Mathematics in the Modern World The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated

Notes/Reviewer while still preserving the original formation is

called the Angle of Rotation.
Patterns
- In the general essence of the world, TAKE NOTE: to get the angle of rotation of an
patterns are regular, repeated, or object, you divide how many folds the object
recurring forms or designs. Studying has by 360°.
patterns help students in identifying
relationships and finding logical
moments to form generalization and
make predictions.
- Ex.
Layout of floor tiles, the way we tie
our shoelaces, clouds, routines, Ex.
snowflakes, honeycombs, etc. Find the angle rotation of a hexagon.
(Hexagon = 6 sides)
Symmetry indicates that you can draw an
imaginary line across and the results are the Θ = 360° / n
same mirror images of each other. Θ = 360° / 6
Θ = 60°

Find the angle rotation of an octagon. (octagon

= 8 sides)

Θ = 360° / n
Θ = 360° / 8
Θ = 45°
The left and right portions are exactly the
same. This type of symmetry is known as
BILATERAL SYMMETRY. Using several coins of the same size, try to
cover as much area of a piece of paper with
Bilateral Symmetry coins. If you arrange the coins in a square
- Body parts or shapes that are arranged formation, there are still plenty of spots that
in a way that they can be divided into are exposed. Following the hexagonal
two halves and still mirror each other. formation, however, with the second row
snuggly filled with the first row of coins, you
will notice that more area will be covered.
If you rotate the spiderwort and starfish above
by several degrees, you can still achieve the
same appearance as the original position. This
is known as ROTATIONAL SYMMETRY.

Rotational Symmetry
Translating this idea to three-dimensional
- Refers to the symmetry of a shape or
space, we can conclude that hexagonal
object under rotations by rotational
formations are more optimal in making use of
multiple turns.
the available space. These are referred to as
Packaging Problems.
Packaging Problems gives the total area as 3 π cm². The percentage
- Involves finding the optimum method of the hexagon’s area covered by circles will
of filling up a given space such as a be:
cubic or spherical container. Suppose
you have circles of radius 1 cm, each
of which will have an area of π cm². Comparing the two percentages, we can
clearly see that using hexagons will cover a
Ex. 1 larger area than when using squares.

WORLD POPULATION

As of 2017, it is estimated that the world

population is about 7.6 billion. World leaders,
sociologists, and anthropologists are interested
in studying population, including its growth.
Mathematics can be used to model population
growth. Recall that the formula for exponential
growth is;

For square packaging, each square will have

an area of 4 cm ². Note from the figure that for
each square, it can only fit one circle (4 A = size of the population after it grows
quarters). The percentage of the square’s area P = Initial number of people
covered by circles will be: E = Euler's constant; 2.718
R = Rate of Growth
T = Time
Plugging in values to this formula would result
Ex.2 in the populations size after time (t) with a
growth rate (r).

Ex. Population Growth

The exponential growth model A = 30e^0.02
(t) describes the population of a city in the
Philippines in thousands, t years after 1995.
a. What was the population of the city in
1995?
b. What will be the population in 2017?

Sol.
For hexagonal packaging, we can think of each a. Since our exponential growth model
hexagon as composed of six equilateral describes the population/ years after
triangles with sides equal to 2 cm. 1995, we consider 1995 as t = 0 and
then solve for A, our population size.

A = 30e ^0.02t
This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√3 cm².
A = 30e ^ (0.02) (0)
Looking at the figure, there are 3 circles that
A = 30e ^ 0
could fit inside one hexagon (the whole circle
A = 30 (1)
in the middle, and 6 ⅓ of a circle), which
A = 30 who was better known by his nickname
Therefore, the city population in 1995 was FIBONACCI.
30,000.
Sequence
b. We need to find A for the year 2017. - Is an ordered list of numbers, called
To find t, we subtract 2017 and 1995 TERMS, that may have repeated
to get t = 22, which we then plug in to values. The arrangement of these
our exponential growth model. terms is set by a definite rule.
Replace t with 22
E^0.44 = 1.55271 Example Problem:
a. 1, 10, 100, 1000, …., …, …,
A = 30e^0.02t = 10,000, 100,000, 1,000,000
A = 30e^(0.02)(22) b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20, …, …, …,
A = 30e^(0) = 27, 35, 44
A = 30 (1.55271)
A = 46.5813 Solution/explanation:
Therefore, the city population would be about a. Each term is powered by 10.
46, 581 in 2017. 1 = 10^0, 10=10^1, 100 = 10^2, 1000 = 10^3,
and so on.
The formula for exponential growth can also
be used for exponential decay, with the rate “r” Another explanation is all of the terms are
being a negative value. The time “t” should multiplied or can be multiplied by a fixed
coincide with the given rate, i.e., if the time is constant; 10.
in years, then the growth rate should be a
yearly growth rate. b. The difference between the first and
second terms (2 and 5) is 3. The
second and third term (5 and 9) is 4.
The third and fourth term (9 and 14) is
5. The fourth and fifth term (14 and
20) is 6. Hence, it can be deduced that
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE to obtain the next three terms, we
- The Fibonacci sequence is a series of should add 7, 8, 9, to obtain the
numbers in which each number is the current terms.
sum of the two preceding numbers,
usually starting with 0 and 1. The succeeding terms in the sequence can be
- One of the fascinating properties of generated by adding the two numbers that
the Fibonacci sequence is that the ratio came before the next term:
of any two adjacent numbers in the
sequence approaches the golden ratio 0, 1, 1,
(approximately 1.618) as the 0, 1, 1, 2
sequence progresses. This ratio has 0, 1, 1, 2, 3,
been observed in many natural 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
patterns, such as the arrangement of 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
leaves on a stem and the branching of 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,.....
trees.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE 1 TO 30
The fibonacci sequence is named after the
italian mathematician LEONARDO OF PISA,
 ● Fib(1) = 1 Determine the Pattern in successive sums from
● Fib(2) = 1 the previous question. What will be the sum
● Fib(3) = 2 of;
● Fib(4) = 3
● Fib(5) = 5 Fib (1) + Fib (2) + ….. + Fib (10)
● Fib(6) = 8 = 143.
● Fib(7) = 13
● Fib(8) = 21 To solve this, you need to identify first the first
● Fib(9) = 34 10 terms of the fibonacci sequence which are
● Fib(10) = 55 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and 55. Add these
● Fib(11) = 89 up and you will get 143.
● Fib(12) = 144
● Fib(13) = 233 Verifying the calculation
● Fib(14) = 377 Let's calculate the sum step by step to ensure
● Fib(15) = 610 we get the correct answer:
● Fib(16) = 985
● Fib(17) = 1597
1. 1+1=2
● Fib(18) = 2584 2. 2+2=4
● Fib(19) = 4181 3. 4+3=7
● Fib(20) = 6765 4. 7 + 5 = 12
● Fib(21) = 10946 5. 12 + 8 = 20
● Fib(22) = 17711 6. 20 + 13 = 33
● Fib(23) = 28657 7. 33 + 21 = 54
● Fib(24) = 46368 8. 54 + 34 = 88
● Fib(25) = 75025 9. 88 + 55 = 143
● Fib(26) = 121393
● Fib(27) = 196418
● Fib(28) = 317811
● Fib(29) = 514229
● Fib(30) = 832040 VARIABLES
- A variable is sometimes known as a
Example Problems: mathematical “John Doe” because you
a. Fib (1) + Fib (2) = 2 can it use it as a placeholder when you
This is because Fib (1) = 1 and Fib (2) is also want to talk about something but
equal to 1, Therefore, 1 + 1 = 2. either;
- (1) you imagine that it has one or more
b. Fib (1) + Fib (2) + Fib (3) = 4 values but you do not know what it is;
This is because Fib (1) = 1 and Fib (2) = 1 and - (2) you want whatever it says to be
Fib (3) = 2, Therefore, 1 + 1 + 2 = 4. equally true for all elements in a given
set, and so you don’t want to be
c. Fib (1) + Fib (2) + Fib (3) + Fib (4) = restricted to considering only a
7 particular concrete value for it.
This is because Fib (1) = 1 and Fib (2) = 1 Fib
(3) = 2 and Fib (4) = 3, Therefore, 1 + 1 + 2 + 4 CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLE
3 = 7.
Independent Variable - A variable that is
intentionally changed or manipulated by the
researcher to observe its effect on the Discrete Variable - A variable that can only
dependent variable. take on specific, distinct values.
Ex: Ex:

● Temperature in an experiment to study ● Number of students in a class.

its effect on the growth of a plant. ● Number of defective products (can
● Amount of fertilizer used in an only be a whole number, e.g. 0, 1, 2)
experiment to study its effect on crop ● Number of votes (can only be a whole
yield. number, e.g. 10, 20, 30)
● Type of music played in a study to ● Number of siblings (can only be a
examine its impact on mood. whole number, e.g. 0, 1, 2)
● Dosage of a medication in a clinical ● Marital status (can only be one of a
trial to study its effect on blood few specific categories, e.g. single,
pressure. married, divorced)
● Level of education in a study to
examine its relationship with income.
Variables refers to a letter from the English
Alphabets A to Z used to represent/replace by
Dependent Variable - A variable that is being any number or unknown object.
measured or observed in response to the
independent variable.
Ex:
Ex:
The area of a rectangle equals its length times
width.
● Growth of a plant in response to L = Length
different temperatures. W = Width
● Crop yield in response to different In Mathematical sentence: Area of Rectangle =
amounts of fertilizer. LxW
● Mood of participants in response to
different types of music. The Advantage of using a variable is that it
● Blood pressure in response to different allows you to give a temporary name to what
dosages of medication. you are seeking so that you can perform
● Income in response to different levels concrete computations with it to help discover
of education. its possible values. To emphasizing the role of
the variable as a placeholder.
Continuous Variable - A variable that can
● Is there a number _ with the property
take on any value within a certain range or
(2) + 3 = _²?
interval.
Ex:
The emptiness of the blanks can help you
imagine fitting in a variety of different values,
● Height some of which might make the two sides equal
● Weight and others which might not.
● Temperature
● Time Example and Solution:
● Blood pressure a. Are there numbers a and b with the
property that a² + b² = (a + b)²?
Or: Are there numbers a and b such that a + b² 3. A fraction indicates division. Perform
= (a + b)²? the division to convert the fraction to a
Or: Do there exist any numbers a and b such decimal.
that a² + b² = (a + b)²?
⅓ = 0.333
b. Given any real number r, r² is ⅜ = 0.375
non-negative Since 0.375 is bigger than 0.333 therefore:
Or: For any real number r, r² ≥ 0 ⅓ < ⅜ or ⅜ > ⅓
Or: For all real number r, r² ≥ 0

TYPES OF SENTENCES USED IN THREE KINDS OF MATHEMATICAL

ALGEBRA STATEMENTS

A sentence in Algebra is a grammatically Universal statement - says that a certain

correct set of numbers, variables, or operations property is true for all elements in a set.
that contains a verb. Ex. All positive numbers are greater than zero.
I.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.....Even the decimals, as long
M = ⅗ uses the verb “is equal to” denote by the it is positive)
symbol (=). Any sentence using the verb = is
called an equation. Conditional statement - says that if one thing
is true then some other thing also has to be
(=) is equal to true.
(≠) is not equal to Ex. if 378 is divisible by 18, the 378 is
(<) Less than divisible by 6)
(>) Greater than P→Q
(≤) Less than or equals to Where P is the premise (or hypothesis), and Q
(≥) Greater than or equals to is the conclusion.
(≈) is approximately equal to
Existential statement - says that there is at
A sequence with one of the verbs listed is least one thing for which the property is true.
called an INEQUALITY. Ex. There is a prime number that is an even
number; 2)
Ex.
1. The sentence ½ < ⅝ is an inequality. PRIME NUMBERS
2. Write an inequality that compares ⅓ - Numbers that are only divisible by 1
and ⅜ and themselves.
Solution:
- Convert ⅓ and ⅜ to its equivalent Additive Inverse and Multiplicative Inverse
fraction using LCD; 24 are two important concepts that help us
- ⅓ = 8/24 and ⅜ = 9/24 understand the interaction of numbers.
(Multiply the numerator and
denominator by 8; ⅓ = 8/24)
(Multiply the numerator and
denominator by 3; ⅜ = 9/24)
ALTERNATIVE: (for easier computation)
- You can just convert the fraction into
decimals. You will still get the same
answer.
ADDITIVE INVERSE
- This is what you add to the original Existential Universal Statements
number to get the sum of 0. - Is a statement that is existential
because its first part asserts that a
certain object exists and is universal
because its second part says that the
object satisfies a certain property for
all things of a certain kind.
Ex:
“There is a positive integer that is less than or
For any number ‘a’, the additive inverse of 0 is equal to every positive integer”
still 0. This is because when 0 is added to 0, - This statement is true because the
the result is still 0. number one is a positive integer, and it
satisfies the property of being less than
MULTIPLICATIVE INVERSE or equal to every positive integer. We
- This states that if we multiply a can rewrite the statement in several
number with its reciprocal, the product ways, some is less than formal, some
is always 1. is formal.

Some positive integer is less than or equal to

every positive integer.
Or: There is a positive integer m that is less
UNIVERSAL EXISTENTIAL than or equal to every positive integer.
STATEMENTS Or: There is a positive integer m such that
every positive integer is greater than to m.
Introducing names for the variables simplifies Or: There is a positive integer m with the
references in further discussion. For instance, property that for all positive integers n, m ≤ n.
after the third version of the statement you
might go on to write: When r is positive, s is Some of the most important mathematical
negative, when r is negative, s is positive, and concepts, such as the definition of limit of
when r is zero, s is also zero. sequence, can only be defined using phrases
that are universal, existential, and conditional,
Ex. and they require use of all three phrases “for
all”, “there is”, and “if then”.
Fill in the blanks to rewrite the ff
statements. Ex.
a1, a2, a3,....is a sequence of real numbers,
“Every pot has a lid” saying that the limit of a, as n approaches
infinity is L.
a. All pots ____. Means that: for all positive real numbers &,
- Have lids there is an integer N such that for all integers
b. For all pots P, there is ___. n, if n > N then -L < E.
- A lid for P
c. For all pots P, there is a lid L such that
____.
- L is a lid for P
 notation is sometimes used to describe
a very large set, {1, 2, 3, 4, …., 100}
to refer to the set of all integers from 1
The language of Sets
to 100.

Use of the word set as a formal mathematical AXIOM OF EXTENSION

term was introduced in 1879 by George Cantor - Says that a set is completely
(1845 - 1918). For most mathematical determined by what its elements are,
purposes we can think of a set intuitively, sam not the order in which they might be
as Cantor did, simply as a collection of listed or the fact that some elements
elements. For instance, if C is the set of all might be listed more than once.
countries that are currently in the United
Nations, then the United States is an element TAKE NOTE: The Z is the first letter of the
of C, and if I is the set of all integers from 1 to German word for integers, Zahlen. It stands
100, then the number 57 is an element of I. for the set of all integers and should not be
used as a shorthand for the word integer.
Simple Explanation:
R - Set of all real numbers
Z - set of all integers
Ex. 1 Countries in the UN Q - set of all rational numbers, or quotients
Let's say we have a set called C, which is the of integers
set of all countries in the United Nations. The N - Natural Numbers
United States is one of the countries in the UN,
so it's an element of C. Addition of a superscript + or - or the letters of
Example 2: Integers from 1 to 100 non-negative indicates that only the positive or
Another example is a set called I, which negative or non-negative elements of the set,
contains all integers (whole numbers) from 1 respectively, are to be included. Thus, R
to 100. The number 57 is one of the integers in non-negative denotes the set of positive real
this range, so it's an element of I. numbers, and Z non-negative refers to the set
In Simple Terms, A set is just a collection of of integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ….. Some authors
things, and each thing in the collection is refer to the set of nonnegative integers as the
called an element of the set. set of Natural Numbers and denote it as N.

NOTATION
- In mathematics, a notation is a The real number line is called Continuous
symbolic system used to represent because it is imagined to have no holes. The
mathematical objects, concepts, and set of integers is a collection of points located
operations. It's a way to express at fixed intervals along the real number line.
mathematical ideas, relations, and Thus, every integer is a real number, and
quantities using symbols, which helps because all the integers are all separated from
to convey complex information in a each other, the set of integers is called
concise and precise manner. Discrete.
- If S is a set, the notation x ∈ S means
that x is an element of S. The notation Another way to specify a set uses what is
x ∉ S means that x is not an element of called the set-builder notation.
S. A set may specify using set-roster
notation by writing all of its elements
between braces ({}). A variation of the
SET - BUILDER NOTATION includes all positive integers
- is a mathematical notation used to less than 5, which are {1, 2, 3,
describe a set by specifying the 4}.
properties that its elements must
satisfy. It is a concise way to define a
set using a formula or a predicate.

Let S denote a set and P (x) be a property that

c. { x ∈ Z+ │ -2 < x < 5}
the elements of S may or may not satisfy. We
- This set is similar to the
may define a new set to be the set of all
previous one, but with a slight
elements x in S such that p(x) is true.
difference. Z+ denotes the set
of all positive integers, which
is the same as Z. Therefore,
this set also includes all
positive integers less than 5,
which are {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Ex.
Using the set-builder notation

Given that R denotes all real numbers, Z In summary, the key differences between these
denotes all positive integers , and Z the set of sets are:
all positive integers describe each of the
following sets. ● Set 1 includes all real numbers
between -2 and 5, while Sets 2 and 3
a. { x ∈ R │ -2 < x < 5} only include positive integers.
- This set consists of all real ● Sets 2 and 3 are identical, as Z and Z+
numbers (R) that satisfy the both represent the set of positive
condition -2 < x < 5. In other integers.
words, it includes all real
numbers between -2 and 5, SUBSETS
excluding -2 and 5 - A basic relation between sets is that of
themselves. This set can be subset
described as the open interval - If A and B are sets, then A is a subset
(-2, 5) in the set of real of B, written as A ⊆ B, if, and only if,
numbers. every element of A is also the element
of B.

b. { x ∈ Z │ -2 < r < 5}
- This set consists of all positive
integers (Z) that satisfy the
condition -2 < x < 5.
However, since x is a positive
integer, the condition -2 < x is
always true. Therefore, this set