IC-112: Mathematics - I

Instructor: R. K. Ray

Credits: 1.5-0.5-0-2

Monday : 08:00 – 08:50 AM (SEC.-A)

Tuesday : 02:00 – 02:50 PM (SEC.-B)
Wednesday: 10:00 – 10:50 AM (SEC.-A)
Friday: 09:00 – 09:50 AM (SEC.-B)

Class Room: A18-1/A18-2

 Evaluation Pattern

Class Activates 20% Mid-Sem 30%

End-Sem 50%

Attendance Rule:

Institute requirement: 80% attendance is mandatory

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 References:
Texts Books:
q W. Rudin, “Principles of Mathematical Analysis”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, (2002).
q G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney, “Calculus and Analytical Geometry”, 9th Edition, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, (1998).

References:
q G.B. Thomas, J. Hass, C. Heil and M.D. Weir, “Thomas' Calculus”, 14th edition, Pearson, (2018).
q B.S. Thomson, J.B. Bruckner and A.M. Bruckner, “Elementary Real Analysis”, Prentice-Hall, (2007).

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 Course Modules:

Unit 1: Elementary Calculus – Real number system; Zeno’s Paradox; Limit, Continuity and
differentiability of single variables; Uniform Continuity, Taylor Series; Partial derivatives.
[6 lecture hours]

Unit 2: Functions of Several Variables - Limit, Continuity and differentiability of Functions of

two variables; Euler’s Theorem; Tangent Plan and Normal; Change of variables; Chain Rule;
Jacobians; Taylor’s Theorem for two variables; Extrema of Functions of two variables;
Lagrange's method of undermined multipliers. [8 lecture hours]

Unit 3: Infinite Series – Achelles’ and Tortoise problem; Sequences; Convergence of infinite
series of real numbers; Comparison Test, Ratio Test, Root Test, Raabe’s Test, Logarithmic
Test, Demorgan Test; Series and Sequence of functions; Uniform convergence and related
tests. [7 lecture hours]

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v What is Real number system?
Ø In calculus, we deal with functions of a real variable. In this note we will give some idea about the real
number system and its properties.

Ø Historically, much of real analysis was undertaken without any clear understanding of the real numbers.

Ø By the 1870s mathematicians such as Georg Cantor (1845–1918) and Richard Dedekind (1831–1916) had
found ways to describe the real numbers that seemed rigorous.

The Natural Numbers: These are the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

The symbol ℕ is used to indicate this collection. Thus, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ means that 𝑛 is a natural number,
one of these numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Addition and multiplication are two operations defined on the natural numbers, i.e.,
𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝑚 · 𝑛 ∈ ℕ if 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℕ .

There also exists an order relation: 𝑚 < 𝑛 or 𝑚 > 𝑛 if 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚 .

Note: Subtraction and division can also be defined, but not for all pairs in ℕ. 5
The Integers: They are enlarged by adjoining the negative integers and zero. Thus the collection
. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
is denoted by ℤ and called the integers.

Addition, multiplication, and Subtraction operations are defined on the integers, i.e.,
𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑚·𝑛 ∈ℤ and 𝑚 − 𝑛 ∈ ℤ if 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ.

There also exists an order relation: 𝑚 < 𝑛 or 𝑚 > 𝑛 if 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚 .

Note: Division still can’t be defined for all pairs in ℤ.

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Rational numbers: The collection of all “numbers” of the form
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, where 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ and 𝑛 ≠ 0 is
called the set of rational numbers , and it is denoted by ℚ .

The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and order relation extend to this set in a natural way.

Is 𝟐 a rational number?
!
Suppose, 2= , where 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers, which are not both even.
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 Then, 2𝑛# = 𝑚# . Thus 𝑚# is even.

Since, the square of an odd integer is odd, we conclude that 𝑚 is even. Let, 𝑚 = 2𝑘 , 𝑘 ∈ ℤ .

So, 𝑛 ! = 2𝑘 ! . Therefore, 𝑛 is even.

This contradicts our assumption. Therefore, 2 is NOT a rational number.

Such numbers will be called irrational numbers.

The Real Numbers : This is an extended set of number system, denoted by ℝ , which includes all of ℕ, ℤ, ℚ
and irrational numbers.

We often refer to the real number system as the real line and think about it as a geometrical object.

NOTE: On the set of real numbers (ℝ), we can define operations of addition and multiplication, and an
order relation in such a way that when these operations are restricted to the set of rationals, they coincide
with the usual operations and the usual order. The set ℝ with these operations is called the real number
system.

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The important property of ℝ , which is missing in ℚ is the following.

Completeness property of real number system:

Ø A subset 𝐴 of ℝ is said to be bounded above if there is an element 𝑥" ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥" for
all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 . Such an element 𝑥" is called an upper bound of 𝐴 .

Ø Similarly, 𝐴 is said to be bounded below if there exists 𝑦" ∈ ℝ such that 𝑦" ≤ 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 .

Ø An upper bound 𝑥" of 𝐴 is said to be the least upper bound (l.u.b.) or supremum (sup) of A if
whenever 𝑧 is an upper bound of 𝐴; 𝑥" ≤ 𝑧 .

Ø Similarly, a lower bound 𝑦" of 𝐴 is said to be the greatest lower bound (g.l.b.) or inflmum (inf) of A
if whenever 𝑙 is an lower bound of 𝐴; 𝑙 ≤ 𝑦" .

Note: The least upper bound or the greatest lower bound may not belong to the set 𝐴 . For
#
example, 1 is the l.u.b of the sets 𝑥∶ 0 < 𝑥 < 1 , 𝑥 ∶ 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and 1− ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ .
$

Note: Real number system has the property that every non-empty subset of ℝ which is bounded
above has a least upper bound. This property is called least upper bound property. The greatest lower
bound property is defined similarly. By completeness property we mean either l.u.b. property or g.l.b.
property.
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 Completeness Axiom: A nonempty set of real numbers that is bounded above has a least upper bound.

i.e., if 𝐸 is nonempty and bounded above, then sup 𝐸 exists and is a real number .

We shall now show that the following properties which will be used later are important consequences of the completeness
property of ℝ.

Proposition 1.1 (Archimedean property): If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ and 𝑥 > 0, then there is a positive integer 𝑛 such
that 𝑛𝑥 > 𝑦.
Proof : Suppose that 𝑛𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 for every positive integer 𝑛. Then 𝑦 is an upper bound of the set 𝑛𝑥 ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ .
By the least upper bound property, let 𝛼 be the l.u.b. of 𝐴. Then 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and so 𝑛𝑥 ≤
𝛼 − 𝑥 ≤ 𝛼 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, i.e. 𝛼 − 𝑥 is also an upper bound which is smaller than 𝛼. This is a contradiction.

Note: Let, 𝐴 = 𝑟 ∈ ℚ ∶ 𝑟 > 0, 𝑟 ! < 2 be a non-empty and bounded subset of ℚ. The set 𝐴 does not
have l.u.b. in ℚ. This shows that ℚ does not have the least upper bound property.

q The Archimedean property leads to the “density of rationals in ℝ” and “density of irrationals in ℝ” .

Proposition 1.2: Between any two distinct real numbers there is a rational number.
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 Proof: Suppose, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦 − 𝑥 > 0. We have to flnd two integers 𝑚, 𝑛, and 𝑛 ≠ 0 such that

% %
𝑥< $
<𝑦, i.e., 𝑥< <𝑥+ 𝑦−𝑥 .
$

Now by the Archimedean property there exists a positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑥 > 1. Then
we can find an integer 𝑚 lying between 𝑛𝑥 and 𝑛𝑦 = 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛(𝑦 − 𝑥). This proves the result.

Problem 1 : Between any two distinct real numbers there is an irrational number.
# #
Solution : Suppose 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0; 𝑦 − 𝑥 > 0, then 𝑥 < y.
! !

By Proposition 1.2, there exists a rational number 𝑟 such that 𝑥 < 𝑟 2 < 𝑦.

%
Problem 2 : Find the supremum and the infimum of the set A= ∶ 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ .
%&$

%
Solution : First note that for all values of 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ , 0 < < 1.
%&$

#
We guess that inf(𝐴) = 0 , because is in the set and it approaches 0 when 𝑛
#&$
is very large.
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 Formally to show that 0 is the infimum, we have to show that 0 is a lower bound and it is the least
among all the lower bounds of the set.

It is clear that 0 is a lower bound, and we need to show that a number 𝛼 > 0 cannot be a lower
bound of the given set.
#
This is true because we can find an 𝑛 such that < 𝛼 using the Archimedean property, where
#&$
#
is in the given set.
#&$

Ø Similarly, we can show that sup(𝐴) = 1.

Problem 3 : Let 𝐴 be a nonempty subset of ℝ and 𝛼 be a real number. If 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝐴 then 𝑎 ≤ 𝛼

for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and for any 𝜀 > 0; there exists some 𝑎" ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝛼 − 𝜀 < 𝑎" .

Solution : Suppose, 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑝 𝐴 . Since it is an upper bound, we have 𝑎 ≤ 𝛼 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Suppose, 𝜀 > 0 . If there is no 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝛼 − 𝜀 < 𝑎 , then we have

𝑎 ≤ 𝛼 − 𝜀 < 𝛼 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

This implies that 𝛼 − 𝜀 is an upper bound.

This contradicts the fact that 𝛼 is the least upper bound.

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