1.

1 Computer Networks:
A network is a set of devices or components connected by
communication links. These devices can be a computer, printer or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

It can also be defined as:

A network is collection of computers and devices interconnected by

communication links for sharing of resources and information among interconnected
devices.

Applications:

Computer networks have numerous applications areas such as in

education, banking, hospital. entertainment, e-commerce sector. Few of the
applications are listed below:

1. Business Application :-
Network is used & implemented for information exchange & resource
sharing. All the programs, equipments & data gets available to anyone on the n/w
without regard to physical location of the resource & user.

Resource Sharing:
e.g. A group of office workers share common printer. None of the individual needs a
private printer & a high volume n/w printer is often cheaper, faster & easier to
maintain. Other resources like scanners, CD burners can also be shared.

Information sharing with Computerization:

Every large & medium size company is dependent on computerized information.
e.g. Banking sector, manufacturing plant, smaller companies like employee
office or within a single building. Mostly, this application is related with
consumers on the internet.
e.g. Airlines, bookstores, music vendors. There is use of e-commerce that means
online shopping. It covers entertainment area, education, e-mail applications.

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 2. Home Application:-
Internet is accessed from home. Major popular uses of internet are -
i) Access to remote information:
It can be surfing the www for information or fun. Information includes
arts, business, cooking, government, history, hobbies, science, sports, travel,
etc.Other forms are online newspapers, digital libraries, etc.

ii) Person to Person Communication:

It includes e-mail, instant messaging or chatting, newsgroups with
discussions on various topics. Other communication oriented application in
peer to peer communication includes using the internet to carry telephone calls,
video phone, internet radio, distance learning.

iii) Interactive Entertainment:

It includes video on demand, selection of movie & programs. Live T.V.
also becomes interactive with audience participating in quiz shows, choosing
among contestants.

iv) E-commerce:
It includes home shopping, enables users to inspect the online catalog
of thousands of companies. Access to financial institutions, many people pay
their bills; manage bank accounts & investments electronically.

3. Mobile Uses:-
Mobile computers such as notebook PCs, PDA are fastest growing
segments of computer industry. Many users have desktop machines at office &
want to be connected to their home base even when they are away from home.
Wireless networks are implemented in different areas like military,
trucks, taxies. Applications such as GPS (Global Positioning System), www
services can be accessed from Mobile.

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 1.2 Classification of Network by Geographical Area
Interprocessor Processors located in Example

Distance the same

1m Square meter Personal area network

10m Room Local Area Network

100m Building Local Area Network

1km Campus Local Area Network

10km City Metropolitan Area Network

100km Country Wide Area Network

1000km Continent Wide Area Network

10000km Planet Internet

Local Area Network:-

Local Area Networks are generally called as LAN are privately own network within a
single building or campus upto a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices and factory to share resources (for
e.g. Printer) and exchange information.

LANs are distinguished from other kinds of network by three characteristics:-

1) Size

2) Transmission technology

3) Topology

LANs are restricted in size it means that as the worst case condition is considered for
transmission then LAN should be designed according to the network management concept.
It also simplifies network management.

LANs may use a transmission technology which contains a cable by which all the machine
gets connected. Various topologies are also possible with Local Area Network.

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 Node2
Node1

Node3 Node4

Fig: Local Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network:-

A MAN covers a city, like the LAN; different parameters are considered while designing
MAN network. Best examples of MAN are the Cable Television network available in many
cities, high speed wireless Internet access.

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 Junction box

Antenna

Head

End

Internet

Fig: MAN based on cable-TV network

Wide Area Network-

A WAN spans a large geographical area usually a country or continent. It contains the
collection of machine intended for running user programs. These machines are called Host.
Host is connected by a communication subnet. Subnet consists of two components,
transmission lines and switching elements.

Transmission lines move bits between the machine which may be made up of copper
wire, optical fiber or even radio links.Switching elements are basically specialized computers
or routers. The hosts are owned by customer for e.g. People’s personal computer where as
the communication subnet is owned or Internet Service Provider.

Job of subnet is to carry messages from host to host. Wide area networks are widely used in
packet switch network.

Line Configuration-

As data is transmitted from one device to another there is a relationship between

communicating devices. Line configuration is basis for this relationship. It refers to the way
two or more communication devices attach to a link. A link is a physical communication

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pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in someway to the same link at the same time.

There are two possible line configurations.

1) Point to Point –

A point to point line configuration provides link between 2 devices it means the entire
capacity of the channel is reserve for transmission between those two devices. For such line
configuration an actual length of wire or cable is used to connect two ends or other options
such as microwave or satellite links are also possible. For e.g. when we change television
channel by infrared remote control we establish point to point line configuration between the
remote and television control system.

Dedicated Link

Node1 Node2 Node3 Node4

TV

Infrared remote

Fig. Point to Point Configuration

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 2) Multipoint –

Multipoint line configuration is also called as multidrop line configuration in which more
than two specific devices share a single link in such line configuration capacity of channel is
shared temporarily. If several devices can use the link simultaneously it is a shared line
configuration. If it is users turn then it is called as time share line configuration.

Node1 Node2 Node3 Node4

Shared Link

Fig. Multipoint Configuration

1.3 Network Topology :

Topology :-

The term topology refers to a way a network is laid-out may be physically or

logically.When two or more devices are connected through link topology will get formed.
Thus it can be said that topology is a “geometric representation” of all the Links and
linking devices (i.e. nodes) to each other.

There are 5 basic topologies which are as follows: -

1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Tree Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Bus Topology

There is another type called ‘ Hybrid Topology ‘ which is combination of two or

more above mentioned types. When we discuss about Topology, it is necessary to think
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 about possible relationships. i.e. Peer to Peer relationship & Primary-Secondary
relationship.

Peer to Peer relationship

In this case, devices are sharing the link equally. This is suitable for Ring & Mesh
topology.

Primary-Secondary relationship

In this case, one device controls traffic while another transmits through it.This is
suitable for star & tree topology.

1. Mesh Topology: --

Node

Node
Node
3

Node

Fig: Mesh Topology

• Mesh topology provides dedicated point to point link from one device to every other device.
• The term ‘dedicated’ means link carries traffic between only those devices which it connects.

Advantages :-
1. Due to dedicated link, traffic problem gets removed.

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 2. Mesh topology is robust.
3. Mesh Topology provides privacy & security.
4. Fault identification & Fault isolation is easy for small network.

Disadvantages :-
1. Installation & reconfiguration is difficult.
2. Because of larger wiring, Mesh Topology becomes complex.
3. It is not economical.

Applications :-
1. It can be implemented in hybrid technology as ‘backbone’ connecting the main
computer connecting to several other topologies.
2. Wireless ad-hoc network
3. Mobile ad-hoc network.

2. Star Topology: -

Node

Node
Node
HUB

Node

Fig:Star Topolgy

1. It is not so much complex because of less cabling.

2. Star topology is robust.
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 3. Fault identification and fault isolation is easy.

Disadvantages :-
1. In case of failure of central Hub, entire network will get collapse.
2. If more devices are to be attached, more cabling will be needed, computer network
will become complex.

Applications :-
1. Mainly Star Topology is implemented in small area network(LAN )
2. It can also be implemented in MAN applications.

3.Tree Topology: -
Node1

Node2 Node3
Secondary HUB

Node 4 Central Node 5

HUB

HUB

Node 6 Node 7
Secondary HUB

Node8

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 • In Tree Topology not every device plugs directly into central Hub, Majority of

devices are connected to ‘Secondary Hub’, which in term is connected to Central

Hub.

• The Central Hub is an active Hub that contains a repeater, which will re-generate

received bit pattern before sending them out.

• Secondary Hub is either active or passive. Passive Hub provides physical

connections between devices attached.

Advantages :-
1. Secondary Hub increases no. of devices to be attached hence increases the distance
signal can travel.
2. It allows the network to isolate & provide priority for communication between networks.
3. It is not so much expensive as that of Mesh Topology.
4. It is easy to install & re-configure.
5. Fault identification and fault isolation.

Disadvantages:-
1. More cabling may create complexity in network.
2. It is expensive.
3. More space is needed.

Applications :-
1. In cable T.V. technology. Here main cable from main office is divided into main

branches and these branches are again divided into sub branches and so on….

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4. Ring Toplogy:-

Node

Node
Node

Node
Node

Fig: Ring topology

• In Ring Topology, each device has dedicated point to point line configuration with
devices at either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches
the destination.
• When device receives a signal intended for another device, it’s repeater regenerates bits
and passes them along.

Advantages :-
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Fault isolation is easy.

Disadvantages : -

1. Traffic is unidirectional.

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 i.e. Break in a single segment of ring will result in failure of link.
2. Expansion is difficult because it is difficult from cost, space point of view.

Applications : -
1. Ring Topology is mostly used In Laboratories, Offices at small scale.

5. BUS Topology:-

Node4
Node 2 Node 3
Node 1

Terminator Tap / T - Connector Main Cable

Fig: Bus Topology

• Bus Topology is nothing but an example of multi-point configuration.

• One long cable acts as a ‘Backbone’ so as to link all devices in a network.

• Nodes are connected to bus cable by dropline & taps.

• Dropline is a connection running between device and main cable

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 • Tap is a connector that slices a main cable so as to create a contact with metallic core.

Advantages :-
1. Bus Topology is easy to install.
2. It is not so much expensive.
3. Failure of one network will not affect remaining network.

Disadvantages :-
1. Reconfiguration is difficult.
2. Bus can support only limited no. of taps and distance between them is also less fixed.
3. It is less secure.
4. Signal reflection at taps can cause ‘quality degradation’.
5. Any fault in ‘bus cable’ cause failure of entire network.

Applications :-
1. Cyber Café
2. College Campus
3. Business Firms

1.4 Network Components :

When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or
resources they become an internetwork or internet. Linking a number of LAN’s into an
internet requires additional internetworking devices called “Routers & Gateways”.

In a LAN repeater or regenerator is a networking device which is used to increase the

coverable distance.

Another device which is called Bridge is used for traffic management this two device’s are
called Networking devices.

So the connecting devices are basically classified as networking devices and iternetworking
devices.

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 CONNECTING DEVICES

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Repeater Bridges Router Gateways

1) REPEATER:-

• Repeater [Regenerator] is an electronic device that operates only at the physical layer
of the OSI model.
• Signal that carry information within network can travel a fixed distance before
attenuation corrupt the integrity of data.
• Repeater installed on a link, receives the signal before it becomes too weak or
corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern and puts refreshed copy back onto the
link.
• Repeater allows extending only the physical length of network.
• It does not change functionality of network in any way.

REPEATER
NODE1 NODE2

APPLICATION LAYER APPLICATION LAYER

PRESENTATION LAYER PRESENTATION LAYER

SESSION LAYER SESSION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER Repeater PHYSICAL LAYER

Fig. Repeater in OSI model

• If node 1 sends a frame to node 2, it will receive the frame just as they would without
repeater.

• Repeater does not have intelligence to keep the train from passing to other session.

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Repeater is not an amplifier:

An amplifier cannot distinguish between the intended signal and the noise. It
amplifies equally whatever feed into it. On another side a repeater does not amplify the
signal it regenerates it. When it receive weakened or corrupted signal it creates a copy
bit for bit at original strength.

2) BRIDGE:-

• Bridges operate in both physical and data link layer of the OSI model.
• Bridges can divide a large network into smaller segment.
• They can also relay frames between two originally separate LAN.
• Bridges contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic for each segment separate
i.e, they filter the traffic that makes them useful for controlling and isolating problem
links.
• Bridges operate at the data link layer giving it access to the physical address of all
stations connected to it.
• When frame enter the bridge, the bridge not only generate the signal but also check
the address of destination and forward the new copy only to the segment to which
address belong.
• As bridge encounter a packet, it reads the address contain in the frame and compare
that address with the table of all the station on both segment.
• When it find match, it discovers to which segment the station belong and relay the
packet only to that segment.
• To select between segments bridges must have lookup table that contain physical
address of every station connected to it. The table indicates to which segment each
station belongs.

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 REPEATER
NODE1 NODE2

APPLICATION LAYER APPLICATION LAYER

PRESENTATION LAYER PRESENTATION LAYER

SESSION LAYER SESSION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER DATA LINK LAYER

PHYSICAL LAYER Bridge PHYSICAL LAYER

Fig. Bridge in OSI model

A D

B C

000
BRIDGE
E H

I G

Fig: Bridge on segment

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 • As shown in diagram two segments are joint by bridge, a packet from station A
addressed to station D arrives at the bridge.
• Station A is on the same segment as station D , therefore packet is blocked from
crossing into lower segment.
• Instant packet is relayed to the entire upper segment and received by station D.

A A to D D A D

BRIDGE A BRIDGE

G
F G G F

Fig: Bridge Function

• As indicated in above figure a packet generated by “Station A” is intended for

“Station G”.
• The bridge allows the packet to cross an relay it to the entire lower segment, where it
is received by “Station G”

Types of Bridges:

1. Simple Bridge:

o These bridges are least expensive type of bridges, it links to segment and
contains a table that lists the addresses of all the stations included in each of
them.
o In such type of bridges the addresses must be entered manually whenever a
new station is added, the table must be modified.

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2. Multi-port Bridge:
o This bridge can be used to connect more than 2 LANs.

LAN 1

000

Bridge

LAN 2

Fig: Multiport Bridge

o Here the bridge has 3 tables; each has one holding the physical addresses of
stations reachable through the corresponding port.

3. Transparent Bridge:
o This bridge builds its table of station addresses on its own when the
transparent bridge is first installed its table is empty.
o As it encounters each packet, it looks at both the destination and the source
addresses.
o It checks the destination to decide where to send the packet; if it does not yet
recognize the destination address it relays the packet to all the station on
both segments.
o It uses the source address to build its table.
o As it reads the source address, it notes which side the packet came from and
associates that address with the segment to which it belongs.
o By continuing this process even after the table is complete, a transparent
bridge self updates the records.
o Mostly the spanning tree algorithm is implemented in bridges.

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3) Routers:

• Repeaters and Bridges are simple H/W devices capable of executing specific task;
routers have access to the N/W layer addresses and contain S/W that enables them
to determine which of the several possible paths between those addresses are best
for a particular transmission.
• Routers operate in the physical layer, data link layer and N/W layer of the OSI model.

Device A N/W Router N/W Device B

Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network
Router
Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical

Fig. Router in OSI model

• Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected N/W, they rout packets from
one N/W to any number of potential destination N/Ws on an internet.
• The diagram illustrates possible inter-networks of 5 networks.
• The packet sends from a station on one N/W to a station on a neighboring N/W goes
first to the jointly held router which switches it over the destination N/W.
• If there is no router connected to both the sending and receiving N/W, the sending
router transports the packet across one of its connected N/W’s to the next router in
the direction of the ultimate destination
• That router forwards the packets to the next router on the path and so on until the
destination is reached.

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4) Gateway :-

Device A N/W Gateway N/W Device B

Application Application
Gateway
Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical

Fig. Gateway in OSI model

• Gateways operate in all 7 layers of the OSI model

• A gateway is protocol converter.
• Routers by itself transfers, accepts and relay packets only across N/W using similar
protocols.
• A gateway on the other hand can accept the packet the packet formatted for one
protocol and convert it to a packet formatted for other protocol, before forwarding it.
• It is an S/W installed within a router, a gateway understands the protocols used by
each N/Ws link into the router and if therefore able to translate from one to another.
• Gateway must adjust the data rate, size and format as well.

HUB:

• It is a device which has number of input lines that it joins electrically.

• Frames arriving on any of the line are send out on all the others.
• If two frames arrive at the same time they will collide just as on a coaxial cable.
• Thus a HUB forms a single collision domain.
• All the lines coming into a HUB must operate at the same speed.

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 • HUB differs from repeaters in that they do not usually amplify the incoming signal
and are designed to hold multiple line cards each with multiple inputs.

N1 N2

HUB

N3 N4

Fig:Hub

Switch:

• A switch is a device that provides bridging functionality with greater efficiency.

• They are similar to bridges in that both route on frame addresses.
• It may act as a multi-port bridge to connect devices or segments in a LAN.
• Switch normally has a buffer for each link (N/W) to which it is connected.
• When it receives a packet it stores the packet in the buffer of the receiving link and
checks the address to find the outgoing link.
• If the outgoing link is free, the switch sends the frame to that particular link.
• Switches are often used to connect individual computers.
• Switches are made based on two different strategies called fabrics.
o Store and forward
o Cut Through
• A store and forward switch stores the frame in the input buffer until the whole packet
has arrived.
• A cut through switch forwards the packet to the output buffer as soon as the
destination address is received.

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 Switching Table
Control

Unit

Buffers

Frame in Frame out

Fig:Switch

• Some switches are combination of router and bridge which uses the address to find
out the link.
• These switches use N/W layer destination address so the process is faster.
• The router finds the optimal path for transmission by implementing different routing
algorithms.
• Also it is inbuilt with a table which is called a routing table.

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