STRESSES IN THIN-WALLED

PRESSURE VESSELS

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (MSE 305) LECTURE

DELIVERED BY:

DR. J. O. OLAWALE
November 2023
 INTRODUCTION
• Pressure vessels are commonly used in industry as boilers, tanks, gas
containers, hydraulic cylinders, vacuum chambers etc.
• When under pressure, the material of which they are made is subjected
to a loading from all directions.
• Hence, the determination of the stresses in pressure vessels is an
important step in the design process since failure of a pressure vessel
can often be dangerous and sometimes catastrophic.
• In general, “thin wall” refers to a vessel having an inner radius to wall
thickness of 10 or more (𝑟Τ𝑡 ≥ 10).
• When 𝑟Τ𝑡 = 10 the results a thin-wall analysis will predict a stress that
is approximately 4% less than actual maximum stress in the vessel.
For larger 𝑟Τ𝑡 ratios this error will be even smaller.
• When the vessel wall is “thin” the stress distribution throughout its
thickness will not vary significantly, and so we will assume that its
uniform.
• Using this assumption, we will now analyze the state of stress in thin-
walled cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels.
• In both cases the pressure is understood to be gauge pressure, since it
measures the pressure above atmospheric pressure, which is assumed
to exist both inside and outside the vessel’s wall.
 CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL
• Consider a cylindrical vessel of inner radius 𝑟 and wall thickness 𝑡
containing a fluid under pressure as shown in Fig. 7.1.
• The normal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are the principal stresses. The stress 𝜎1
is known as hoop stress and stress 𝜎2 is called longitudinal stress.
• Suppose a long circular shell is subjected to an internal pressure 𝑝,
which may be due to a fluid or gas within the cylinder (Fig. 7.2).
• The internal pressure acting on the long sides of the cylinder gives rise
to a circumferential stress (hoop stress) in the wall of the cylinder, if
the end of the cylinder are closed, the pressure acting on these ends
transmitted to the walls of the cylinder thus producing a longitudinal
stress in the walls.
Fig. 7.1 Cylindrical vessel
 Fig. 7.3 Circumferential and
Fig. 7.2 Long thin cylindrical shell longitudinal stresses in a thin
with closed ends under internal cylinder with closed ends under
pressure internal pressure.
• Consider the vessel cut with diametral plane, as in Fig. 7.3. The tensile
stresses acting on the cut sections are 𝜎1 , acting circumferentially, 𝜎2
acting longitudinally.
• There is an internal pressure p on the inside of the half-shell. Consider
equilibrium of the half-shell in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder as in Fig. 7.4, the total force due to the internal pressure 𝑝 in
the direction of OA is 𝑝 × (2𝑟 × 1) since we are dealing with a unit
length of the cylinder.
• This force is opposed by the stresses 𝜎1 ; for equilibrium we must
have:
𝑝 × (2𝑟 × 1) = 𝜎1 × 2(𝑡 × 1)
Then
𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = Eqn. 1
𝑡
We shall call this circumferential stress or hoop stress.
Fig. 7.4 Derivation of circumferential Fig. 7.5 Derivation of longitudinal
stress stress
• Now consider any transverse cross-section of the cylinder remote from
the ends, Fig. 7.5, the total longitudinal force on each closed end due
to internal pressure is 𝑝 × 𝜋𝑟 2 .
• At any section this is resisted by internal stresses 𝜎2 , Fig. 7.5. For
equilibrium we must have:
𝑝 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜎2 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
which gives
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = Eqn. 2
2𝑡

We shall call this the longitudinal stress. Thus the longitudinal stress,
𝜎2 , is only half the circumferential stress, 𝜎1 .
𝜎1 = 2𝜎2
• Thus the stress state for a cylindrical pressure vessel is a biaxial state
of stress with the principal stresses:
𝑝𝑟 𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = , 𝜎2 = , 𝜎3 = 0
𝑡 2𝑡

• The stresses acting on an element of the wall of the cylinder consist of

circumferential stress 𝜎1 , a longitudinal stress 𝜎2 , and radial stress 𝑝
on the internal face of the element, Fig. 7.6.

• Since (𝑟Τ𝑡) is very much greater than unity, p is very small compared
with 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 . The state of stress in the wall of the cylinder
approximates then to a simple two-dimensional system with the
principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 .
Fig. 7.6 Stress acting on an element of the wall of a circular cylindrical shell
with closed ends under internal pressure
• The maximum shearing in the plane of 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 is therefore:
1 𝑝𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ൗ2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ൗ4𝑡

• This is not, however, the maximum shearing stress in the wall of the
cylinder, for, in 𝜎1 and 𝑝, the maximum shearing stress is:

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1Τ2 𝜎1 = 𝑝𝑟Τ2𝑡 Eqn. 3

• Since 𝑝 is negligible compared with 𝜎1 ; again, in the plane of 𝜎2 and

𝑝, the maximum shearing stress is:

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1Τ2 𝜎2 = 𝑝𝑟Τ4𝑡 Eqn. 4

• The greatest of these maximum shearing stresses is in the plane 𝜎1 and
𝑝 ; it occurs on a plane 45° to the tangent and parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder, Fig. 7.6.

• Drawing Mohr’s circle through points 𝐴 and 𝐵 which correspond

respectively to the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 (Fig. 7.7), and recalling
that maximum in-plane shearing stress is equal to the radius of the
circle, we have
𝑝𝑟
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1ൗ2 𝜎2 = ൗ4𝑡
𝑖𝑛−𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

• This correspond to points 𝐷 and 𝐸 and is exerted on an element

obtained by rotating the original element of Fig. 7.7 through 45°
within the plane tangent to the surface of the vessel.
Fig. 7.7 Mohr’s circle representations of stresses in thin-walled cylindrical vessel
• The maximum shear stress in the wall of the vessel, however, is larger.
It is equal to the radius of the circle of diameter 𝑂𝐴 and correspond to
a rotation of 45° about the longitudinal axis and out of the plane of
stress. We have
𝑝𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎2 = ൗ2𝑡

• The circumferential and longitudinal stresses are accompanied by

direct strains. If the material of the cylinder is elastic, the
corresponding strains are given by:
1 𝑝𝑟 1
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝑣𝜎2 = 1− 𝑣 Eqn. 5
𝐸 𝐸𝑡 2

1 𝑝𝑟 1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝑣𝜎1 = −𝑣 Eqn. 6
𝐸 𝐸𝑡 2
• The circumference of the cylinder increases therefore by a small
amount 2𝜋𝑟𝜀1 ; the increase in mean radius is therefore 𝑟𝜀1 . The
increase in length of a unit length of the cylinder 𝜀2 , so that the change
in internal volume of a unit length of the cylinder is:
2
𝛿𝑉 = 𝜋 𝑟 + 𝑟𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 − 𝜋𝑟 2

The volumetric strain is therefore:

𝛿𝑉 2
2
= 1 + 𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 − 1
𝜋𝑟
But 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 are small quantities, so that the volumetric strain is
2
1 + 𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 − 1 ≡ 1 + 2𝜀1 1 + 𝜀2 − 1

≡ 2𝜀1 + 𝜀2
In terms of 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 this becomes

𝑝𝑟 1 1 𝑝𝑟 5
2𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = 2 1− 𝑣 + −𝑣 = − 2𝑣 Eqn. 7
𝐸𝑡 2 2 𝐸𝑡 2
 SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSEL
• Consider a spherical vessel of thin spherical shell of mean radius 𝑟,
and a wall thickness 𝑡, which is subjected to an internal pressure 𝑝. If
the vessel is cut through any diametral plane, Fig. 7.8, the total force
normal to this plane due to p acting on an hemisphere is 𝑝 × 𝜋𝑟 2
• This is opposed by a tensile stress 𝜎 in the walls of the shell. By
symmetry 𝜎 is the same at all points of the shell; for equilibrium of the
hemisphere we must have
𝑝 × 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜎 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑡
This gives;
𝑝𝑟
𝜎= Eqn. 8
2𝑡
Fig. 7.8 Membrane stresses in a thin spherical shell under internal
pressure
• At any point of the shell the direct stress 𝜎 has the same magnitude in
all directions in the plane of the surface of the shell; the state of stress
is shown Fig. 7.8(ii). Since 𝑝 is small compared with 𝜎, the maximum
shearing stress occurs on planes 45° to the tangent plane at any point.

• In spherical vessel;
𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 =
2𝑡

• Since the principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are equal, Mohr’s circle for
transformations of stress within the plane tangent to the surface of the
vessel reduces to a point (Fig. 7.9), we conclude that the in-plane
normal stress is constant and that the in-plane maximum shearing
stress is zero.
Fig. 79 Mohr’s circle representations of stresses in spherical vessel
• The maximum shearing stress in the wall of the vessel, however, is not
zero; it is equal to the radius of the circle 𝑂𝐴 and corresponds to a
rotation of out of the plane stress. We have:
1 𝑝𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎1 = Eqn. 9
2 4𝑡

• If the shell remains elastic, the circumference of the sphere in any

diametral plane is strained by an amount;
1 𝜎 𝑝𝑟
𝜀= 𝜎 − 𝑣𝜎 = 1 − 𝑣 = 1−𝑣 Eqn. 10
𝐸 𝐸 2𝐸𝑡

• The volumetric strain of the enclosed volume of the sphere is

therefore:
𝜎 𝑝𝑟
3𝜀 = 3 1 − 𝑣 = 3(1 − 𝑣) Eqn. 11
𝐸 2𝐸𝑡
 CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL WITH
HEMISPHERICAL ENDS
• Some pressure vessels are fabricated with hemispherical ends thus has
the advantage of reducing the bending stresses in the cylinder when
the ends are flat.

• Suppose the thickness 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 of the cylindrical section and

hemispherical end respectively (Fig. 7.10), are proportioned so that the
radial expansion is the same for both cylinder and hemisphere; in this
way we eliminate bending stresses at the junction of the two parts.

• From Eqn. 5 the circumferential strain in the cylinder is:

𝑝𝑟 1
1− 𝑣
𝐸𝑡 2
Fig. 7.10 Cylindrical shell with hemispherical ends
• From Eqn. 10 the circumferential strain in the hemisphere is:
𝑝𝑟
1−𝑣
2𝐸𝑡2

• If these strain are equal, then

𝑝𝑟 1 𝑝𝑟
1− 𝑣 = 1−𝑣
𝐸𝑡1 2 2𝐸𝑡2
This gives
𝑡1 2 − 𝑣
=
𝑡2 1 − 𝑣
𝑡1
For most metals 𝑣 is approximately 0.3, so average value of ൗ𝑡2 is
1.7Τ
0.7 ≡ 2.4. the hemispherical end is therefore thinner than the cylindrical
section.
Example 7.1: A thin cylindrical shell has an internal diameter of 20 𝑐𝑚
and 0.5 𝑐𝑚 thick. It is subjected to an internal pressure of 3.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 .
Estimate the circumferential and longitudinal stresses if (a) the ends of
the cylinder are closed (b) the ends of the cylinder are closed by piston
sliding.
Solution:
Given that: 𝑝 = 3.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑟 = 0.1 𝑚, 𝑡 = 0.005 𝑚
(a)i The circumferential stress:
𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = = 3.5 × 106 0.1 Τ 0.005 = 70 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝑡
(a)ii The longitudinal stress is:
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = = 3.5 × 106 0.1 Τ 0.01 = 35 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑡
(b)i The circumferential stress is 70 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
(b)ii The effect of taking the end pressure on sliding piston is to
remove the force on the cylinder causing longitudinal stress. Hence, the
longitudinal stress is zero.
Example 7.2: A long steel tube, 7.5 𝑐𝑚 internal diameter and 0.15 𝑐𝑚
thick, has closed ends, and is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of
3 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 . If 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 , and 𝑣 = 0.3, estimate the percentage
increase in internal volume of the tube.
Solution:
The circumferential tensile stress is
𝑝𝑟 3 × 106 0.0375
𝜎1 = = = 75 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝑡 0.0015
The longitudinal tensile stress is
𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = = 37.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑡

The circumferential strain is

1
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝑣𝜎2
𝐸

The longitudinal strain is

1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝑣𝜎1
𝐸
The volumetric strain is then

2𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = 2𝜎1 − 2𝑣𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝑣𝜎1

2𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = 𝜎1 2 − 𝑣 + 𝜎2 1 − 2𝑣
Thus
75 × 106 1.9 −3
2𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = = 0.713 × 10
200 × 109

The percentage increase in volume is therefore 0.0713%

Example 7.3: A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal fluid
pressure, the ends being closed by (a) two watertight pistons attached to
a common piston rod, (b) flanged ends. Find the increase in internal
diameter in each case, given that the internal diameter is 20 𝑐𝑚,
thickness is 0.5 𝑐𝑚 , Poisson's ration is 0.3 , Young’s modulus is
200 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2 , and the internal pressure is 3.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 .

Solution:

Given that: 𝑝 = 3.5 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2 , 𝑟 = 0.1 𝑚, 𝑡 = 0.005 𝑚

In both cases the circumferential stress is

𝑝𝑟 3.5 × 106 0.1
𝜎1 = = = 70 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
𝑡 0.005
(a) In this case there is no longitudinal stress. The circumferential
strain is then:
𝜎1 70 × 106 −3
𝜀1 = = = 0.35 × 10
𝐸 200 × 109
The increase of internal diameter is:
0.2 0.35 × 10−3 = 0.07 × 10−3 𝑚 = 0.007 𝑐𝑚

(b) In this case longitudinal stress is

𝑝𝑟
𝜎2 = = 35 𝑀𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑡
The circumferential strain is therefore
1 𝜎1 1 𝜎1
𝜀1 = 𝜎1 − 𝑣𝜎2 = 1 − 𝑣 = 0.85
𝐸 𝐸 2 𝐸
𝜀1 = 0.085 0.35 × 10−3 = 0.289 × 10−3

The increase of internal diameter is therefore;

0.2 0.289 × 10−3 = 0.0596 × 10−3 𝑚 = 0.00596 𝑐𝑚
Example 7.4: A compressed air
tank is supported by two cradles as
shown; one of the cradles is
designed so that it does not exert
any longitudinal force on the tank.
The cylindrical body is fabricated
from 10 𝑚𝑚 steel plate by butt
welding along the helix which form
an angle of 25° with transverse
plane. The end caps are spherical
and have uniform wall thickness of
8 𝑚𝑚. For an internal gage of 180
psi, determine (a) the normal stress
and maximum shearing stress in the
spherical caps, (b) the stresses in
directions perpendicular and parallel
to the helical weld.
(a) Spherical Cap

Using Eqn. 9, we write;

𝑝𝑟
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 =
2𝑡

Given that 𝑝 = 180 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝑟 = 400 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡 = 8 𝑚𝑚

𝑝𝑟 (180 𝑝𝑠𝑖)(400 𝑚𝑚)

𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = = = 4500 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2𝑡 2(8 𝑚𝑚)

𝜎 = 4500 𝑝𝑠𝑖
• The in-plane principal stresses acting on the end caps are 𝜎1 =
4500 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and 𝜎2 = 4500 𝑝𝑠𝑖. On the surface of the cap the third
principal stress; 𝜎3 = 0, Fig. 7.4a.

• To determine the maximum shearing stress Mohr’s circle is drawn

between these principal stresses as shown in Fig. 7.4b.

• In the plane between 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 Mohr’s circle is reduces to point (𝐴, 𝐵)

and hence all in-plane shearing stresses are zero.

• The plane between 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 , and plane between 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 the Mohr’s
circle is represented by diameter 𝐴𝑂 and 𝐵𝑂 respectively. However 𝐴
and 𝐵 are on the same point.

• Hence, point 𝐷′ represents the maximum shearing stress.

Fig. 7.4 (a) Principal stresses acting on the end caps, and (b) Mohr’s
circle representing the principal stresses
 1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4500 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 2250 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
(b) Cylindrical Body of the Tank

We determine first hoop stress 𝜎1 and the longitudinal stress. Using Eqn.
1 and 2 we find;

𝑝𝑟 180 𝑝𝑠𝑖 40 𝑚𝑚
𝜎1 = = = 7200 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑡 10 𝑚𝑚

1
𝜎2 = 𝜎1 = 3600 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
Stress at the Weld

• With principal stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 (Fig. 7.4c) we draw Mohr’s circle

shown in Fig. 4d.

• An element having a face parallel to the weld is obtained by rotating

the face perpendicular to axis 𝑂𝑏 counterclockwise through 25°.
Therefore, on the Mohr’s circle we locate the point 𝑋 ′ corresponding
to the stress components on the weld by rotating 𝐶𝐵 counterclockwise
through 2𝜃 = 50°.
𝜎𝑤 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐷𝐶 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑅 cos 𝜃 = 5400 − 1800 cos 50° = 4250 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜏𝑤 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃 = 1800 sin 50° = 1379 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏𝑤 tends to rotate the element counterclockwise as shown in Fig. 7.4e.

Fig. 7.4 (c) Principal stresses at weld, (d) Mohr’s circle representing
principal stresses at weld (e) Shear stress at weld
References
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English Language Book Society and Edward Arnold (Publisher) Ltd.,
London.
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Company, London.
4. Hibbeler, R.C. (1991). “Mechanics of Materials” Prentice-Hall
Incorporation, New Jersey.
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