can write 2,574 = 8 × 321 + 6.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Note
For two positive integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the division lemma, we say 𝑎 is divisible by
𝑏 if the remainder 𝑟 is zero.

In the above example (c), 12 is divisible by 3 since the remainder is 0.

Exercise 2.2

1. For each of the following pairs of numbers, let 𝑎 be the first number of the pair and
𝑏 be the second number. Find 𝑞 and 𝑟 for each pair such that 𝑎 = 𝑏 × 𝑞 + 𝑟, where
0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.
a. 14, 3 b. 116, 7 c. 570, 6 d. 25, 36 e. 987, 16

2. Find the unique quotient and remainder when 31 is divided by 6.

3. Find four positive integers when divided by 4 leaves remainder 3.
4. A man has Birr 68. He plans to buy items such that each costs Birr 7. If he needs

Birr 5 to remain in his pocket, what is the maximum number of items he can buy?
(5m+1)(5m+3)(5m+6)
5. Find the remainder of for m is non-negative integer.
5

2.1.2 Prime numbers and composite numbers

In this subsection, you will confirm important facts about prime and composite
numbers. The following activity (activity 2.3) will help you to refresh your memory.

Activity 2.3
1. Fill in the blanks to make the statements correct using the numbers 3 and 12.

a. ____________is a factor of _____________.

b. ____________is divisible by ____________.
c. ____________is a multiple of _____________.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

2. For each of the following statements write ‘true’ if the statement is correct and
‘false’ otherwise. If your answer is false give justification why it is false.
a. 1 is a factor of all natural numbers.
b. There is no even prime number.
c. 23 is a prime number.
d. If a number is natural number, it is either prime or composite.
e. 351 is divisible by 3.
f. 22 × 3 × 7 is the prime factorization of 84.
g. 63 is a multiple of 21.
3. Write factors of :
a. 7 b. 15

Observations
Given two natural numbers ℎ and 𝑝, ℎ is called a multiple of 𝑝 if there is a natural
number 𝑞 such that ℎ = 𝑝 × 𝑞 . In this way we can say:
▪ 𝑝 is called a factor or a divisor of ℎ.
▪ ℎ is divisible by 𝑝.
▪ 𝑞 is also a factor or divisor of ℎ.
▪ ℎ is divisible by 𝑞.
Hence, for any two natural numbers ℎ and 𝑝, ℎ is divisible by 𝑝 if there exists a
natural number 𝑞 such that ℎ = 𝑝 × 𝑞.

Definition 2.1 Prime and composite numbers

A natural number that has exactly two distinct factors, namely 1 (one) and itself
is called a prime number whereas a natural number that has more than two factors
is called a composite number.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example 1

Is 18 a prime number or a composite number? Why?

Solution:
Observe that, 18 = 1 × 18 , 18 = 2 × 9 or 18 = 3 × 6 .This indicates 1, 2, 3, 6, 9
and 18 are factors of 18. Hence, 18 is a composite number.

Example 2

Find a prime number(s) greater than 50 and less than 55.

Solution:
The natural numbers greater than 50 and less than 55 are 51, 52, 53 and 54.
51 = 3 × 17, so that 3 and 17 are factors of 51 .

52 = 2 × 26, so that 2 and 26 are factors of 52, and

54 = 2 × 27, hence 2 and 27 are factors of 54. Therefore, these three numbers are
composite numbers. But 53 = 1 × 53. Hence, 1 and 53 are the only factors of 53 so
that 53 is a prime number. Therefore, 53 is a prime number greater than 50 and less
than 55.

Exercise 2.3

1. Is 21 a prime number or a composite number? Why?

2. Write true if the statement is correct and false otherwise

a. There are 7 prime numbers between 1 and 20.
b. 4, 6, 15 and 21 are composite numbers.
c. The smallest composite number is 2.
d. 101 is the prime number nearest to 100.
e. No prime number greater than 5 ends with 5.
3. Is 28 a composite number? If so, list all of its factors.

4. Can we generalize that ‘if a number is odd, then it is prime’? Why?

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 Unit 2: The Number System

5. Which one of the following is true about composite numbers?

A. They have 3 pairs of factors B. They are always prime numbers
C. They do not have factors D. They have more than two factors

Note
❖ 1 is neither prime nor composite.
❖ 2 is the only even prime number.
❖ Factors of a number are always less than or equal to the number.

2.1.3 Divisibility test

In the previous lesson, you practiced how to get the quotient and remainder while you
divide a positive integer by another positive integer. Now you will revise the
divisibility test to check whether 𝑎 is divisible by 𝑏 or not without performing division
algorithm.

Activity 2.4
Check whether the first integer is divisible by the second or not without using
division algorithm.
a. 2584, 2 b. 765, 9 c. 63885, 6 d. 7964, 4 e. 65475, 5

From your activity, you may check this either by using division algorithm or by
applying rules without division.

Every number is divisible by 1. You need to perform the division procedure to check
divisibility of one natural number by another. The following rules can help you to
determine whether a number is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 10. Divisibility test by
7 will not be discussed now because it is beyond the scope of this level.
Divisibility test:- It is an easy way to check whether a given number is divisible by
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 or 10 without actually performing the division process.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

A number is divisible by
• 2, if its unit digit is divisible by 2.
• 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
• 4, if the number formed by its last two digits is divisible by 4.
• 5, if its unit digit is either 0 or 5.
• 6, if it is divisible by 2 and 3.
• 8, if the number formed by its last three digits is divisible by 8.
• 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
• 10, if its unit digit is 0.
Example

Using divisibility test check whether 2,334 is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 10.

Solution:
• 2,334 is divisible by 2 since its unit digit 4 is divisible by 2.
• 2,334 is divisible by 3 since the sum of the digits (2 + 3 + 3 + 4) is 12 and it
is divisible by 3.
• 2,334 is not divisible by 4 since its last two digits, that is 34 is not divisible
by 4.
• 2,334 is not divisible by 5 since its unit digit is not either 0 or 5.
• 2,334 is divisible by 6 since it is divisible by 2 and 3.
• 2,334 is not divisible by 8 since its last three digits 334 is not divisible by 8.
• 2,334 is not divisible by 9 since the sum of the digits ( 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 = 12 )
is not divisible by 9.
• 2,334 is not divisible by 10 since its unit digit is not zero.

Exercise 2.4

1. Using divisibility test, check whether the following numbers are divisible by

36
 Unit 2: The Number System

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 10:
a. 384 b. 3,186 c. 42,435
2. Given that 74,3𝑥2 is a number where 𝑥 is its tens place. If this number is
divisible by 8, what is (are) the possible value(s) of 𝑥?
3. Find the least possible value of the blank space so that the number 3457__40 is
divisible by 4.
4. Fill the blank space with the smallest possible digit that makes the given number
81231_37 is divisible by 9.

Definition 2.2 Prime factorization

The expression of a composite number as a product of prime numbers is called
prime factorization.

Consider a composite number which we need to write it in prime factorized form.

Recall that a composite number has more than two factors. The factors could be prime
or still composite. If both of the factors are prime, we stop the process by writing the
given number as a product of these prime numbers. If one of the factors is a composite
number, we will continue to get factors of this composite number till all the factors
become primes. Finally, express the number as a product of all primes which are part
of the process.
Example 1

Express each of the following numbers as prime factorization form.

a. 6 b. 30 c. 72
Solution:
a. 6 = 2 × 3, since both 2 and 3 are prime, we stop the process.
b. 30 = 2 × 15 and 15 = 3 × 5 .

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 Unit 2: The Number System

So that, 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 . The right hand side of this equation is the prime

factorization of 30.
The process of prime factorization can be easily visualized by using a factor tree as
shown below.
c. By divisibility test, 72 is divisible by 2. So that 2 is one of its factors and it will
be written as 2 × 36 as shown in the right side. Again 36 is divisible by 2. Hence,
36 = 2 × 18 and this process will continue till we get the
factors as primes. Hence, the prime factorization of 72 is
given as
72 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 32 . Also we can observe
72 = 8 × 9 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 32
72 = 4 × 18 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = 23 × 32
72 = 3 × 24 = 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 × 32 .
The following theorem is stated without proof to generalize factors of composite
numbers.

Theorem 2.2 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic

Every composite number can be expressed (factored) as a product of primes and
this factorization is unique.

Example 2

Express 456 as prime factorization form.

Solution:

To determine the prime factors, we will divide 456 by 2. If the quotient is also a
composite number, again using a divisibility test we will search the prime number
which divides the given composite number. Repeat this process till the quotient is
prime.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

That is, 456  2 = 228

228  2 = 114
114  2 = 57
57  3 = 19, we stop the process since 19 is prime.
Hence, 456 = 23 × 3 × 19.

Exercise 2.5

1. Express each of the following numbers as prime factorization form.

a. 21 b. 70 c. 105
d. 252 e. 360 f. 1, 848
2. 180 can be written as 2𝑎 × 3𝑏 × 5𝑐 . Then, find the value of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
3. Find the four prime numbers whose product is 462.

2.1.4 Greatest common factor and least common

multiple
In this subsection, you will revise the basic concepts about greatest common factors
and least common multiples of two or more natural numbers.
Greatest common factor

Activity 2.5
1. Given the numbers 12 and 16:
a. Find the common factors of the two numbers.
b. Find the greatest common factor of the two numbers.
2. Given the following three numbers 24, 42 and 56:
a. Find the common factors of the three numbers.
b. Find the greatest common factor of the three numbers.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Definition 2.3
i) Given two or more natural numbers, a number which is a factor of these
natural numbers is called a common factor.
ii) The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) or Highest Common Factor (HCF) of
two or more natural numbers is the greatest natural number of the common
factors. GCF(𝑎, 𝑏) is to mean the Greatest Common Factor of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

Example 1

Find the greatest common factors of 36 and 56.

Solution:

Factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 and

factors of 56 are1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, 56. Here
1,2 and 4 are the common factors of both 36
and 56. The greatest one from these common
factors is 4. Hence GCF(36, 56) = 4. You
can also observe this from the following Venn Figure 2.1 Factors of 36 and 56
diagram.

Activity 2.6
Let 𝑝 = 36, 𝑞 = 56. Then, write
a. The prime factorization of 𝑝 and 𝑞.
b. Write common prime factors of 𝑝 and 𝑞 with the least power.
c. Take the product of the common prime factors you found in the above (𝑏)
if they are two or more.
d. Compare your result in (𝑐) with GCF(36, 56) you got in example 1 above.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

The above activity leads you to use another alternate approach of determining GCF of
two or more natural numbers using prime factorization. Using this method, the GCF
of two or more natural numbers is the product of their common prime factors and the
smallest number of times each power appears in the prime factorization of the given
numbers.
Example 2

Use prime factorization to find GCF(12, 18, 36).

Solution:
Let us write each of the given three numbers as prime factorization form.
12 = 22 × 31
18 = 21 × 32
36 = 22 × 32
In the above factorizations, 2 and 3 are common prime factors of the numbers
(12,18 and 36). Further the least power of 2 is 1 and least power of 3 is also 1. So that
the product of these two common prime numbers with least power of each is 2 × 3 =
6. Hence, GCF(12, 18, 36) = 6.

Exercise 2.6

Find the greatest common factors (GCF) of the following numbers.

1. Using Venn diagram method
a. 12, 18
b. 24, 64
c. 45, 63, 99
2. Using prime factorization method
a. 24, 54
b. 108, 104
c. 180, 270, 1,080

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Least common multiple

Activity 2.7
For this activity, you need to use pen and pencil.
➢ Write the natural numbers from 1 to 60 using your pen.
➢ Encircle the number from the list which is a multiple of 6 using pencil.
➢ Underline the number on the list which is a multiple of 8 using pencil.
Using the above task:
a. Collect the numbers from the list which are both encircled and underlined
in a set.
b. What is the least common number from the set you found in (a)?
c. What do you call the number you get in (b) above for the two numbers 6

Definition 2.4
For any two natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 , the Least Common Multiple of
𝑎 and 𝑏 denoted by LCM(𝑎, 𝑏) is the smallest multiple of both 𝑎 and 𝑏.

Intersection Method
Example 1

Find Least Common Multiple of 2 and 3, that is, LCM(2, 3).

Solution:
2, 4, 𝟔, 8, 10, 𝟏𝟐, 14, 16, . .. are multiples of 2 and 3, 𝟔, 9, 𝟏𝟐, 15, 𝟏𝟖, … are
multiples of 3. Hence, 𝟔, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟖, … are common multiples of 2 and 3. The least
number from the common multiples is 6.
Therefore, LCM(2, 3) is 6.

Example 2

Find Least Common Multiple of 6 and 9, that is, LCM(6, 9).

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Solution:
6, 12, 𝟏𝟖, 24, 30, 𝟑𝟔. .. are multiples of 6 and 9, 𝟏𝟖, 27, 𝟑𝟔, 45, … are multiples
of 9. Hence, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟑𝟔, 𝟓𝟒, … are common multiples of 6 and 9. The least number
from the common multiples is 18.
Therefore, LCM(6, 9) is 18.
Factorization Method
Example 3

Find the Least Common Multiple of 2, 3 and 5, that is, LCM(2, 3, 5) using
factorization method.
Solution:
2,3 and 5 are prime numbers. Taking the product of these prime numbers gives us
LCM(2,3,5) = 2 × 3 × 5 = 30.

Example 4

Find the Least Common Multiple of 6,10 and 16, that is, LCM(6, 10, 16) using
factorization method.
Solution:
Writing each by prime factorization, we have

6=2×3
10 = 2 × 5} The prime factors that appear in these factorization are 2, 3 and 5.
16 = 24
Taking the product of the highest powers gives us
LCM(6, 10, 16) = 24 × 3 × 5 = 240.

Activity 2.8
Consider two natural numbers 15 and 42. Then, find
a. LCM(15,42) and GCF(15, 42).
b. 15 × 42

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 Unit 2: The Number System

c. What is the product of GCF(15, 42) and LCM(15, 42)?

d. Compare your results of (b) and (c).
e. What do you generalize from (d)?

From the above activity you can deduce that

➢ For any two natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, GCF(𝑎, 𝑏) × LCM(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏.
Example 5

Find GCF(12, 18) × LCM(12, 18).

Solution:
The product of GCF(𝑎, 𝑏) and LCM(𝑎, 𝑏) is the product of the two numbers 𝑎
and 𝑏 for any two natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏. Hence
GCF(12, 18) × LCM(12, 18) = 12 × 18 = 216.

Exercise 2.7

1. Find the least common multiples (LCM) of the following list of numbers using
both intersection method and prime factorization method.

a. 6, 15 b. 14, 21 c. 4, 15, 21 d. 6, 10, 15, 18

2. Find GCF and LCM of each of the following numbers
a. 4 and 9 b. 7 and 48 c. 12 and 32
d. 16 and 39 e. 12, 16 and 24 f. 4, 18 and 30
3. Find GCF(16, 24) × LCM (16, 24).
4. In a school, the number of participants in Sport, Mini media and Anti Aids club are
60, 84 and 108 respectively. Find the minimum number of rooms required. In each
room the same number of participants are to be seated and all of them being in the
same club.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

2.2 Rational Numbers

In section 2.1, you have learnt about natural numbers and integers. In this section you
will extend the set of integers to the set of rational numbers. You will also discuss how
to represent rational numbers as decimals and locate them on the number line.

Activity 2.9
Given integers 7, −2, 6, 0 and − 3.
a. Divide one number by another (except division by 0).
b. From the result obtained in (a) which of them are integers?
c. What can you conclude from the above (a) and (b)?

Now let us discuss about rational numbers

Definition 2.5 Rational Numbers

𝑎
Any number that can be written in the form 𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers and 𝑏 ≠

0 is called a rational number. The set of rational numbers is denoted by ℚ and is

described as
𝑎
ℚ = ቄ𝑏 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≠ 0ቅ.

Example 1
3 −13
The numbers , −6, 0, are rational numbers.
4 10
−6 0
Here, −6 and 0 can be written as and ,
1 1

respectively. So we can conclude every natural

number and integer is a rational number. You can
see this relation using figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2

45
 Unit 2: The Number System

Note
𝑎
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝜖 ℚ, 𝑥 is a fraction with numerator 𝑎 and denominator 𝑏,

i) If 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑥 is called proper fraction.

ii) If 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏, then 𝑥 is called improper fraction.
𝑎 𝑎
iii) If 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑏 , where 𝑐 𝜖 ℤ and 𝑏 is a proper fraction, then 𝑦 is called a mixed

fraction (mixed number).

iv) 𝑥 is said to be in simplest (lowest form) if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are relatively prime or
GCF(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1.

Example 2

Categorize each of the following as proper, improper or mixed fraction

7 2 1 7
, ,54, and 6.
8 9 3
7 2
Solution: 8 and are proper fractions,
9
7 6
and 6 are improper fraction (since 6 = 1 ) and
3
1
5 4 is a mixed fraction.

Example 3
1
Express 3 4 as improper fraction.
𝑚 𝑚 (𝑙×𝑛)+𝑚
Solution: For three integers 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 where 𝑛 ≠ 0: 𝑙 =𝑙+ = .
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 (3×4)+1 13
So that 3 4 = = .
4 4

Exercise 2.8

1. Express each of the following integers as fraction.

a. 5 b. −3 c. 13
2. Write true if the statement is correct and false otherwise. Give justification if the
answer is false.

46
 Unit 2: The Number System

a. Any integer is a rational number. 35 9

b. The simplest form of 45 is 7.
𝑎 2 11
c. For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, is a rational number. d. The simplest form of 5 4 is .
𝑏 2
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
3. If and are two rational numbers, show that 𝑏 × 𝑑 is also a rational number.
𝑏 𝑑

4. Zebiba measures the length of a table and she reads 54 cm and 4 mm. Express
𝑎
this measurement in terms of cm in lowest form of 𝑏.
1
5. A rope of 5 3 meters is to be cut into 4 pieces of equal length. What will be the

length of each piece?

2.2.1 Representation of rational numbers by decimals

In this subsection, you will learn how to represent rational numbers by decimals and
locate the rational number on the number line.

Activity 2.10
1. Perform each of the following divisions.
3 5 14 −2
a. b. c.− 15 d.
5 9 7

2. Write the numbers 0.2 and 3.31 as a fraction form.

From the above activity 2.10, you may observe the following:
𝑎
➢ Any rational number can be written as decimal form by dividing the
𝑏
numerator 𝑎 by the denominator 𝑏.
𝑎
➢ When we change a rational number 𝑏 into decimal form, one of the following

cases will occur

• The division process ends when a remainder of zero is obtained. Here, the
decimal is called a terminating decimal.
• The division process does not terminate but repeats as the remainder never
become zero. In this case the decimal is called repeating decimal.

47
 Unit 2: The Number System
3
In the above activity 2.10 (1), when you perform the division 5 , you obtain a
5 −14
decimal 0.6 which terminates, = 0.555 … and = −0.933 … are repeating.
9 15

Notation
To represent repetition of digit/digits we put a bar notation above the
repeating digit/digits.

Example 1

Write the following fractions using the notation of repeating decimals.

1 23
a. b.
3 99

Solution:
1 23
a. = 0.333 … = 0. 3̅ ̅̅̅̅.
b. 99 = 0.232323 … = 0. 23
3

Converting terminating decimals to fractions

Every terminating decimal can be written as a fraction form with a denominator of a
power of 10 which could be 10, 100, 1000 and so on depending on the number of
digits after a decimal point.
Example 2

Convert each of the following decimals to fraction form.

a. 7.3 b. −0.18
Solution:
a. The smallest place value of the digits in the number 7.3 is in the tenths column
7.3×10 73
so we write this as a number of tenths. So that, 7.3 = = 10 (since it has 1
10

digit after a decimal point, multiply both the numerator and the denominator by
10).
b. The smallest place value of the digits in the number −0.18 is in the hundredths
column so we write this as a number of hundredths.

48
 Unit 2: The Number System
−0.18×100 −18 −9
Hence, −0.18 = = and after simplification, we obtain .
100 100 50

Exercise 2.9

1. Write the following fractions using the notation of repeating decimals.

8 1 5 14
a. b. c.
6
d.
9 11 9

2. Convert each of the following as a fraction form.

a. 0.3 b. 3.7 c. 0.77 d. −12.369
e. 0.6 f. 9.5 g. −0.48 h. −32.125
1
3. Using long division, we get that 7 = 0. ̅142857
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . Can you predict the decimal
2 3 4 5 6
expression of , , , and without doing long division? If so, how?
7 7 7 7 7

4. What can you conclude from question no. 3 above?

Representing rational numbers on the number line

Example 1
4 −5
Locate the rational numbers −5, 3, 3 and on the number line.
2

Solution:
You can easily locate the given integers −5 and 3 on a number line. But to locate a
4 −5
fraction, change the fraction into decimal. That is, 3 = 1. 3̅ and 2 = −2.5. Now locate

each of these by bold mark on the number line as shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3

49
 Unit 2: The Number System

2.2.2 Conversion of repeating decimals into fractions

In section 2.2.1, you have discussed how to convert the terminating decimals into
fractions. In this subsection, you will learn how repeating decimals can be converted
to fractions.

Example 2

Represent each of the following decimals as a simplest fraction form (ratio of two
integers).
a. 0. 5̅ b. 2. ̅12
̅̅̅

Solution:
𝑎
a. We need to write 0. 5̅ as 𝑏 form. Now let 𝑑 = 0. 5̅. Then,

10𝑑 = 5. 5̅ (multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 0. 5̅ by 10)

− 𝑑 = 0. 5̅ (we use subtraction to eliminate the repeating part)
9𝑑 = 5 .
5 5
Now dividing both sides by 9, we have 𝑑 = 9. Hence, the fraction form of 0. 5̅ is 9.
𝑎
̅̅̅̅ as form. Now let 𝑑 = 2. 12
b. We need to write 2. 12 ̅̅̅̅. Then,
𝑏

100𝑑 = 212. ̅̅
12̅̅ (multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 2. ̅12
̅̅̅ by 10 )
−𝑑 = 2. ̅̅
12̅̅ (we use subtraction to eliminate the repeating part)
99𝑑 = 210.
210 70
Now, dividing both sides by 99 results 𝑑 = = 33. Hence, the fraction form of
99
70
̅̅̅̅ is .
2. 12 33

Example 3
Represent each of the following in fraction form.
𝐚. 0.12̅ ̅̅̅̅
b. 1.216
Solution:

50
 Unit 2: The Number System

a. Let 𝑑 = 0.12̅, now

100𝑑 = 12. 2̅ ( multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 0.12̅ by 100)
−10𝑑 = 1. 2̅ (multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 0.12̅ by 10)
90𝑑 = 11.
11
Solving for 𝑑, that is dividing both sides by 90 we obtain 𝑑 = 90. Hence, the
11
fraction form of 0.12̅ is 90 .
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ . Now
b. Using similar procedure of (a), let 𝑑 = 1.216
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ (multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 1216. 16
1000𝑑 = 1216. 16 ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ by 1000)
−10𝑑 = 12. ̅16
̅ ̅ ̅ (multiplying both sides of 𝑑 = 12. ̅16
̅ ̅ ̅ by 10)

990𝑑 = 1204.
1204 602
Dividing both sides by 990, we obtain 𝑑 = = 495 . Hence, the fraction form
990
602
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ is
of 1.216 .
495

Exercise 2.10

4 1
1. Locate the rational numbers 3, 4, , 0. 4̅ and 2 on the number line.
5 3
2. Represent each of the following decimals as simplest fraction form.
a. 2. 6̅ ̅̅̅̅
b. 0. 14 ̅̅̅̅
c. 0.716 ̅̅̅̅
d. 1.3212 ̅̅̅̅
e. −0.53213

2.3 Irrational Numbers

Recall that terminating and repeating decimals are rational numbers. In this subsection,
you will learn about decimals which are neither terminating nor repeating

2.3.1 Neither repeating nor terminating numbers

Do you recall a perfect square?
A perfect square is a number that can be expressed as a product of two equal integers.
For instance, 1, 4, 9 are perfect squares since 1 = 12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 .

51
 Unit 2: The Number System

A square root of a number 𝑥 is a number 𝑦 such that 𝑦 2 = 𝑥. For instance, 5 and − 5

are square roots of 25 because 52 = (−5)2 = 25.
Consider the following situation.
There is a square whose area is 2 cm2 . What is the length of a side of this square?
The length of a side is supposed to be 𝑠 cm.
Since 12 = 1, area of the square which side is 1 cm is 1 cm2.
Likewise, 22 = 4, area of the square whose side is 2 cm is
4 cm2. From the above, 1 < 𝑠 < 2.
In a similar way,
1.42 < 2 < 1.52 ⇒ 1.4 < 𝑠 < 1.5
1.412 < 2 < 1.422 ⇒ 1.41 < 𝑠 < 1.42
1.4142 < 2 < 1.4152 ⇒ 1.414 < 𝑠 < 1.415
Repeating the above method, we find 𝑠 = 1.414 …. This number is expressed as
𝑠 = √2, and √2 = 1.414 …. The sign √ is called a radical sign.
Example 1

Find the number without radical sign.

a. √4 b. √9 c. −√9 d. √0.0016
Solution:
3
a. √4 = 2 since 22 = 4 b. √9 = √32 = 3 = 1

4 1
c. −√9 = −√32 = −3 d. √0.0016 = √(0.04)2 = 0.04 = 100 = 25

Consider the magnitude of √5 and √7. Which one is greater?

The area of square with side length √5 cm is 5 cm2.

The area of square with side length √7 cm is 7 cm2. From

the figure, when the side length becomes greater, the area
becomes greater, too.

52
 Unit 2: The Number System

Hence, √5 < √7 since 5 < 7. This leads to the following conclusion.

When 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, if 𝑎 < 𝑏, then √𝑎 < √𝑏 .

Example 2

Compare √5 and √6.

Solution:
Since 5 < 6 then √5 < √6 .

Exercise 2.11

1. Find the numbers without radical sign.

a. √25 b. −√36 c. √0.04 d. −√0.0081
2. Compare the following pairs of numbers.

a. √7, √8 ̅ b. √3, √9 c. √0.04, √0.01 d. −√3 , −√4

What can you say about the square root of a number which is not a perfect
square?
To understand the nature of such numbers, you can use a scientific calculator and
practice the following.
Let us try to determine √2 using a calculator. Press 2 and
then the square root button.
A value for √2 will be displayed on the screen of the
calculator as √2 ≈ 1.4142135624.
The calculator provides a terminated result due to its
capacity (the number of digit you get may be different for
different calculators). But this result is not a terminating or

Figure 2.4 Scientific calculator

53
 Unit 2: The Number System

repeating decimal. Hence √2 is not rational number. Similarly, check √3 and √7 are
not terminating
and repeating. Such types of numbers are called irrational numbers.

Definition 2.6
A decimal number that is neither terminating nor repeating is an irrational
number.

Remark
In general, if 𝑎 is natural number that is not perfect square, then √𝑎 is an
irrational number.

Example

Determine whether each of the following numbers is rational or irrational.

22
a. √25 b. √0.09 c. 0.12345 … d. 0.010110111 … e. f. 𝜋
7

Solution:

a. √25 = √52 = 5 which is rational.

b. √0.09 = √0.32 = 0.3 which is rational number.
c. 0.12345… is neither terminating nor repeating, so it is irrational.
d. 0.010110111… is also neither repeating nor terminating, so it is irrational
number.
22
e. is a fraction form so that it is rational.
7

f. 𝜋 which is neither terminating nor repeating, so that it is irrational.

This example (c & d) leads you to the fact that, there are decimals which are neither
repeating nor terminating.

54
 Unit 2: The Number System

Exercise 2.12

Determine whether each of the following numbers is rational or irrational.

6
a. √36 b. √7 c. d. √0.01
5

e. −√13 f. √11 g. √18

Locating irrational number on the number line

Given an irrational number of the form √𝑎 where 𝑎 is not perfect square. Can
you locate such a number on the number line?

Example
Locate √2 on the number line.
Solution:

We know that 2 is a number between perfect squares 1 and 4. That is 1 < 2 < 4.
Take a square root of all these three numbers, that is, √1 < √2 < √4 . Therefore
1 < √2 < 2. Hence, √2 is a number between 1 and 2 on the number line.
(You can also show √2 ≈ 1.4142 … using a calculator).
To locate √2 on the number line, you need a compass and straightedge ruler to
perform the following.
• Draw a number line. Label an initial point 0 and points 1 unit long to the right
and left of 0. Construct a perpendicular line segment 1 unit long at 1.

Figure 2.5 Location of √2 on the number line

55
 Unit 2: The Number System

• Draw a line segment from the point corresponding to 0 to the top of the 1unit
segment and label its length as 𝑐.
• Using Pythagorean Theorem, 12 + 12 = 𝑐 2 so that 𝑐 = √2 unit long.
• Open the compass to the length of 𝑐. With the tip of the compass at the point
corresponding to 0, draw an arc that intersects the number line at 𝐵. The
distance from the point corresponding to 0 to 𝐵 is √2 unit.
The following figure 2.6 could indicate how other irrational numbers are
constructed on the number line using √2.

Figure 2.6

Exercise 2.13

1. Locate the following on the number line.

a. √3 b. √5 c.−√3
2. Between which natural numbers are the following numbers?
a. √3 b. √5 c. √6
3. Write ‘True’ if the statement is correct and ‘False’ otherwise.
a. Every point on the number line is of the form √𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a natural
number.
b. The square root of all positive integers is irrational.

56
 Unit 2: The Number System

2.3.2 Operations on irrational numbers

In section 2.3.1, you have seen what an irrational number is and how you represent it
on the number line. In this section, we will discuss addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of irrational numbers.

Activity 2.11
1. Identify whether 1 + √2 is rational or irrational.
2. Is the product of two irrational numbers irrational? Justify your answer
with examples.

When 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, then √𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏.

Example

Calculate each of the following.

2 1 2
a. √2 × √3 b. × c. (2 + √2) × (1 + √5) d. (√5 + √3)
√3 √3

Solutions:

a. √2 × √3 = √2 × 3 = √6
1 2 1×2 2 2
b. × = = =3
√3 √3 √3×√3 √3×3

c. Using distribution of addition over multiplication

(2 + √2) × (1 + √5) = (2 × 1) + (2 × √5) + (√2 × 1) + (√2 × √5)

= 2 + 2√5 + √2 + √10
2 2 2
d. (√5 + √3) = (√5 + √3)(√5 + √3) = (√5) + 2 ∙ √5√3 + (√3)

= 8 + 2√15

57
 Unit 2: The Number System

Exercise 2.14

1. Calculate each of the following.

a. √3 × √5 b. 2√5 × √7
1 10
c. −√2 × √6 d. ×
√5 √5
2
e. (2 + √3) × (−2 + √3) f. (√3 + √2)
2
g. (√7 + √3)(√7 − √3) h. (√6 − √10)
2. Decide whether the following statements are always true, sometimes true or
never true and give your justification.
a. The product of two irrational numbers is rational.
b. The product of two irrational numbers is irrational.
c. Any irrational number can be written as a product of two irrational numbers.
d. Irrational numbers are closed with respect to multiplication.

Activity 2.12
1. Consider irrational numbers √2, √3, √5 and √8. Divide each of these
numbers by √2.
2. What do you conclude from the result you obtained in (1) above.

√𝑎 𝑎
When 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, then = ට𝑏 .
√𝑏

Example 1

Calculate
√2 −√18
a. b.
√3 √2

58
 Unit 2: The Number System

Solutions:
√2 2 −√18 18
a. = ට3 b. = −ට 2 = −√9 = −3
√3 √2

When 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, then 𝑎√𝑏 = √𝑎2 𝑏, √𝑎2 𝑏 = 𝑎√𝑏 .

Example 2

Convert each of the following in √𝑎 form.

a. 3√2 b. 5√5

Solutions:

a. 3√2 = √32 × 2 = √18 b. 5√5 = √52 × 5 = √125

Exercise 2.15

1. Calculate.
√27 √12 √14 −√15
a. b. c. d.
√3 √3 √7 √3

2. Convert each of the following in √𝑎 form.

a. 4√2 b. 5√3 c. −3√7 d. 7√6

Activity 2.13
Give an example which satisfies:
a. Two neither repeating nor terminating decimals whose sum is rational.
b. Two neither repeating nor terminating decimals whose sum is irrational.
c. Any two irrational numbers whose difference is rational.
d. Any two irrational numbers whose difference is irrational.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example 1

Simplify each of the following.

a. 0.131331333 … + 0.535335333 …
b. 0.4747747774 … − 0.252552555 …
Solutions:
a. 0.131331333 … + 0.535335333 … = 0.666 …
b. 0.4747747774 … − 0.252552555 … . = 0.222 …
Example 2

Simplify each of the following.

a. 2√3 + 4√3 𝐛. 3√5 − 2√5
Solutions:
a. 2√3 + 4√3 = (2 + 4)√3 = 6√3
b. 3√5 − 2√5 = (3 − 2)√5 = √5

Example 3

Simplify each of the following.

a. √8 + √2 b. √12 − 5√3
c. √18 + √50 d. √72 − √8

Solutions:
First, convert √𝑎2 𝑏 into 𝑎√𝑏 form.
a. √8 + √2 = √4 × 2 + √2 = √22 × 2 + √2 = 2√2 + √2 = 3√2
b. √12 − 5√3 = √22 × 3 − 5√3 = 2√3 − 5√3 = −3√3
c. √18 + √50 = √32 × 2 + √52 × 2 = 3√2 + 5√2 = 8√2
d. √72 − √8 = √22 × 32 × 2 − √22 × 2

= √(2 × 3)2 × 2 − √ 22 × 2 = 6√2 − 2√2 = 4√2

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Exercise 2.16

Simplify each of the following.

a. 0.56456445644456 … − 0.111 … b. 2.1010010001 … + 1.0101101110 …

c. 2√5 − 4√5 d. √18 + 2√2

e. √3 + 4√3 f. √80 − √20

g. 5√8 + 6√32 h. √8 + √72

3 j. √5 − √45
i. √12 − √48 + ට4

2.4 Real Numbers

In the previous two sections, you have learnt about rational numbers and irrational
numbers. Rational numbers are either terminating or repeating. You can locate these
numbers on the number line. You have also discussed that it is possible to locate
irrational numbers which are neither repeating nor terminating on the number line.

Activity 2.14
1. Can you think of a set which consists both rational numbers and irrational
numbers?
2. What can you say about the correspondence between the points on the number
line with rational and irrational numbers?

Based on the reply for the above questions and recalling the previous lessons, you can
observe that every decimal number (rational or irrational) corresponds to a point on
the number line. So that there should be a set which consists both rational and irrational
numbers. This leads to the following definition.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Definition 2.7 Real numbers

A number is called a real number if and only if it is either a rational number or an
irrational number. The set of real numbers is denoted by ℝ, and is described as the
union of the sets of rational and irrational numbers. We write this mathematically
as
ℝ ={𝑥: 𝑥 is a rational number or irrational number}.

The following diagram indicates the set of real number,ℝ, is the union of rational and
irrational numbers

Figure 2.7: Real numbers

Comparing real numbers
You have seen that there is a one to one correspondence between a point on the
number line and a real number.

▪ Suppose two real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are given. Then one of the following is true
𝑎 < 𝑏 or 𝑎 = 𝑏 or 𝑎 > 𝑏 (This is called trichotomy property).
▪ For any three real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, if 𝑎 < 𝑏 and 𝑏 < 𝑐 , then 𝑎 < 𝑐 (called
transitive property order)
Applying the above properties we have
▪ For any two non-negative real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 if 𝑎2 < 𝑏 2 , then 𝑎 < 𝑏.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example

Compare each pair (you can use Scientific calculator whenever it is necessary).
𝟓
a. −2, −8 b. , 0.8
𝟖

√2 √3 2
c. , 0.34 d. ,
3 6 3

Solution:
a. The location of these two numbers on the number line help us to compare the
given numbers. Here, −8 is located at the left of −2 so that −8 < −2.
5 5
b. Find the decimal representation of , that is = 0.625.
8 8
5
Hence, 8 < 0.8.
√2 √2
c. Using a scientific calculator we approximate ≈ 0.4714. Then, > 0.34.
3 3

d. Here use the third property given above. Square the two numbers
2
√3 3 2 2 4 16
( 6 ) = 36 and (3) = 9 = 36.
√3 2
Hence, it follows < 3.
6

Exercise 2.17

Compare each of the following pairs (using > or <, or = ).

2
a. −7, −3 b. , 0.6
5

√5 √2 4
c. , 0.123 d. ,
2 3 9

e. 0.236, 0.256 f. −7√145 , √7

g. −0.135, −0.1351 h. 6√5 , 5√7
√5 j. 2 + √3, 4
i. , 0.234
3
22
k. ,𝜋
7

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Determining real numbers between two numbers

Example

Find a real number between 2 and 4.2.

Solution:
2+4.2 6.2
Take the average of the two numbers, that is, = = 3.1.
2 2

This number is between 2 and 4.2. That is, 2 < 3.1 < 4.2. Also take the average of 2
2+3.1
and 3.1. That is = 2.55. Again take the average of 3.1 and 4.2, that is
2
3.1+4.2
= 3.65. These numbers 2.55 and 3.65 are also between 2 and 4.2.
2

Therefore, we conclude that there are infinitely many real numbers between two real
numbers.

Exercise 2.18

1. Find at least two real numbers between:

a. −0.24 and −0.246
3 2
b. and
5 7
c. √2 and √3
2. How many real numbers are there between two real numbers?

2.4.1 Intervals

Activity 2.15
1. List some of the real numbers between 2 and 6 including 2.
2. List some of the real numbers between √2 and 3 excluding the two numbers.
3. Can you denote real numbers in (1) and (2) symbolically?

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 Unit 2: The Number System

From activity 2.15 above, you observed that there should be a notation to describe
such real numbers.
Case I (Representing real numbers between two points)

A real interval is a set which contains all real numbers between two numbers. We
have the following.
Consider a real number 𝑥 between two real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
Types of intervals are shown in the table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1

Case II (Representing real numbers in numbers with one end point)

Notation:
The symbol ‘  ’ read as ‘infinity’ means endlessness or absence of end to the right
and ‘ −  ’ read as ‘negative infinity’ means endlessness or absence of end to the
left.
Using a point 𝑎 or 𝑏, ∞ and−∞, the intervals contain real numbers as shown below
in table 2.2.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Table 2.2

Example

Represent each of the following using interval notation.

a. Real numbers between 3 and 5 including both points.
3 3
b. Real numbers between −2 and 2 including −2 and excluding 2.

c. Real numbers on the left of 2 excluding 2.

d. Real numbers on the right of 0 including 0.
Solution:
a. The interval [3,5] represents a set which contains infinitely many real numbers
between 3 and 5 including both end points. This is shown below on the number
line in figure 2.7(a), where
▪ the filled circle on the number line is to mean included and the empty
circle is not included in the interval
▪ [ ] indicates the interval include the end points and ( ) indicates the interval
do not include the end points.

Figure 2.8(a)

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 Unit 2: The Number System
3
b. An interval [−2, 2) represent a set which contain infinitely many real numbers
3
between −2 and 2 including −2 in figure 2.8(b) below.

Figure 2.8(b)
c. The real numbers on the left of 2 excluding 2 is denoted by (−∞, 2) as shown in
figure 2.8 (c) below.

Figure 2.8(c)

d. The real numbers on the right of 0 including 0 is denoted by [0, ∞) as shown in

figure 2.8 (d) below.

Figure 2.8(d)

Exercise 2.19

1. Represent each of the following using interval notations.

a. Real numbers between −3 and 8 including both end points.
b. Real numbers between 4 and 6 excluding the end points.
c. Real numbers on the right of −1 including −1.
2. Represent each of the following intervals on the number line.
a. [1,3) b. (−∞, −5]
1 d. (−2,4) ∪ [5, ∞)
c. (2 , 3)

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 Unit 2: The Number System

2.4.2 Absolute values

Definition 2.8
The absolute value of a real number, denoted by |𝑥|, is defined as

|𝑥| = ቄ 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0, .
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0

Example
Find the absolute value of each of the following real numbers.
1
a. 4 b. −2 c. 2

d.−0.4 e.−√2 f. 2 − √8
Solution:
a. So using the definition,
|4| = 4 , since 4 is a positive number and its absolute value is the number
itself.
b. The given number is −2 which is less than zero. But its distance from zero is
2 units. Hence, |−2| = 2.
1 1 1
c. Following similar procedure as that of (a) and (b), |2| = 2 (since 2 is a

positive number).
d. |−0.4| = 0.4 (its distance from zero is 0.4).
e. |−√2| = √2. (its distance from zero is √2).

f. | 2 − √8| = √8 − 2 (√8 = √23 = 2√2 , also √2 ≈ 1.414 so that 2√2 > 2.

Hence, 2 − √8 < 0 and √8 − 2 > 0).

Activity 2.16
Consider two numbers 𝑎 = −3 and 𝑏 = 4, then
i. Find the number of units between 𝑎 and 𝑏 by counting on the number line.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

ii. Find |𝑎 − 𝑏|
iii.Find |𝑏 − 𝑎|.
iv. What do you conclude from ii and iii.

You will learn more applications of absolute value in unit three.

Exercise 2.20

1. Find the absolute value of each of the following.

2
a. 8 b. -5 c. − 3 d. 0.7

e. √3 f. 1 − √2 g. 3 − √5 h. −0. ̅12
̅̅̅

2. Find the distance between the given numbers on the number line.
a. 2 and 10 b. 7 and −9 c. −49 and −100 d. −50 and 50
3. Determine the unknown ‘𝑥’ for each.

a. |𝑥| = 8 b. |𝑥| = 0 c. |𝑥| = −4

d. |𝑥| + 3 = 4 e. |𝑥| − 3 = −2

4. The coldest temperature on the Earth, −89℃, was recorded in 1983 at Vostok

station, Antarctica. The hottest temperature on the Earth, 58℃, was recorded at
Al’Aziziyah, Libya. Calculate the temperature range on the Earth.

2.4.3 Exponents and radicals

You have learnt about multiplication of two or more real numbers in lower grades.
So that you can easily write
3 × 3 × 3 = 27.
4 × 4 × 4 = 64.
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32.
Think of the situation when 14 is multiplied 20 times. It takes more time and space to
write.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

14 × 14 × 14 ×. . . × 14
⏟
20 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

This difficulty can be overcome by introduction of exponential notations. In this

subsection, you shall learn the meaning of such notations, laws of exponents, radicals,
simplification of expressions using the laws of exponents and radicals.

Definition 2.9

If 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑛 is a positive integer, then

𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … × 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛 is an exponential expression, where 𝑎 is the
⏟
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

base and 𝑛 is the exponent or power.

For instance: a) 23 means 2 × 2 × 2 = 8

b) (−3)4 means (−3) × (−3) × (−3) × (−3) = 81
c) −23 means −(2 × 2 × 2) = −8.

Activity 2.17
1. Complete the following table.
Power form
of a number 24 23 22 21 20 2−1 2−2 2−3 2−4
A number
16 8 4

Hint:- To fill the incomplete boxes of the table, observe that the first row of the
table is moving to the right by decreasing the power by 1. So that, the boxes on the
second row will be determined by dividing the previous number by 2.
2. From the above pattern, find the relationship between 2𝑛 and 2−𝑛 .
3. What can you generalize about the relationship between 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎−𝑛 for a
real number 𝑎 ≠ 0 and positive integer 𝑛.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Note
1. Zero exponent: If 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑎0 = 1.
1
2. Negative exponent: If 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is positive integer, then 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛.

The above activity leads to the following definition.

Definition 2.10

If 𝑎2 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 is a square root of 𝑏. If 𝑎3 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 is a cube root of 𝑏. If 𝑛

is a positive integer and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 is called the nth root of 𝑏.

Definition 2.11 Principal 𝒏𝒕𝒉 root

If 𝑏 is any real number and 𝑛 is a positive integer greater than 1, then the
𝑛
principal 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑏 is denoted by √𝑏 is defined as
the positive 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑏 , if 𝑏 > 0,
𝑛
√𝑏 = ቐ the negative 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑏 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑏 < 0 and 𝑛 is odd,
0, if 𝑏 = 0.

Notations
𝑛
• √𝑏 called radical expression where √ is radical sign, 𝑛 is index and 𝑏 is
radicand. When the index is not written, the radical sign indicates the principal
square root.

𝒕𝒉
Definition 2.12 The (𝟏ൗ𝒏) power

1
𝑛
i) If 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and n is an odd positive integer greater than 1, then 𝑏 𝑛 = √𝑏 .
1
𝑛
ii) If 𝑏 ≥ 0 and n is an even positive integer greater than 1, then 𝑏 𝑛 = √𝑏.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example 1

Find a. √9 b. √0.01
4
c. √81 d. 5√−100,000.
Solution:
a. 3
b. √0.01 = 0.1 because (0.1)2 = 0.01.
4
c. √81 = 3 because 34 = 81.
d. 5√−100,000 = −10 because (−10)5 = −100,000.

Example 2

Express each of the following in exponential form.

3 1
a. √3 b. √6 c. 4
√10
Solution:
1 1 1
1
= 10−4
3
a. √3 = 32 b. √6 = 63 c. 4
√10

Exercise 2.21
1. Find
4 3
a. √36 b. √0.016 c. √16 d. √−1000.
2. Express each of the following in exponential form
7 1
a. √5 b. √7 c. 3
√34
4 2
d. ( √81) 3 2
e. ට5

3. Simplify each of the following

1 1 3
√125
a. (−27)3 b. 325 c.
√625
4
d. √0.09 e. √(−5)4

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Law of exponents

Activity 2.18
For the given table below,

i) Determine the simplified form of each term.

ii) Compare the value you obtained for (I) and (II) for each row.

No I II

1 23 × 33 (2 × 3)3
25
2 25−3
23
3 (32 )3 (33 )2
4 (3 × 4)2 32 × 42

5 22 × 23 22+3

The above activity 2.17 leads you to have the following laws of exponents.

For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℕ , the following holds:

✓ 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚
𝑎𝑛
✓ = 𝑎(𝑛−𝑚) , where 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑚

✓ (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚

✓ (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑛
✓ = (𝑏) , for 𝑏 ≠ 0.
𝑏𝑛

1 𝑡ℎ
Note that these rules also applied for (𝑛) power and rational power of the form
𝑚 1
𝑎 𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 .

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Example 1

Use the above rules and simplify each of the following.

5 1
1 3 1 1
32 8 3
a. 7 × 7
2 2 b. (25 × 9) 2 c. 1 d. (27) e. (81)4
32

Solution:
1 3 1 3
a. Using 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 , 72 × 72 = 7(2+2) = 72 = 49.
b. Using (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 × 𝑏 𝑛 ,
1 1 1 1 1
(25 × 9)2 = 252 × 92 = (52 )2 × (32 )2 = 5 × 3 = 15.
5
5 1
𝑎𝑛 (𝑛−𝑚) 32
c. Using 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎 , 1 = 3(2−2) = 32 = 9.
32
1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 𝑎 𝑛 8 3 83 (23 )3 2
d. Using 𝑏𝑛 = (𝑏) , for 𝑏 ≠ 0 , (27) = 1 = 1 =3.
273 (33 )3
1 1
e. Using (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚 , (81)4 = (34 )4 = 3.

Example 2

Simplify each of the following.

1 1
324 3 3 3
a. √50 b. 1 c.√16 × √4 d. (8 + √27)3
1624

Solution:
a. To simplify this, we use different rules of radicals and exponent. 50 can be
written as a product of a square number 25 and another number 2.
That is, √50 = √25 × 2 = √25 × √2 = √52 × √2 = 5√2
b. Both numbers 32 and 162 are multiples of 2 so that we can express these
1 1 1 1 1 1
324 (2×16)4 24 ×164 164 (24 )4 2
numbers as a power of 2, that is 1 = 1 = 1 1 = 1 = 1 = 3.
1624 (2×81)4 24 ×814 814 (34 )4
3 3 3 3
c. Express 16 as a product of 4, so that √16 × √4 = √16 × 4 = √4 × 4 × 4 =
1
(43 )3 = 4.

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 Unit 2: The Number System

d. First express 27 as a multiple of 3 and apply the rule of exponents. This

results,
1 1
1 3 3 1 1
3 3 3
(8 + √27) = (8 + 3
√33 )3 = (8 + 3 ) = (8 + 3)3 = 113 = √11.
3

Exercise 2.22
1. Use the laws of exponents and simplify each of the following.
10
1 2 1 2
23
a. 5 × 5 3 3 b. (16 × 49) 2 c. 1 d. 325
23

2. Simplify each of the following.

1
93 5
a. √125 b. 1 c. √0.00032
2433
3
5√24÷2√50 3 4
d. 22 × √2 e. f. √0.001 + √0.0081
3√3
2
5 3 1
3 3 1
g. (5−1 )3 × 5 × √25 × ( √125)
4 h. ( √0.64) × ( ට64) × 325

1 1
i. 34 × 274 j. √5 + 2√6 + √8 − 2√15

Addition and subtraction of radicals

Activity 2.19
What do you say about these statements? Which one is correct?
a. √2 − √2 = 0 b. √16 − √4 = √12
c. √2 + √3 = √5 d. 4√2 − √2 = 3√2

Definition 2.13

Radicals that have the same index and the same radicand are said to be like
radicals.

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 Unit 2: The Number System
2
For instance:- i) 2√5, − 3 √5 and √5 are like radicals

ii) √2 and √3 are not like radicals

3
iii) √3 and √3 are not like radicals
By following the same procedure of addition and subtraction of similar terms, we can
add or subtract like radicals. In some cases we got like radicals after simplification.

Example

Simplify each of the following.

a. √3 + √12 b. 2√18 − √2 + √8

Solution:

a. √3 + √12 = √3 + √4 × 3 = √3 + 2√3 = (1 + 2)√3 = 3√3.

b. 2√18 − √2 + √8 = 2√9 × 2 − √2 + √4 × 2
= 6√2 − √2 + 2√2
= (6 − 1 + 2)√2 (taking common term)
= 7√2

Exercise 2.23
Simplify each of the following.
3 3 3 3
a. √12 − √3 b. √54 − √2 c. 3 √27 − √125 + √169

Operations on real numbers

You discussed the rules of exponents, operations on radicals and how to simplify
numbers related to radicals. Recall that a real number system is a collection of rational
and irrational numbers. You studied operations on rational numbers on section 2.2
and operations on irrational numbers on section 2.3.2. We can summarize operations
on rational and irrational numbers as follows:

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 Unit 2: The Number System

➢ The rational numbers satisfy the commutative, associative and distributive laws
for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we add, subtract, multiply or
divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get a rational number
(that is, rational numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division).

➢ Irrational numbers also satisfy the commutative, associative and distributive

laws for addition and multiplication. However, the sum, difference, quotients
and products of irrational numbers are not always irrational.

Activity 2.20
1. Identify whether each of the following is rational or irrational.
√5
a. 𝜋 + 2 b. √2 − 1 c.(1 − √3) × (1 + √3) d. 2
22 22 8
e. × f. √7(4 − √7) g. 0.2323…+ 0.3232… h.
7 7 √2

2. Give an example for each (if possible).

a. Two irrational numbers where their product is rational.
b. A rational and irrational numbers and their sum is rational.
c. A rational and irrational numbers and their difference is rational.
d. A rational and irrational numbers and their quotient is irrational.

Now the above activity leads to draw the following conclusions.

➢ The sum and difference of rational and irrational numbers is irrational.
➢ The product, quotient of non-zero rational number and an irrational number is
an irrational number.
Let us see some examples of four operations on the set of real numbers.

Example 1

If 𝑥 = 5√3 + 2√2 and 𝑦 = √2 − 4√3, then find

a. the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦. b. the difference between 𝑦 and 𝑥

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Solution:
a. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5√3 + 2√2 + √2 − 4√3
= 5√3 − 4√3 + 2√2 + √2 (rearranging terms)
= (5 − 4)√3 + (2 + 1)√2 (taking out common factor)
= √3 + 3√2
b. 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5√3 + 2√2 − (√2 − 4√3)
= 5√3 + 4√3 + 2√2 − √2
= (5 + 4)√3 + (2 − 1)√2
= 9√3 + √2
Example 2

Find the product of

√2
a. 3√3 and 2√2 b. 5√2 and .
5

Solution:
√2 5×√2×√2
a. 3√3 × 2√2 = 6 × √3 × √2 = 6√6 b. 5√2 × = =2
5 5

Example 3

Divide
a. 6√8 by 3√2
b. √3 by (2√2 × 3√3).
Solution:
6√8 8
a. 6√8 ÷ 3√2 = 3√2 = 2ට2 = 2 × 2 = 4

√3 √3 1 3 1
b. √3 ÷ (2√2 × 3√3) = (2 = 6√6 = 6 × ට6 = 6√2
√2×3√3)

Since a real number is a union of rational and irrational numbers, it is closed under
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (excluding division by zero).

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Exercise 2.24

1. If 𝑥 = 4√2 + 7√5 and 𝑦 = √2 − 3√5, then find

a. the sum of 𝑥 and 𝑦. b. the difference between 𝑦 and 𝑥

2. Find the product of
√3
a. 2√5 and 4√3 b. 3√3 and c. √3 − √2 and 3√3 − 4√2
3

3. Divide

a. 4√6 by 2√2 b. 10√2 by 5√18 c. √5 by ( 3√2 × 4√5 )

4. Compute each of the following.

a. 5√2 + 2√3 + 3√3 − √2 b. √145 − √232 + √261

Activity 2.21
1. Determine the opposite of each of the following real numbers
a. √3 b. – 𝜋 c. 0. ̅61
̅̅̅
1
d. 2√5 e. 0 f. √3 − √2

2. Determine the reciprocal of each of the following real numbers.

−√3
a. ̅̅̅̅
b. 3.1434 c. 3√3 − 1
2
3 2
√4
d. 1−√6
e. 33

From the above examples and activities, we have the following basic properties with
addition and multiplication of real numbers.
Closure property:
The set of real numbers ℝ is closed under addition and multiplication. This means
that the sum and product of any two real numbers is always a real number. In other
words, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎𝑏 or 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
Commutative property

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 Unit 2: The Number System

Addition and multiplication are commutative in ℝ: That is, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ,

i) 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
ii) 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Associative property
Addition and multiplication are associative in ℝ: That is, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ,
i) (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
ii) (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐).
Existence of additive and multiplicative identities:
There are real numbers 0 and 1 such that:
i) 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.
ii) 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ .
Existence of additive and multiplicative inverses:
i. For each 𝑎 ∈ ℝ there exists −𝑎 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 = (−𝑎) + 𝑎, and−𝑎
is called the additive inverse of 𝑎.
1 1 1 1
ii. For each non-zero 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, there exists𝑎 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 and 𝑎 is

called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of 𝑎.

Distributive property:
Multiplication is distributive over addition; that is, if 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ,
i) 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐.
ii) (𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎 + 𝑐𝑎.

Example

Find the additive and multiplicative inverse for each of the following:
3
a. √2 b. c. 0.5
4

Solution:
1
a. Additive inverse of √2 is −√2 and multiplicative inverse of √2 is .
√2
3 −3 3 4
b. Additive inverse of 4 is and multiplicative inverse of 4 is 3.
4

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 Unit 2: The Number System

c. Additive inverse of 0.5 is −0.5 and multiplicative inverse of 0.5 is

1
2 (since 0.5 = 2).

Exercise 2.25
1. Find the additive and multiplicative inverse of each of the following.
2
a. √3 b. − 5

c. 1.3 d. 0. 1̅
2. Identify the property of real numbers that is applied in the following statements.
a. √3(√3 − 2) = 3 − 2√3
b. 5 + (−8 + 2) = (5 − 8) + 2
1 1
c. 6 × 4 × 6 = 6 × 6 × 4

3. Does every real number have a multiplicative inverse? Explain.

4. You define a new mathematical operation using the symbol (*). This operation is
defined as 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏.
a. Is this operation commutative? Explain.
b. Is this operation associative? Explain.

2.4.4 Limit of accuracy

Measurements play an important role in daily life because they are useful to do basic
tasks, such as take a child's temperature with a thermometer, make time estimations,
measure out medicine and find weights, areas and volumes of different materials or
substances. In the process of measurement, exact value may not be obtained so that
you will be forced to take approximate value.
In this subtopic you will learn certain mathematical concepts related to approximation
like rounding of numbers, significant figures (s.f.), decimal place (d.p.) and accuracy.

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Activity 2.22
1. Round off the number 45,676 to the nearest.
a. 100 b. 1000
2. Write the number 8.426
a. to one decimal place
b. to two decimal places.
3. Write the number 28.79 to three significant figures.

Rounding
Rounding off is a type of estimation. Estimation is used in everyday life and also in
subjects like Mathematics and Physics. Many physical quantities like the amount of
money, distance covered, length measured, etc., are estimated by rounding off the
actual number to the nearest possible whole number and for decimals at various places
of hundreds, tens, tenths, etc.
Rule for rounding whole numbers
When rounding numbers, you need to know the term "rounding digit". When working
with whole numbers and rounding to the closest 10, the rounding digit is the second
number from the right or the tens place. When rounding to the nearest hundred, the
third place from the right is the rounding digit or hundreds place. To perform
rounding:-
First, determine what your rounding digit is and then look for the digit at the right side.
▪ If the digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, do not change the rounding digit. All digits that are
in the right hand side of the requested rounding digit become zero.
▪ If the digit is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 the rounding digit rounds up by one number. All
digits that are on the right hand side of the requested rounding digit become
zero.

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Example 1

38,721 people live in a town. Round this number to various level of accuracy.

a. Nearest 100
b. Nearest 1,000
c. Nearest 10,000.

Solution:

a. To the nearest 100 the number of people would be rounded up to 38,700, since the
rounding digit is 7, 2 is the number at the right side of it and keep the rounding digit
as it is and all digits at the right hand side of it become zero.
b. To the nearest 1,000 this number would be rounded up to 39,000. The fourth
number from the right, that is 8 is the rounding digit. 7 is the number at the right
of this rounding digit, so that the rounding digit rounds up by one number so that it
would be 9. All digits at the right hand side of this rounding digit become zero.
c. Similarly to the nearest 10,000 this number would be rounded up to 40,000, since
8 is at the right of the rounding digit(3), the rounding digit rounds up by one number
so that it would be 4. All digits at the right hand side of this rounding digit become
zero.
In this type of situation, it is unlikely that the exact number would be reported. In other
words, the result is less accurate but easier to use.
Decimal place
A number can also be approximated to a given number of decimal places (d.p.). This
refers to the number of figures written after a decimal point.

Example 2

a. Write 10.673 to 1 d.p. b. Write 3.173 to 2 d.p.

Solution:

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a. The answer needs to be written with one number after the decimal point. However,
to do this, the second number after the decimal point also needs to be considered.
If it is 5 or more, then the first number is rounded up.
That is,10.673 is written as 10.7 to 1 d.p.
b. The answer here is to be given with two numbers after the decimal point. In this
case, the third number after the decimal point needs to be considered. As the third
number after the decimal point is less than 5, the second number is not rounded up.
That is, 3.173 is written as 3.17 to 2 d.p.

Note
To approximate a number to 1 decimal place means to approximate the number to
the nearest tenth. Similarly approximating a number to 2 decimal places means to
approximate to the nearest hundredth.

Significant figures
Numbers can also be approximated to a given number of significant figures (s.f.). In
the number 43.25, the 4 is the most significant figure as it has a value of 40. In
contrast, the 5 is the least significant as it only has a value of 5 hundredths. When we
desire to use significant figures to indicate the accuracy of approximation, we count
the number of digits in the number from left to right, beginning at the first non-zero
digit. This is known as the number of significant figures.
Example 3

a. Write 2.364 to 2 s.f. b. Write 0.0062 to 1 s.f. c. Write 0.3041 to 2 s.f.

Solution:
a. We want to write only the two most significant digits. The third digit (6) needs to
be considered to see whether the second digit (3) is to be rounded up or not. That
is, 2.364 is written as 2.4 to 2 s.f.
b. Notice that in this case 6 and 2 are the only significant digits. The number 6 is

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the most significant digit and we will consider 2 to be rounded up or not. That
is,0.0062 is written as 0.006 to 1 s.f. (since 2 is less than 5 we ignore its effect).
c. Here all digits after the decimal point are significant. So moving two steps from
a decimal point to the right we will consider 4 to be rounded up or not. That is ,
0.3041 is written as 0.30 to 2 s.f. ( since 4 is less than 5 we ignore its effect).

Exercise 2.26
1. Round 86,343 to various level of accuracy
a. Nearest 100 b. Nearest 1,000 c. Nearest 10,000.
2. Round each of the following to the nearest whole number.
7
a. 35.946 b. 45.1999 c. 8 d. √5

3. Express the following decimals to 1 d.p. and 2 d.p.

a. 1.936 b. 4.752 c. 12.998
4. Write each of the following to the number of significant figures indicated in
brackets.
a. 28,645 (1 s.f.) b. 41,909 (3 s.f.) c. 4.5568 (3 s.f.)

Accuracy
In this lesson you will learn how to approximate upper and lower bounds for data to a
specified accuracy (for example, numbers rounded off or numbers expressed to a given
number of significant figures).

Activity 2.23
1. Round each of the following to 1 d.p.
3.51, 3.48, 3.53, 3.4999, 3.49, 3.45, 3.47, 3.42, 3.57, 3.41, 3.59, 3.54.
2. Collect the numbers in (1) above which gives 3.5 after rounding and
determine the maximum and minimum value from the list.

The above activity leads us to define upper and lower bound of a number.

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Definition 2.14 Lower and upper bound

The upper and lower bounds are the maximum and minimum values that a
number could have been before it was rounded.

Consider numbers 1.5, 1.50 and 1.500. They may appear to represent the same number
but they actually do not. This is because they are written to different degrees of
accuracy. 1.5 is rounded to one decimal place (or to the nearest tenths) and therefore
any number from 1.45 up to but not including 1.55 would be rounded to 1.5. On the
number line this would be represented as

Figure 2.9
As an inequality, it would be expressed as 1.45 ≤ 1.5 < 1.55.
Here, 1.45 is known as the lower bound of 1.5, while 1.55 is known as the upper
bound.
In order to find the lower and upper bounds of a rounded number, follow the
following steps:

1) Identify the place value of the degree of accuracy stated.

2) Divide this place value by 2.
3) Add this amount (value in step2) to the given value to obtain the upper bound
and subtract this value (value in step2) from the given value to obtain the
lower bound.

Example 1

The weight of the tree is 872 kilograms to the nearest kilogram.

a. Find the upper and lower bounds where the weight of the tree lies.
b. If the tree’s weight is 𝑤𝑡 kilograms, describe this range as inequality.

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Solution:
a. 872 kg is rounded to the nearest kilogram,
Step 1. The place value is 1.
Step 2. Divide 1 by 2 and we get 0.5.
Step 3. Lower bound is 872 − 0.5 = 871.5 and the upper bound is
872 + 0.5 = 872.5.
Therefore, the lower bound is 871.5 kg and the upper bound is 872.5.
b. When the tree’s weight is kg, using the answer we got in (a), it could be
expressed using inequality as 871.5 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 < 872.5.
Example 2

A number was given as 10.7 to 1 d.p. Find the lower and upper bounds of a number.
Solution:
1
Step 1. Place value of the degree of accuracy is 10 or 0.1.

Step 2. Dividing 0.1 by 2 results 0.05.

Step 3. The lower bound is 10.7 − 0.05 = 10.65 and upper bound is
10.7 + 0.05 = 10.75.

Exercise 2.27
1. The speed of a car is given as 45 m/s to the nearest integer.
a. Find the lower and upper bounds within which the car speed can lie.
b. If the car’s speed is v m/s, express this range as inequality.
2. Find the lower and upper bounds of :
a. 45 rounded to the nearest integer.
b. 12.6 rounded to 1 d.p.
c. 4.23 rounded to 2 d.p.
3. Express each of the following in between the upper and lower bounds.
a. 𝑥 = 34.7 b. 𝑦 = 21.36 c. 𝑧 = 154.134

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Effect of operation on accuracy

Activity 2.24
1. Given 𝑎 = 5 and 𝑏 = 2, then write:-
i. lower bound of 𝑎 + lower bound of 𝑏
ii. lower bound of 𝑎 + upper bound of 𝑏
iii. upper bound of 𝑎 + lower bound of 𝑏
iv. upper bound of 𝑎 + upper bound of 𝑏
Which of these gives the lowest value? Is this lowest value the sum of the
lowest numbers?
Which of these gives the highest value? Is this highest value the sum of the
highest numbers?
2. Given 𝑎 = 9 and 𝑏 = 6, then write:-
i. lower bound of 𝑎 − lower bound of 𝑏
ii. lower bound of 𝑎 − upper bound of 𝑏
iii.upper bound of 𝑎 − lower bound of 𝑏
iv.upper bound of 𝑎 − upper bound of 𝑏
Which of these gives the lowest value? Is this lowest value the difference of
the lowest numbers?
Which of these gives the highest value? Is this highest value the difference of
the highest numbers?

When approximated numbers are added, subtracted and multiplied, their sum,
difference and product give a range of possible answers.

Example

Given that a rectangular farmland has length 12 meters and width 6 meters.
a. Find the upper and lower bounds of the sum of length and width of the farmland.
b. Find the range of the area of the farmland (upper and lower bounds of the area).

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Solution:
a. Let 𝑙 be the length and 𝑤 be the width of the farmland. That is, 𝑙 = 12 meters
and 𝑤 = 6 meters. Then, 11.5 ≤ 𝑙 < 12.5 and 5.5 ≤ 𝑤 < 6.5.
The lower bound of the sum is obtained by adding the two lower bounds.
Therefore, the minimum sum is 11.5 + 5.5 = 17.0
The upper bound of the sum is obtained by adding the two upper bounds.
Therefore, the maximum sum is 12.5 + 6.5 = 19.0.
So, the sum lies between 17.0 meters and 19.0 meters.
b. The area of a rectangle 𝐴 is determined by 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑤. So, let us determine the
upper and lower bounds of the product of 𝑙 and 𝑤. The lower bound of the
product is obtained by multiplying the two lower bounds. Therefore, the
minimum product is 11.5 × 5.5 = 63.25.
The upper bound of the product is obtained by multiplying the two upper bounds.
Therefore, the maximum product is 12.5 × 6.5 = 81.25.
So, the product lies between 63.25 and 81.25. Hence the area of the farmland
ranges between 63.25 m2 and 81.25 m2 .

Exercise 2.28
1. Consider two numbers, 15 and 7.
a. Find the upper and lower bounds of the sum of the two numbers.
b. Find the range of the product of the two numbers.
2. Calculate the upper and lower bounds for the following calculations if each of the
numbers is given to 1 decimal place.
10.8
a. 5.4 + 6.2 b. 4.6 × 2.7 c. 14.3 − 5.7 d. 3.1

3. Calculate upper and lower bounds for the area of a school football field shown
below if its dimensions are correct to 1 decimal place.

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Figure 2.10

2.4.5 Standard notation (Scientific notation)

In science and technology, it is usual to see very large and very small numbers. For
instance:
• Abay River travels 1,450,000 meters through Ethiopia and Sudan.
• The average distance from the earth to the moon is 382,500 kilometers.
• The mass of the hydrogen atom is 0.00000000000000000000000000167
kilograms.
Very large numbers and very small numbers may sometimes be difficult to work with
or write. Hence you often write very large or very small numbers in scientific notation,
also called standard notation.

Activity 2.25
Express each of the following as a multiple of 10.
i) 486.00017 ii) 14580,000,000,000
iii) 0.0006504 iv) 0.00000000000078436

As you have seen from the above activity, you might give different answer for the same
question. This will lead us to have the following definition.

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Definition 2.15

A number is said to be in scientific notation (or standard notation) if it is written

as a product of the form 𝑎 × 10𝑛 where 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑛 is an integer.

To convert numbers into scientific notation, we follow the following steps.

1. Move decimal point until there is one (non-zero) number in front of the decimal
point.
2. The exponent of the power of 10 is determined by the number of places you
moved the decimal point.
a. If the original number is large, you moved the decimal point to the left and
the number
of places you moved the decimal point is exponent of the power of 10.
b. If the original number is small, you moved the decimal point to the right,
and the
exponent of the power of 10 is negative integer of the number of places
you moved the decimal point.
3. Put the number in the correct pattern for scientific notation.

Example 1

Express each of the following numbers into scientific notation

a. 1,856,700,000 b. 0.000000314

Solution:

a.
1. First let us find a number between 1 and 10, that is a number which has 1
digit in front of the decimal point from the given number. The number is
1.8567.

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2. The decimal point has been moved 9 places to the left so the exponent of
the power of 10 is 9.
3. Here, the decimal points will move to the left and we will count the
number to find 𝑛. That is, 1.8567 × 109 .

b.
1. First let us find a number between 1 and 10, that is a number which has 1
digit in front of the decimal point from the given number. The number is
3.14.
2. The decimal point has been moved 7 places to the right so the exponent of
the power of 10 is −7.
3. Here, the decimal points will move to the right and we will count the
number to find 𝑛. That is, 3.14 × 10−7 .

Example 2

Express each of the following in decimal notation.

𝐚. 5.37 × 106 b. 1.7 × 10−7

Solution:
a. To change the given number in to ordinary decimal, the decimal point moves
to the right 6 units. That is, 5.37 × 1000000 = 5,370,000.
b. Similarly,1.7 × 10−7 = 0.00000017.

Exercise 2.29
1. Express each of the following in standard notation.
a. 426,000 b. 158.762 c. 0.000089 d. 56,897.00547
2. Write each of the following in ordinary decimal notation
2
a. 1.34 × 106 b. 3.3 × 10−3 c. × 10−7
5

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3. Find the simplified expression in standard notation form.

a. (4.2 × 103 ) + (1.6 × 103 ) b. (2.1 × 103 )(1.3 × 104 )

c. (1.5 × 10−3 )(3.1 × 103 ) d.

(5.0×105 )
(2×10−2 )

2.4.6 Rationalization
Whenever we have a ratio of numbers where the denominator is irrational, determining
the quotient might be difficult. So, there is an intention of changing the denominator
as rational.
1
For instance: has an irrational denominator, √3. Here, our aim is changing the
√3
1
number to an equivalent number with a rational denominator. What shall we do?
√3

The technique of transferring the radical expression from the denominator to the
numerator is called rationalizing the denominator (changing the denominator into a
rational number).
Do you recall the existence of multiplicative identity 1 for the set of real
numbers?

The number that can be used as a multiplier to rationalize the denominator is called the
rationalizing factor which is equivalent to 1.
For example: If you have an irrational number √𝑎 and if you need to rationalize the
1 √𝑎
denominator of , the rationalizing factor will be = 1.
√𝑎 √𝑎

Example

Rationalize the denominator for each of the following.

2 √2 1
a. b. c. 3 (to change in to 2 as its denominator)
√3 √5 √2

Solution:
√3 2 2 √3 2√3
a. The rationalizing factor for this number is . So that = × = . (why?)
√3 √3 √3 √3 3

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√5 √2 √5 √10
b. The rationalizing factor is . So, × = . (why?)
√5 √5 √5 5
3 3 3
3 3 1 √22 √22 √4
c. We can take ( √22 / √22 ) as rationalizing factor, 3 = 3 3 = = .
√2 √2× √22 2 2

Exercise 2.30
Rationalize the denominator of each of the following and write in simplest form.
3 2√2 1
a. b. c. 5ට3
√5 √7

More on rationalizations of denominators

Activity 2.26
1. What is the product of (√𝑎 − √𝑏) and (√𝑎 + √𝑏)?

2. What is the product of (𝑎 + √𝑏) and (𝑎 − √𝑏)?

3. What is the product of (√𝑎 − 𝑏) and (√𝑎 + 𝑏) ?

You might have got a rational number as a product for the above expressions.
This will lead you to have the following conclusion.
Table 2.3
No Given number Rationalizing factor

1 1 √𝑎 + √𝑏
√𝑎 − √𝑏 √𝑎 + √𝑏
2 1 𝑎 − √𝑏
𝑎 + √𝑏 𝑎 − √𝑏

3 1 √𝑎 + 𝑏
√𝑎 − 𝑏 √𝑎 + 𝑏

4 1 √𝑎 − √𝑏
√𝑎 + √𝑏 √𝑎 − √𝑏

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Example

Rationalize the denominator of

1 3 1
a. b. c. .
√2+1 √5−√3 √3−√2+1

Solution:
√2−1 1 1 √2−1 √2−1
a. The rationalizing factor is , so that = × = = √2 − 1 .
√2−1 √2+1 √2−1 √2−1 2−1
√5+√3 3 3 √5+√3 3(√5+√3 )
b. The rationalizing factor is , so that = × = .
√5+√3 √5−√3 √5−√3 √5+√3 2
√3−√2−1
c. Consider a rationalizing factor . Now multiply both the numerator and
√3−√2−1
denominator by this rationalizing factor.
1 √3−√2−1 √3−√2−1
× = (using multiplication and collecting like terms).
√3−√2+1 √3−√2−1 2(2−√6)

2+√6
The denominator is still not rational. Hence, again we will take 2+√6 as

a rationalizing factor. Multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by

2+√6 √3−√2−1 (2+√6) √2−√6−2
, we obtain × (2+ ) = .
2+√6 2 (2−√6) √6 −4

Exercise 2.31
Rationalize each of the following numbers.
3 1+√2 2 2
a. b. c. d.
2+√5 √3−1 √3−√2 √2+√3+1

2.5 Applications
In the last 4 subsections, you have discussed number systems. In this subsection you
will learn some application problems based on the covered topics.
Example 1

A small town has 530 flower pots. The gardener wants to arrange them in rows such
that each row contains 21 flower pots. Find the number of completed rows and how
many flower pots are left over.

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Solution:
Total number of flower pots is 530. Number of flower pots in each row is 21.
Now, we have to find how many groups of 21 in 530. So, we use Euclid’s
Division Lemma, that is dividing 530 by 21 as shown in the right.
The result indicates, the gardener can arrange the flower pots in 25 rows
with each row consisting of 21 pots. Also the remaining number of flower
pots is 5.

Example 2

The teacher wants to paste a square pieces of equal size colored papers on a white
board measuring 20 cm by 50 cm. If only squares of length with natural number be
considered, and the board is to be completely covered, find the largest possible length
of the side of each square pieces.
Solution:
The dimension of the white board is 50 cm by 20 cm. There are different alternatives
to construct the square pieces, in figure 2.11(a), we have 1 cm by 1 cm square pieces.

Figure 2.11 (a)

The following figure 2.11(b) is a 5 cm by 5 cm square pieces.

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Figure 2. 11 (b)
And figure 2.11 (c) below, we have 10 cm by 10 cm.

Figure 2.11 (c)

There are also other options to construct such square pieces with different lengths.
Since we need only natural number length, we will try to find the GCF of 50 and 20.
Using prime factorization 50 = 2 × 52 and 20 = 22 × 5. So, GCF(50,20) = 10.
Hence, the largest possible length of the side of each square piece is 10 cm.

Exercise 2.32
1. Assume three strings of different lengths 78 cm, 117 cm and 351 cm cut into
equal lengths. Find the greatest possible length of each piece.
2. Two 9th grade students A and B start running around the sport field together.
Student A completes one round in 6 minutes while B takes 14 minutes to

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complete the same round. After how many minutes will they meet again at the
starting point for the second time?
3. There are 340 notebooks. A teacher is thinking to distribute them to 24 students
equally as much as possible. Find number of notebooks each student gets and
how many notebooks are left.

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 Summary and Review Exercise

Summary

1. The set of Natural numbers, Integers and Rational numbers are denoted by
ℕ, ℤ and ℚ, respectively and described as
ℕ = {1, 2, 3, . . . },
ℤ = { . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } and
𝑎
ℚ = ቄ𝑏 : a, b ∈ ℤ and 𝑏 ≠ 0ቅ.

2. Euclid’s Division algorithm

Given non-negative integer 𝑎 and a positive integer 𝑏, there exist unique non-
negative integers 𝑞 and 𝑟 satisfying:

𝑎 = (𝑏 × 𝑞) + 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.

From the above equation, 𝑎 is called the dividend, 𝑞 is called the quotient, 𝑏 is

called the divisor, and 𝑟 is called the remainder.

3. a. A natural number that has exactly two distinct factors, namely 1 and itself is
called a prime number.

b. A natural number that has more than two factors is called a composite
number.
c. Prime factorization is a process of expressing a natural number as a product
of prime numbers.
d. Fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that every composite number
can be expressed (factorized) as a product of primes, and this factorization
is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.

4. a. Given two or more natural numbers, a number which is a factor of all of

them is called a common factor.

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 Summary and Review Exercise

a. The Greatest Common Factor (GCF) or Highest Common Factor (HCF) of

two or more natural numbers is the greatest natural number of the common
factors.
b. Two or more natural numbers where their GCF is 1 are called relatively
prime.
c. For any two natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, the Least Common Multiple of
𝑎 and 𝑏 denoted by LCM(𝑎, 𝑏), is the smallest multiple of both 𝑎 and 𝑏.
d. For any two natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, LCM(𝑎, 𝑏) × GCF(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 × 𝑏.

5. a. Any rational number can be expressed as decimal by dividing the numerator

𝑎 by the denominator 𝑏.

a. To change a rational number 𝑎ൗ𝑏 in to decimal form, one of the following

cases will occur.
• The division process ends when a remainder of zero is obtained.
Here, the decimal is called a terminating decimal.
• The division process does not terminate but repeats as the remainder
never becomes zero. In this case the decimal is called a repeating
decimal.
c. A repeating decimal also can be converted in to fractions.

6. Any terminating decimal or repeating decimal is a rational number where as a

decimal number that is neither terminating nor repeating is an irrational number.
7. The sum of an irrational and a rational number is always an irrational number.
8. The set of irrational numbers is not closed with respect to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
9. A number is called a real number, if and only if it is either a rational number or
an irrational number, that is ℝ ={𝑥: 𝑥 is rational or 𝑥 is irrational}.

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 Summary and Review Exercise

10. The absolute value of a real number 𝑥, denoted by |𝑥|, is defined as

|𝑥| = ቄ 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0,
−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.
1
11. For any real number 𝑏 and positive integer > 1, 𝑏 𝑛 = √𝑏 (whenever √𝑏 is a
𝑛 𝑛

real number).
12. For all real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 for which the radicals are defined and for all
integers 𝑛 ≥ 2.
𝑛
i. √𝑎 √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏 ii. ට𝑏 =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎
𝑛
√𝑏

13. A number is said to be in scientific notation (or standard form) if it is written as

the form 𝑎 × 10𝑛 where 1 ≤ 𝑎 < 10 for an integer 𝑛.

101