Chemistry

Experimental techniques and chemical

analysis
12.1 Experimental design
1. Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature,
mass and volume, including:

time
(a) stopwatches

Volume
(d) burette → 0.1 cm^3
(e) volumetric pipettes → 10, 25, 50 cm^3 (the device we use constantly
without change throughout the experiment to avoid contamination)
(f) measuring cylinders → approximate value to the nearest cm^3
(g) syringes

1. Plastic Syringe → high accuracy to measure small volumes of liquids

2. Gas syringe → high accuracy to measure volume of gases

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 (h) Beaker (either flat or Griffin form beaker)
(i) Volumetric Flask → 100, 250 cm^3 // 1dm^3 (highly accurate)
(j) Conical/Erlenmeyer Flask to hold volume of solution
(k) Boiling tube

Mass
(c) balances

1. Beam balance

2. Electronic Balance (greatest accuracy)

temperature
(b) thermometers

1. electronic

2. mercury in glass

(a) Collection of Gases

→ Collection of gases depends on

1. Density compared to air

2. Solubility

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 (a) Gases lighter than air : upward delivery of gas (Downward Displacement of
air)

→ Hydrogen (H2), Ammonia (NH3)

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 (b) Gases heavier than air : downward delivery of gas (Upward displacement of
air)

→ Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Hydrogen Chloride (HCL)

(c) Gases sparingly soluble in water : (insert volume measuring device)_Over

Water

→ i.e burette over water, measuring cylinder of water…

→CO2, H2, O2

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(d) measure the volume of gas accurately

→ Gas syringe

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 Table showing all gas collection methods

2. Suggest advantages and disadvantages of experimental methods and

apparatus

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 a. Calibrate the apparatus

b. prevent excessive lost or gain of heat to allow accurate reading

c. placement of thermometer, delivery tube, etc…

d. identifying ions or substances via colour by human judgement is unreliable

because different ions can give similar shades of flame colours

e. more accurate apparatus to be used

f. To prevent backwards flow of water keep delivery tube near surface of liquid
and remove tube just before turning the heating process off

→ Example Question

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 →Marking Scheme

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 →Step 1 (what) : Identify Apparatus, state dependant, independant and constant
variable
→ Step 2 (how) : Explain Method and Physical Measurements

→ Step 3 (Why) : Improving Accuracy

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 (a) Avoiding fault during method (followed after step 2 statements)
(b) Improving experiment {at the end of the investigation}
→(take an average/repeat to test reliability)

→repetition to be stopped after values with 0.2 difference between them is

obtained

3 Describe a:

(a) solvent as a substance that dissolves a solute

(b) solute as a substance that is dissolved in a solvent
(c) solution as a
mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent
(d) saturated solution as a solution containing the ¹
maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent ² at a specified
temperature
(e) residue as a substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration
or any similar process
(f) filtrate as a liquid
or solution that has passed through a filter

→ distillate as a pure liquid that has passed through a condenser from a

distillation flask

(understand that solubility is the amount of solute in 100g of water at r.t.p)

12.2 Acid–base titrations

1 Describe an acid–base titration to include the use of a:

(a) burette
(b) volumetric pipette
(c) suitable indicator

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 → if the acid used is Dilute then we add it using a thistle, if the acid is
concentrated we use a dropping funnel

acid is always taken as 25cm^3

1. Methyl Orange

Red (acid) → Yellow (alkali)

2. Thymolphthalein (best 🗣️💯)

Colourless (acid) →Blue (alkali)

3. Universal indicator solution

→Red (acid), Green (neutral), violet (Alkali)

https://youtu.be/sFpFCPTDv2w?si=G3beinu9AQvLv1eN

→ This process will be modified according to the substances and requirement

in the question

1. Take an Erlenmeyer flask, pipette 25 cm^3 of alkali solution into it.

2. Add 2 drops of desired indicator solution

3. Support Burette to retort stand and add measured volume of (named)-acid

using measuring cylinder. Place Erlenmeyer flask beneath it on a white tile to
observe colour change of indicator accurately

4. Add the acid from the burette drop by drop and stir solution in the flask gently
to allow alkali and acid to mix.

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 5. Once solution has changed colour or has gone colourless, close the stopcock.
Record final reading of acid in Burette. Difference between Volume of acid is
the required volume to completely neutralize alkaline solution

6. Repeat the titration thrice to obtain average volume of acid required to

increase accuracy.

7. Repeat the experiment without indicator solution (otherwise salt formed will
contain impurity) using average volume of acid calculated.

8. Evaporate solution until solution has reached saturation point

9. filter and leave crystals to air dry on filter paper

2 Describe how to identify the end-point of a titration using an indicator

→ colour change or loss of colour by indicator solution

(*) Making salt using Insoluble Base

→Above hydrogen, Below Aluminium… Magnesium Zinc, etc.

→Insoluble Oxide, Hydroxide or Carbonate (taken in excess)

1. pipette acid in excess in Erlenmeyer flask

2. measure mass of insoluble base required using electronic balance (equivalent

to value in moles) and add to Erlenmeyer flask

3. quickly add bung to reduce any loss of gas produced and allow it to flow
through delivery tube into gas syringe fixed to retort stand

4. observe volume of gas obtained after no more effervescence is seen/all

insoluble named base has reacted

5. Repeat the experiment for average value of volume to increase accuracy

(if reaction needs to be recorded, measure the change in volume of gas obtained
every time interval using a stopclock and plot a graph.)

Chemistry 11
 12.3 Chromatography
→ this is based on the difference of solubility between substances (the more
soluble it is in the solvent, the further up it travels)

1. Describe how paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble

substances, using a suitable solvent (both must dissolve in the same solvent)
→mark pencil line 1 cm above chromatography paper and add drop of substance
on the line, allow the drop to dry.

→ place the paper into the tank containing solvent and leave the apparatus to
stand until solvent has travelled up the filter paper
→ mark the solvent front and measure the distance the solvent has travelled and
the other substances have travelled

2. Describe the use of locating agents when separating mixtures containing

colourless substances. Knowledge of specific locating agents is not required
→ locating agent react with colourless substance to form a colored compound
and make the substance detectable

Chemistry 12
 3 Interpret simple chromatograms to identify:

(a) unknown substances by comparison with known substances

(b) pure and impure substances
4 State and use the equation for Rf (a constant value)

= distance travelled by substance / distance travelled by solvent

12.4 Separation and purification

1 Describe and explain methods of separation and purification using:

(a) a suitable solvent

→ ethanol or water

(b) filtration
→ removing insoluble solid particles from a liquid

Apparatus

1. Filter Funnel

2. Filter Paper

3. Conical/Erlenmeyer Flask

4. Beaker containing mixture

(c) Evaporation
→ removing solid solvent from solution

Apparatus

1. Evaporating dish

2. Tripod Stand

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 3. Wire Gauze → distributes heat evenly

4. Bunsen Burner

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 (d) Crystallisation
→ removing water (of solvent or of crystallization) from salts

Apparatus

1. Everything from Evaporation

2. Stove (or just air dry)

(e) Simple distillation

→removing a liquid solvent from a solution
→based on difference in boiling point

Apparatus

1. distillation flask

2. Condenser

3. Conical Flask

4. Thermometer

→ Solution boils in the distillation flask + Boiling chips are added to prevent liquid
from being super-heated
→ water jacket required to maintain constant temperature for condensation
→ water must enter from below in order to fill the water jacket completely
→ thermometer placed near the side arms to obtain temperature reading of
vapour and not of solution

a. Liquid Vapour rises up and enters the condenser

b. vapour cools and condenses back to liquid and travels down the inner tube

c. Distillate is collected in a conical/Erlenmeyer flask

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 (f) fractional distillation

Apparatus

1. Distillation flask

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 2. Fractionating column

→ glass beads provides a large surface area for unwanted vapour to

condense on

3. Condenser

4. Receiving Flask

5. Thermometer

→ initially the thermometer will provide the reading of the substance with the
lowest boiling point because that will be the one to vaporize first. It will then
increase to give a new reading.

(g) Separating Funnel

1. Separating funnel

2. Beaker

2. Suggest suitable separation and purification techniques, given information

about the substances involved

3. Identify substances and assess their purity using melting point and boiling
point information
→ If impurities are present, the melting point of a solid decreases and the boiling
point of a liquid increases

→ due to the fact the chances in the structure make it so less energy is required to
weaken the forces of attraction but more is required to overcome them

1. If Impure, the substance will change states over a range of temperatures i.e
boiling and melting points are not sharp

2. Pure substances have sharp boiling and melting points

3. The more impure it is the greater the change in melting and boiling point

4. The wider the temperature rang in which it changes state

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 Items
This list gives items that candidates should be familiar with using, whether they
are taking the Practical Test or the Alternative to Practical

aluminium foil
• balances to measure up to 500g, with precision of at least 0.1 g
• beakers or cups made of an
insulating material such as by, approximate capacity 150cm3
• beakers, squat form with lip, 1dm3
, 250cm3
and 100cm3
• boiling tubes, approximately 150mm × 25mm
• Bunsen burners
• burettes, 50cm3
(ISO385 or grade B)
• conical flasks, within the range 50cm3
to 250cm3
• delivery tubes
• filter funnels and filter papers
• flame test wires or alternative apparatus
• measuring cylinders, 100cm3
, 50cm3
, 25cm3
, 10cm3
(ISO6706 or ISO4788 or grade B)
• pens for labelling glassware
• pipette fillers
• racks for test-tubes and boiling tubes
• red and blue litmus paper
• retort stands, bosses and clamps
• small droppers or teat pipettes
• small funnels for filling burettes
•
spatulas
•
stirring rods

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 • stirring thermometers, –10°C to +110°C, with 1 °C graduations
• stoppers for test-tubes and boiling tubes
• stopwatches to measure to an accuracy of 1 s
• test-tube holders (to hold test-tubes or boiling tubes)
• test-tubes (
Pyrex or hard glass), approximately 125mm × 16mm
• tripods
• universal indicator paper
• volumetric pipettes, 25cm3
(ISO648 or grade B)
• wash bottles
• white tiles

12.5 Identification of ions and gases

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 we acidify with acid to remove any potential carbonate ions which will give us inaccurate test
results

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Chemistry 21
 →use platinum/nichrome (unreactive) wire
→clean it by dipping into concentrated HCL and place over bunsen flame to dry it

→ moisten it by dipping it into concentrated HCL again

→dip it into salt of metal ion and place over clear blue flame of bunsen flame and
observe the result.

Stoichiometry

3.1 Formulae
1 State the formulae of the elements and compounds named in the subject content
2
Define the molecular formula of a compound as the number and type of different

Chemistry 22
 atoms in one molecule
3
Define the empirical formula of a compound as the simplest whole number ratio of
the different atoms or ions in a compound
4 Deduce the formula of a simple compound from the relative numbers of atoms
or ions present in a model or a diagrammatic representation
5 Deduce the formula of an ionic compound from the charges on the ions
6 Construct word equations, symbol equations and ionic equations to show how
reactants form products, including state symbols
7 Deduce the symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction, given
relevant information

3.2 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

1 Describe relative atomic mass, Ar, as the average mass of the isotopes of an
element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of 12C
2 Define relative molecular mass, Mr, as the
sum of the relative atomic masses. Relative formula mass, Mr, will be used for
ionic compounds

3.3 The mole and the Avogadro constant

1 State that the mole, mol, is the unit of amount of substance and that one mole
contains 6.02×10^23
particles, e.g. atoms, ions, molecules; this number is the Avogadro constant
2 Use the relationship amount of substance (mol) = mass (g) / molar mass (g /mol)
to calculate:
(a) amount of substance
(b) mass
(c) molar mass
(d) relative atomic mass or relative molecular/formula mass
(e) number of particles, using the value of the Avogadro constant
3 Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24dm3 at room temperature and pressure,
r.t.p., in calculations involving gases
4 State that concentration can be measured in g /dm3 or mol/dm3
5 Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses, limiting reactants, volumes of gases at

Chemistry 23
 r.t.p., volumes of solutions and concentrations of solutions expressed in g /dm3
and mol/dm3, including conversion between cm3 and dm3
6 Use experimental data to calculate the concentration of a solution in a titration
7 Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae, given appropriate data
8 Calculate percentage yield, percentage composition by mass and percentage
purity, given appropriate data

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Complete Chemistry 4e By Rose Marie Galla

gher.pdf

Rest of Syllabus
Elements, Atoms, & Compounds

Periodic Table.

Metals.

Chemical Energetics

Chemical Reactions.

Electrolysis

Acid, Bases & Salt

Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry

Chemistry of the Enviroment

Organic Chemistry

Chemistry 24