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ATLANTIS STUDIES IN MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERING
AND SCIENCE
VOLUME 1

SERIES EDITOR: C.K. CHUI

 Atlantis Studies in
Mathematics for Engineering and Science
Series Editor:

C.K. Chui, Stanford University, USA

(ISSN: 1875-7642)

Aims and scope of the series

The series ‘Atlantis Studies in Mathematics for Engineering and Science’(AMES) publishes
high quality monographs in applied mathematics, computational mathematics, and statistics
that have the potential to make a significant impact on the advancement of engineering and
science on the one hand, and economics and commerce on the other. We welcome submis-
sion of book proposals and manuscripts from mathematical scientists worldwide who share
our vision of mathematics as the engine of progress in the disciplines mentioned above.

All books in this series are co-published with World Scientific.

For more information on this series and our other book series, please visit our website at:

www.atlantis-press.com/publications/books

AMSTERDAM – PARIS

© ATLANTIS PRESS / WORLD SCIENTIFIC

 Continued Fractions
Second edition

Volume 1: Convergence Theory

Lisa Lorentzen
Haakon Waadeland
Department of Mathematics
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Trondheim
Norway

AMSTERDAM – PARIS
Atlantis Press
29 avenue Laumière
75019 Paris, France

For information on all Atlantis Press publications, visit our website at: www.atlantis-press.com.

Copyright
This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced for commercial purposes in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
any information storage and retrieval system known or to be invented, without prior
permission from the Publisher.

ISBN: 978-90-78677-07-9 e-ISBN: 978-94-91216-37-4

ISSN: 1875-7642

© 2008 ATLANTIS PRESS / WORLD SCIENTIFIC

Preface to the second edition

15 years have passed since the first edition of this book was written. A lot has
happened since then – also in continued fraction theory. New ideas have emerged
and some old results have gotten new proofs. It was therefore time to revise our
book “Continued Fractions with Applications” which appeared in 1992 on Elsevier.
The interest in using continued fractions to approximate special functions has also
grown since then. Such fractions are easy to program, they have impressive conver-
gence properties, and their convergence is often easy to accelerate. They even have
good and reliable truncation error bounds which makes it possible to control the
accuracy of the approximation. The bounds are both of the a posteriori type which
tells the accuracy of a done calculation, and of the a priori type which can be used to
determine the number of terms needed for a wanted accuracy. This important aspect
is treated in this first volume of the second edition, along with the basic theory.
In the second volume we focus more on continued fraction expansions of analytic
functions. There are several beautiful connections between analytic function the-
ory and continued fraction expansions. We can for instance mention orthogonal
polynomials, moment theory and Padé approximation.
We have tried to give credit to people who have contributed to the continued fraction
theory up through the ages. But some of the material we believe to be new, at least
we have found no counterpart in the literature. In particular, we believe that tail
sequences play a more fundamental role in this book than what is usual. This way
of looking at continued fractions is very fruitful.
Each chapter is still followed by a number of problems. This time we have marked
the more theoretic ones by ♠. We have also kept the appendix from the first edition.
This list of continued fraction expansions of special functions was so well received
that we wanted it to stay as part of the book. Finally, we have kept the informality
in the sense that the first chapter consists almost entirely of examples which show
what continued fractions are good for. The more serious theory starts in Chapter 2.
Lisa Lorentzen carries the main responsibility for the revisions in this second edi-
tion. Through the first year of its making, Haakon Waadeland was busy writing a
handbook on continued fractions, together with an international group of people.
This left Lisa Lorentzen with quite free hands to choose the contents and the way
of presentation. Still, he has played an important part in the later phases of the
work on volume 1. For volume 2 Lisa Lorentzen bears the blame alone.

Trondheim, 14 February 2008

Lisa Lorentzen Haakon Waadeland

v
Preface

The name
Shortly before this book was finished, we sent out a number of copies of Chapter 1,
under the name “A Taste of Continued Fractions”. Now, in the process of working our
way through the chapters on a last minute search for errors, unintended omissions
and overlaps, or other unfortunate occurrences, we feel that this title might have been
the right one even for the whole book. In most of the chapters, in particular in the
applications, a lot of work has been put into the process of cutting, canceling and “non-
writing”. In many cases we are just left with a “taste”, or rather a glimpse of the role of
the continued fractions within the topic of the chapter. We hope that we thereby can
open some doors, but in most cases we are definitely not touring the rooms.

The chapters
Each chapter starts with some introductory information, “About this chapter”. The
purpose is not to tell about the contents in detail. That has been done elsewhere.
What we want is to tell about the intention of the chapter, and thereby also to adjust
the expectations to the right (moderate) level. Each chapter ends with a reference
list, reflecting essentially literature used in preparing that particular chapter. As a
result, books and papers will in many cases be referred to more than once in the book.
On the other hand, those who look for a complete, updated bibliography on the field
will look in vain. To present such a bibliography has not been one of the purposes
of the book.

The authors
The two authors are different in style and approach. We have not made an effort to
hide this, but to a certain extent the creative process of tearing up each other’s drafts
and telling him/her to glue it together in a better way (with additions and omissions)
may have had a certain disguising effect on the differences. This struggling type of
cooperation leaves us with a joint responsibility for the whole book. The way we then
distribute blame and credit between us is an internal matter.

The treasure chest

Anybody who has lived with and loved continued fractions for a long time will also
have lived with and loved the monographs by Perron, Wall and Jones/Thron. Actually
the love for continued fractions most likely has been initiated by one or more of these
books. This is at least the case for the authors of the present book, and more so: these
three books have played an essential role in our lives. The present book is in no way an
attempt to replace or compete with these books. To the contrary, we hope to urge the
reader to go on to these sources for further information.

vi
Preface vii

For whom?
We are aiming at two kinds of readers: On the one hand people in or near mathemat-
ics, who are curious about continued fractions; on the other hand senior-graduate level
students who would like an introduction (and a little more) to the analytic theory
of continued fractions. Some basic knowledge about functions of a complex variable, a
little linear algebra, elementary differential equations and occasionally a little dash of
measure theory is what is needed of mathematical background. Hopefully the students
will appreciate the problems included and the examples. They may even appreciate
that some examples precede a properly established theory. (Others may dislike it.)

Words of gratitude
We both owe a lot to Wolf Thron, for what we have learned from him, for inspiration
and help, and for personal friendship. He has read most of this book, and his remarks,
perhaps most of all his objections, have been of great help for us. Our gratitude also
extends to Bill Jones, his closest coworker, to Arne Magnus, whose recent death
struck us with sadness, and to all other members of the Colorado continued fraction
community. Here in Trondheim Olav Njåstad has been a key person in the field, and
we have on several occasions had a rewarding cooperation with him.
Many people, who had received our Chapter I, responded by sending friendly and
encouraging letters, often with valuable suggestions. We thank them all for their
interest and kind help.
The main person in the process of changing the hand-written drafts to a camera-
ready copy was Leiv Arild Andenes Jacobsen. His able mastering of LaTeX, in
combination with hard work, often at times when most people were in bed, has
left us with a great debt of gratitude. We also want to thank Arild Skjølsvold and
Irene Jacobsen for their part of the typing job. We finally thank Ruth Waadeland,
who made all the drawings, except the LaTeX-made ones in Chapter XI.
The Department of Mathematics and Statistics, AVH, The University of Trondheim
generously covered most of the typing expenses. The rest was covered by Elsevier
Science Publishers. We are most grateful to Claude Brezinski and Luc Wuytack for
urging us to write this book, and to Elsevier Science Publishers for publishing it.

Trondheim, December 1991,

Lisa Lorentzen Haakon Waadeland

Contents

Preface to the second edition v

Preface vi

1 Introductory examples 1
1.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2
1.1.1 Prelude to a definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2
1.1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 5
1.1.3 Computation of approximants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 10
1.1.4 Approximating the value of K(an/bn) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 11
1.2 Regular continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 14
1.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 14
1.2.2 Best rational approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 17
1.2.3 Solving linear diophantine equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 21
1.2.4 Grandfather clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 22
1.2.5 Musical scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 23
1.3 Rational approximation to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 25
1.3.1 Expansions of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 25
1.3.2 Hypergeometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 27
1.4 Correspondence between power series and continued fractions .. . . . 30
1.4.1 From power series to continued fractions . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 30
1.4.2 From continued fractions to power series . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 33
1.4.3 One fraction, two series; analytic continuation . . . . . . .. . . . 33
1.4.4 Padé approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 35
1.5 More examples of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 38
1.5.1 A differential equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 38
1.5.2 Moment problems and divergent series . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 39
1.5.3 Orthogonal polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 42
1.5.4 Thiele interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 43
1.5.5 Stable polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 45
1.6 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 46
1.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 48

2 Basics 53
2.1 Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1.1 Properties of linear fractional transformations . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.1.2 Convergence of continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.1.3 Restrained sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.1.4 Tail sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.1.5 Tail sequences and three term recurrence relations . . . . . . . . 65

ix
x Contents

2.1.6 Value sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

2.1.7 Element sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.2 Transformations of continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.2.2 Equivalence transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.2.3 The Bauer-Muir transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.2.4 Contractions and extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2.5 Contractions and convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.3 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

3 Convergence criteria 99
3.1 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.1.1 The Stern-Stolz Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.1.2 The Lane-Wall Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.1.3 Truncation error bounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.1.4 Mapping with linear fractional transformations. . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.1.5 The Stieltjes-Vitali Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.1.6 A simple estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.2 Classical convergence theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2.1 Positive continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.2.2 Alternating continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.2.3 Stieltjes continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.4 The Śleszyński-Pringsheim Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.2.5 Worpitzky’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.2.6 Van Vleck’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.2.7 The Thron-Lange Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.2.8 The parabola theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.3 Additional convergence theorems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3.1 Simple bounded circular value sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3.2 Simple unbounded circular value sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.5 Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

4 Periodic and limit periodic continued fractions 171

4.1 Periodic continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 172
4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 172
4.1.2 Iterations of linear fractional transformations . . . . . . . .. . . . 172
4.1.3 Classification of linear fractional transformations . . . . .. . . . 174
4.1.4 General convergence of periodic continued fractions . . .. . . . 176
4.1.5 Convergence in the classical sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 179
4.1.6 Approximants on closed form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 181
4.1.7 A connection to the Parabola Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 183
4.2 Limit periodic continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 186
4.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 186
4.2.2 Finite limits, loxodromic case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 187
Contents xi

4.2.3 Finite limits, parabolic case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

4.2.4 Finite limits, elliptic case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.2.5 Infinite limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.3 Continued fractions with multiple limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.3.1 Periodic continued fractions with multiple limits . . . . . . . . . 203
4.3.2 Limit periodic continued fractions with multiple limits . . . . . 204
4.4 Fixed circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4.2 Fixed circles for U ‰ M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4.3 Fixed circles and periodic continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.5 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.6 Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5 Numerical computation of continued fractions 217

5.1 Choice of approximants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.1.1 Fast convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.1.2 The fixed point method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.1.3 Auxiliary continued fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.1.4 The improvement machine for the loxodromic case . . . . . . . . 227
5.1.5 Asymptotic expansion of tail values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.1.6 The square root modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.2 Truncation error bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.2.1 The ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.2.2 Truncation error bounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.2.3 The Oval Sequence Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.2.4 An algorithm to find value sets for a given continued
fraction of form K(an /1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.2.5 Value sets and the fixed point method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.2.6 Value sets B(wn Sn ) for limit 1-periodic continued
fractions of loxodromic or parabolic type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.2.7 Error bounds based on idea 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.3 Stable computation of approximants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.3.1 Stability of the backward recurrence algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.5 Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

A Some continued fraction expansions 265

A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A.1.1 Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A.1.2 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A.2 Elementary functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A.2.1 Mathematical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A.2.2 The exponential function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
A.2.3 The general binomial function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
A.2.4 The natural logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
A.2.5 Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
xii Contents

A.2.6 Inverse trigonometric and hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . 273

A.2.7 Continued fractions with simple values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
A.3 Hypergeometric functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
A.3.1 General expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
A.3.2 Special examples with 0F1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
A.3.3 Special examples with 2F0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
A.3.4 Special examples with 1F1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
A.3.5 Special examples with 2F1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
A.3.6 Some integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
A.3.7 Gamma function expressions by Ramanujan . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
A.4 Basic hypergeometric functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
A.4.1 General expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
A.4.2 Two general results by Andrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
A.4.3 q -expressions by Ramanujan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Bibliography 295
Index 306
Chapter 1

Introductory examples
We have often been asked questions, by students as well as by established math-
ematicians, about continued fractions: what they are and what they can be used
for. Sometimes the questions have been raised under circumstances where a quick
answer is the only alternative to no answer: in the discussion after a talk or lecture,
by a cup of coffee in a short break, in an airplane cabin or on a mountain hike. In
responding to these questions we have often been pleased by the sparks of interest
we have seen, indicating that we had managed to transmit a glimpse of new and
apparently appealing knowledge. In quite a few cases this led to further contact
and “ follow-up activities”.
This introductory chapter is to a large extent inspired by the questions we have
received and governed by the answers we have given. There is of course a great
danger: A quick answer is often a wrong answer. It may tell the truth and nothing
but the truth, but it definitely does not tell the whole truth. This may lead to
false guesses. This danger is in particular great in cases where observations and
experiments are used to create and support guesses. But we still wanted to keep
this often non-accepted, but highly useful aspect of mathematics as part of the
introductory chapter. We have tried to reduce the danger, partly by the way things
are phrased, partly by indicating briefly how wrong such guesses can be, and finally
by referring to a more careful treatment later in the book. Still, we have chosen to
introduce some basic notation and definitions in the first section of the first chapter.
In this new edition it has been important not only to maintain the intention of
the introductory chapter, but also to increase the number of examples. We have
therefore moved the convergence theorems to Chapter 3 to make some more space.
In doing this we are violating rules and traditions for presentation of mathematics,
namely to present the basic theory first, and then illustrate it by examples. This is
done on purpose, in the belief that what is lost in mathematical style and structure
is gained in glimpses of what it is all about, and in wetting the appetite and curiosity.

L. Lorentzen and H. Waadeland, Continued Fractions, Atlantis Studies in Mathematics 1

for Engineering and Science 1, DOI 10.1007/978-94-91216-37-4_1,
© 2008 Atlantis Press/World Scientific
2 Chapter 1: Introductory examples

1.1 Basic concepts

1.1.1 Prelude to a definition

Let {an } be a sequence of complex numbers. When we talk about the series
∞

an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · · , (1.1.1)
n=1

we have in mind the sequence {σn } of partial sums


n
σn := ak .
k=1
n
(An empty sum k=m ak := 0 for n < m.) Convergence of the series (1.1.1) means
convergence of {σn } to a complex number σ, in which case we write
∞

an = σ . (1.1.2)
n=1

Similarly we are familiar with infinite products

∞

a n = a1 · a 2 · · · a n · · · . (1.1.3)
n=1

{pn } is the sequence of partial products


n
pn := ak .
k=1
n
(An empty product k=m ak := 1 for n < m.) Convergence of the infinite product
(1.1.3) means convergence of the sequence {pn } to a complex number p = 0, in
which case we write ∞

an = p . (1.1.4)
n=1
Let {fn } be the sequence
a1 a1
f1 := a1 , f2 := , f3 := ,
1 + a2 a2
1+
1 + a3
and generally
a1
fn := .
a2
1+
a3
1+
1 + ··
· +an
1.1.1 Prelude to a definition 3

For simplicity we assume that all an = 0, and we allow fn = ∞. Then {fn } is well
defined in C := C ∪ {∞} where C is the set of complex numbers. Similarly to what
we have for sums and products, this also leads to a concept, having to do with the
nonterminating continuation of the process, in this case the concept of a continued
fraction
∞
K
an
n=1 1
:=
a1
a2
. (1.1.5)
1+
a3
1+
1 + ··
·
(The letter K is chosen since Kettenbruch is the German name for a continued frac-
tion.) Convergence of (1.1.5) means convergence of the sequence {fn } of approxi-
mants. We also accept convergence to ∞, as suggested by Pringsheim ([Prin99a]).
The limit f := lim fn is the value of the convergent continued fraction when it exists,
and then we adopt the tradition from series and infinite products and write
∞
f= K an
n=1 1
= K∞
n=1 (an /1) = K(an /1) . (1.1.6)

(An empty continued fraction Knk=m (ak /1) := 0 for m > n.) For simplicity we shall
write the continued fraction (1.1.5) as
∞
K an =: a11
n=1 1
a2 a3
+ 1 + 1 +···
.

Note where we place the plus signs to indicate the fraction structure. This distin-
guishes the continued fraction (1.1.5) from the series (1.1.1).

Example 1. For the continued fraction

∞
K6 =
n=1 1
6
6
=
6 6 6
1 + 1 + 1 +···
1+
6
1+
6
1+
1 + ··
·
we find
6 42
f1 = 6 , , f3 =
f2 = ,··· .
7 13
By induction (see Problem 13 on page 49 with x = −2, y = 3) it follows that
generally
3n − (−2)n
fn = 6 n+1 .
3 − (−2)n+1
Therefore the continued fraction converges to 2. 3
4 Chapter 1: Introductory examples

Quite similarly we can construct, from any sequence {bn } of complex numbers, a
continued fraction
∞
K1
n=1 bn
=
1
1
=
1 1 1
b1 + b2 + b3 + · · ·
, (1.1.7)
b1 +
1
b2 +
b 3 + ··
·
or from two sequences, {an } and {bn } of complex numbers, where all an = 0, a
continued fraction
∞
K an =
n=1 bn
a1
a2
=
a1 a2 a3
b1 + b2 + b3 + · · ·
. (1.1.8)
b1 +
a3
b2 +
b 3 + ··
·
We write K(1/bn ) and K(an /bn ) for these structures.
In all the three cases the nth approximant fn is what we get by truncating the
continued fraction after n fraction terms ak /bk , and convergence means convergence
of {fn }. (1.1.5) and (1.1.7) are obviously special cases of (1.1.8). In the particular
case when in (1.1.7) all bn are natural numbers, we get the regular continued fraction,
well known in number theory.

Let us take a look at the common pattern in the three cases: series, products and
continued fractions (and other constructions for that matter). In all three cases
the construction can be described in the following way: We have a sequence {φk }
of mappings from C  to C.
 By composition we construct a new sequence {Φn } of
mappings
Φ1 := φ1 , Φn := Φn−1 ◦ φn = φ1 ◦ φ2 ◦ · · · ◦ φn . (1.1.9)
For series we have
φk (w) := w + ak ,
and
Φn (w) = φ1 ◦ φ2 ◦ · · · ◦ φn (w) = a1 + a2 + · · · + an + w .
For products we have
φk (w) := w · ak ,
and
Φn (w) = φ1 ◦ φ2 ◦ · · · ◦ φn (w) = a1 · a2 · · · an · w .
For continued fractions (1.1.8) we have
ak
φk (w) := ,
bk + w
and
a1 a2 an
Φn (w) = φ1 ◦ φ2 ◦ · · · ◦ φn (w) = . (1.1.10)
b1 + b2 +· · · + bn + w
1.1.2 Definitions 5

These infinite structures can be regarded formally, but in applications the question
of convergence often comes up. Convergence of a series is defined as convergence of
{Φn (0)}, convergence of an infinite product is defined as convergence of {Φn (1)},
and convergence of a continued fraction is defined as convergence of {Φn (0)}.

1.1.2 Definitions
A linear fractional transformation (or Möbius transformation) τ is a mapping of
form
aw + b
τ (w) = ; a, b, c, d ∈ C with ad − bc = 0.
cw + d
This representation of τ is not unique since we can multiply the coefficients a, b, c
and d with any fixed non-zero constant without changing the mapping. However,
we identify all these representations as one single transformation (mapping) τ .
We shall denote this family of mappings by M. Sometimes one emphasizes that ad−
bc = 0 by saying that τ is non-singular, as opposed to the singular transformations
with ad − bc = 0 which do not belong to M. A singular transformation is constant
wherever it is meaningful, whereas τ ∈ M maps C  univalently onto C.
We define a continued fraction in terms of linear fractional transformations:
' $

Definition 1.1. A continued fraction b0 + K(an /bn ) is an ordered pair

(({an }, {bn }), {Sn }) where {an } and {bn } are sequences of complex numbers
with all an = 0 and {Sn } is the sequence from M given by
a1 a2 an
Sn (w) := b0 + . (1.2.1)
b1 + b2 +· · · + bn + w
& %

Remark: That {Sn } is a sequence from M is easily seen by the fact that

S n = s 0 ◦ s 1 ◦ · · · ◦ sn where
an (1.2.2)
s0 (w) := b0 + w , sn (w) := for n ∈ N.
bn + w
Obviously sn ∈ M when an = 0, and thus Sn ∈ M since compositions of linear
fractional transformations are again linear fractional transformations (which is eas-
ily verified). We owe it to Weyl ([Weyl10]) for this very useful connection between
continued fractions and the class M. Normally we set b0 := 0, in which case φk = sk
and Φk = Sk in (1.1.10). Still, it is useful to have the possibility to set b0 = 0.

The numbers an and bn are called the elements of b0 + K(an /bn ), and abnn is called
a fraction term of b0 + K(an /bn ). Evaluations Sn (w) of Sn are called nth approxi-
mants. The name “ convergents” has also been used in the literature. Historically,
6 Chapter 1: Introductory examples

the word “ approximant” always meant

fn := Sn (0) (1.2.3)

whereas Sn (wn ) was referred to as a “ modified approximant” where wn was the

“ modifying factor”. Classical approximants fn = Sn (0) play a special role in the
theory. In particular, the concept of convergence is based on {fn }:

 

Definition 1.2. A continued fraction converges (in the classical sense) to

 if lim fn = f .
a value f ∈ C
 

If K(an /bn ) fails to converge, we say that it diverges.

A classical approximant fn is obtained by truncating the continued fraction after n
fraction terms. The part we cut away,
an+1 an+2 an+3
f (n) := (1.2.4)
bn+1 + bn+2 + bn+3 + · · ·

is called the nth tail of b0 + K(an /bn ). This is also a continued fraction, and it
converges if and only if b0 + K(an /bn ) converges. Indeed, (1.2.4) converges to f (n)
if and only if b0 + K(an /bn ) converges to

f = Sn (f (n) ). (1.2.5)

The sequence {f (n) } is then called the sequence of tail values for b0 + K(an /bn ).
This sequence will be important in our investigations.

' $

Lemma 1.1. Let Sn be given by (1.2.1). Then

An−1 w + An
Sn (w) = for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (1.2.6)
Bn−1 w + Bn

where

An = bn An−1 + an An−2 , Bn = bn Bn−1 + an Bn−2 (1.2.7)

with initial values A−1 = 1, A0 = b0 , B−1 = 0 and B0 = 1.

& %

Proof : It is clear that

b0 + w a1 b0 b1 + a1 + b0 w
S0 (w) = b0 + w = , S1 (w) = b0 + = ,
1 + 0w b1 + w b1 + w
1.1.2 Definitions 7

so (1.2.7) holds for n = 1. To see that it holds for general n ∈ N, we observe that

An−1 + An−2 an
bn + w
Sn (w) = Sn−1 (sn (w)) = .
Bn−1 + Bn−2 an
bn + w


An and Bn are called the nth canonical numerator and denominator of b0 +K(an /bn ),
or just its nth numerator and denominator for short. These names are quite natural
since
fn = Sn (0) = An /Bn . (1.2.8)
The useful determinant formula

n
Δn := An−1 Bn − An Bn−1 = (−ak ) (1.2.9)
k=1

is a consequence of (1.2.7) (it follows by induction). Therefore also

An−1 Bn+1 − An+1 Bn−1 = bn+1 Δn . (1.2.10)

Another simple, but important observation follows from the fact that

n
Sn (wn ) = S0 (w0 ) + (Sk (wk ) − Sk−1 (wk−1 )). (1.2.11)
k=1

By the recurrence relations (1.2.7) and the determinant formula (1.2.9)

k−1
λk m=1 (−am )
Sk (wk ) − Sk−1 (wk−1 ) =
(Bk−1 wk + Bk )(Bk−2 wk−1 + Bk−1 ) (1.2.12)
where λk := ak − wk−1 (bk + wk ),

and thus

n k−1
λk m=1 (−am )
Sn (wn ) = b0 + w0 + . (1.2.13)
(Bk−1 wk + Bk )(Bk−2 wk−1 + Bk−1 )
k=1

For the case wk := 0 for all k, we get the well known Euler-Minding formula

An  (−1)k a1 a2 · · · ak
n  Δk n
fn = = b0 − = b0 − , (1.2.14)
Bn Bk Bk−1 Bk Bk−1
k=1 k=1

where Δk is given by (1.2.9). This formula was used by Euler ([Euler48]) and
rediscovered by Minding ([Mind69]). Of course, Euler considered classical approxi-
mants An /Bn , and the recurrence relations (1.2.7) are normally attributed to him
([Euler48], Chapter 18).
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the purpose of restoring suspended animation,—while the
highwayman still looked on with a kind of mechanical attention.
At length Georgiana opened her eyes slowly; but the moment they
caught a glimpse of Lord Ellingham's countenance, a faint cry
escaped her lips—and she covered her face with her hands as if to
shut out some terrible object from her view.
"Georgiana, dearest—'tis I," murmured Arthur in her ear.
But a dreadful shudder seemed to convulse her entire frame.
"Some one has terrified her—alarmed her!" exclaimed the Earl,
colouring with anger; and as he glanced rapidly around, his eyes
met those of the highwayman.
At that moment Dr. Lascelles desired that Lady Hatfield should be
supported to her own chamber; and this suggestion was
immediately followed by the female friends and servants, the
physician accompanying them.
 CHAPTER XLIII.
LORD ELLINGHAM AND TOM RAINFORD.

Lord Ellingham and Sir Ralph Walsingham remained behind in the

apartment, where Rainford also still was.
"Sir," said the nobleman, advancing towards the highwayman, "you
will perhaps be kind enough to explain the cause of her ladyship's
emotion?—for the scream which reached our ears, and the condition
in which we found her, denote something more serious than sudden
indisposition. This gentleman, sir," added the Earl, indicating Sir
Ralph Walsingham with a glance, "is Lady Hatfield's uncle: you
therefore need not hesitate to address yourself to him—even should
you decline to vouchsafe an explanation to me, who am a total
stranger to you."
"Yes, my lord—for I know you well by sight—we are total strangers
to each other," replied Rainford in a singularly mournful tone. "And
yet——"
But he stopped short, seized his hat, and was about to hasten from
the room, when the Earl caught him somewhat rudely by the arm,
saying,—"Mr. Rainford—for such I believe to be your name—we
cannot part with you thus! A lady—dear, very dear to me, and who
indeed will shortly be my wife,—dear also to Sir Ralph Walsingham,
who is now present,—that lady has been alarmed—terrified in some
manner, by you; and we must insist upon an explanation."
"My lord," returned Tom Rain in a tone of deep emotion, as he gazed
with peculiar—almost scrutinising attention upon the Earl's
countenance,—"no other man on earth would thus have dared to
stop me with impunity. As for explanations," he continued, his voice
suddenly assuming a little of its usual reckless indifference, "I have
none to give."
And again he moved towards the door.
But Lord Ellingham hastened to place his back against it in a
determined manner: while Rainford, as if discouraged and daunted,
fell back a few paces.
"Mr. Rainford," exclaimed the Earl, "this matter cannot pass off thus.
I insist upon an explanation; or I shall consider it to be my duty to
detain you until Lady Hatfield be sufficiently recovered to declare the
nature of the treatment she has experienced at your hands.
Moreover, sir," added the nobleman, observing that Rainford's lip
blanched and quivered nervously, "you are to a certain degree an
object of suspicion in my eyes. A variety of circumstances have
combined to prove to me that you were implicated, to some degree,
in the theft of diamonds which lately caused so much
embarrassment at the police-court."
"My lord, that business does not regard you," replied the
highwayman. "The diamonds were restored to their lawful owner;
and—more than that—I even ascertained from Mr. Gordon's own lips
that they were paid for, before their restoration, by one who——But
let me depart, my lord, I say!" ejaculated Tom, his manner suddenly
changing from nervous trepidation to the excitement of impatience.
"You must remain here, sir," said Arthur coldly, "until we ascertain
whether it be Lady Hatfield's pleasure that your detention should
assume a more serious aspect."
"Allow me to pass, my dear Earl," exclaimed Sir Ralph; "and I will
hasten to ascertain how my niece is now, and what her intentions
are with respect to this person."
Rainford paced the room in an agitated manner, while Lord
Ellingham afforded egress to the baronet, and then resumed his
position of sentinel with his back placed against the door.
"My lord," at length said the highwayman, advancing close up to the
Earl, and speaking in a low, oppressed tone, "you will find that her
ladyship has no complaint to make against me. Permit me to take
my departure; and again I tell you that of no other living soul would
I solicit as a favour what I would command by force."
"I cannot allow you to leave this room—at least until the return of
Sir Ralph Walsingham," answered the Earl. "Lady Hatfield must have
been insulted or menaced by you in some way——"
"I take God to witness that I neither insulted nor menaced her!"
interrupted Rainford, warmly.
"If your liberty be endangered," said the nobleman, "it is well worth
a falsehood to attempt to avert the peril."
"My God! this from him!" muttered Rainford bitterly to himself, as he
once more turned round to pace the room: then, at the expiration of
a minute, he said in a calmer tone, "Well, my lord—I am content to
wait until the decision of her ladyship is made known in respect to
me. And since it appears that we shall have a few moments more of
each other's society, permit me to ask,—your lordship having just
now alluded to a certain transaction at a police-court,—permit me to
ask, I say, whether you really believe that Miss Esther de Medina
was innocent or guilty of the charge imputed to her?"
"This is rather a singular question—coming from you, Mr. Rainford!"
exclaimed the Earl; "and before I answer it, allow me to ask whether
it was not you who left a certain letter at my house, desiring me to
repair to the police-office on that occasion?"
"I will not deny the fact, my lord," replied Rainford. "Indeed, I did
not particularly study concealment respecting it—else would I not
have afforded your lordship's servants an opportunity of describing
to you the personal appearance of the individual who left that letter.
But if your lordship entertains even the shadow of a suspicion
injurious to the character of Miss de Medina, you are wrong—you are
in error!—yes—as grievously in error as ever mistaken man could be.
Besides, my lord," added Rainford hastily, "you are well aware that
the alibi which your lordship proved was correct."
"And how knew you that Miss de Medina was with her father and
myself at Finchley on the very day, and at the very hour, when the
diamonds were alleged to have been taken?" demanded the Earl.
"It would be useless to pretend that accident gave me the
information," answered Tom Rain. "But think not that she employed
me as an agent or as a messenger to obtain the intervention of your
lordship——"
"Mr. Rainford," said the Earl haughtily, "I dislike the present
conversation. I have the highest opinion of Mr. de Medina, and
should be sorry to think ill of any one connected with him. But I
must candidly confess that there is so much mystery respecting the
character of his daughter—a mystery, too, existing on account of
yourself, for which reason alone do I condescend to discuss with you
any affair relating to Mr. de Medina or his family——"
"Lord Ellingham," interrupted Rainford in a hasty and impetuous
tone, "Esther de Medina is the very personification of innocence and
virtue! As God is my judge, she was ignorant of my interference in
her behalf on that day when she was accused of a deed from which
her pure soul would recoil with horror:—she knew not even that I
was in the court——"
"And yet you were there, Mr. Rainford," exclaimed the Earl: "for I
noticed you—although at the time I knew not who you were."
"But Miss de Medina was not aware of my presence," rejoined
Rainford emphatically; "for she does not know me by sight!"
A smile of incredulity curled the nobleman's lip—for the oath which
Mr. de Medina had administered to his daughter, and in which her
connexion with Rainford was so emphatically mentioned, was
uppermost in his mind. But he dared not allude to that circumstance;
although he would have been truly rejoiced to receive the conviction
that Esther was indeed far different from what he was at present
compelled to believe her to be.
"Your lordship said ere now," resumed Tom Rain, "that you noticed
me in the court, although at the time you knew not who I was.
Those were your words. Does your lordship now know who I am?"
"I cannot boast of a very intimate acquaintance with you or your
affairs, Mr. Rainford," returned the nobleman with a hauteur
bordering on contempt; "and what I do know of you is so little in
your favour that you see I am detaining you here on the suspicion
that your visit to Lady Hatfield was for no good purpose. In fact, the
first I ever heard of you was in reference to the charge on account
of which you yourself figured at Bow Street some short time since,—
a charge of which, I am bound to say, you were honourably
acquitted, Lady Hatfield having satisfactorily proved that you were
not the person who robbed her on the highway."
"Thus far, my lord," said Rainford, "you have no just ground to speak
disparagingly of my character."
"Certainly not. But then comes the affair of the diamonds; and I do
not hesitate to inform you that Mr. Gordon related to me all the
particulars of your interview with him, when you called to restore the
jewels, and when he made you aware of the fact that Miss de
Medina had already been to pay him the full value thereof."
"Ah! Mr. Gordon was thus communicative?" observed Rainford.
"Yes—and not sparing of his aspersions against the character of Miss
de Medina," returned the Earl. "But I defended her, Mr. Rainford—I
defended her then——"
"And wherefore should you not defend her now, my lord?"
demanded the highwayman. "Oh! were I to reveal to you by what
wondrous combination of circumstances——But, no! I dare not. And
yet, my lord," he added in an earnest, solemn tone, "you are an
upright—a generous-hearted man; and I appeal to your good
feelings—I implore you not to trust to outward appearances. As
there is a God above, Esther de Medina is innocent of every thing—
any thing that scandal or misconception may have imputed to her.
Again you smile incredulously—and yet mournfully, my lord! Ah! I
can assure you, that Esther is innocent—oh! believe her to be
innocent!"
At this moment footsteps were heard approaching the door, which
Lord Ellingham accordingly opened; and Sir Ralph Walsingham re-
appeared.
"How is Georgiana now?" inquired the nobleman hastily.
"My niece is ill—very ill," returned the baronet.
"Ill!" ejaculated Arthur. "Ah! villain—this is your work!" he cried,
rushing towards the highwayman.
"Keep off!" thundered Rainford: "you know not whom you would
strike!"
"No—touch him not!" cried Sir Ralph, catching the Earl by the arm,
and holding him back. "I have seen my niece—Dr. Lascelles is now
alone with her: she is more composed—though very far from well;—
and she begs that this person may be allowed to depart without the
slightest molestation."
"Her ladyship shall be obeyed, Sir Ralph," returned the nobleman.
"Mr. Rainford, you have heard the message that has been sent
relative to yourself."
Having thus spoken, Arthur turned aside;—for a strange misgiving—
a vague suspicion—no, not a suspicion either,—but a feeling of
dissatisfaction had stolen into his mind. If Rainford had alarmed or
insulted Lady Hatfield, wherefore should she allow him to go
unpunished? Was it not more probable that he had brought her
some evil tidings? But how could there exist any connexion, however
remote or slight, between that man of equivocal character and
Georgiana Hatfield? What business could possibly bring them
together, and produce so strange—so powerful an impression upon
her?
All these ideas rushed to the Earl's mind in rapid and bewildering
succession; and the reader need not be astonished if we repeat that
a sentiment of dissatisfaction—almost amounting to a vague
suspicion, but of what he knew not—had suddenly taken a firm hold
of his imagination.
Who was this Rainford, after all? Was he other than he seemed?
Could he be in any way connected with that narrative of the Black
Mask which the Earl supposed to have partially affected his
Georgiana's mind, and which he looked upon as the cause of that
apparent fickleness or caprice which had first led her to refuse his
proffered hand? The more he involved himself in conjecture, the
deeper did he plunge into a labyrinth which grew darker and more
bewildering at every step.
When he turned round again towards the place where he had left
Rainford standing, that individual was gone; and the noblemen was
alone with Sir Ralph Walsingham.
"You have seen Georgiana?" said Arthur, advancing towards the
baronet and grasping his hand with the convulsive violence of deep
emotion.
"I have, my dear Earl; and she appears as if she had received some
severe shock," was the reply.
"What, in the name of God! does all this mean?" exclaimed the
nobleman, with wildness in his tone.
"I know not—I cannot comprehend it," answered the uncle, as much
bewildered as the lover.
"But did you not question your niece? did she offer no explanation?
did she not state the cause of her emotion—that piercing scream—
that fainting—that movement of horror when she recovered?"
demanded the Earl, impatiently.
"I questioned her; but, perceiving that it only augmented her
agitation, I did not press a painful interrogatory," replied Sir Ralph.
"When I informed her that you had detained that man, whom I
heard you address by the name of Rainford, and whom I therefore
supposed to have been the person suspected of robbing my niece,—
when I informed her that you had detained him, I say, she was
greatly excited, and desired me to hasten and request you to allow
him to depart immediately, as she had no cause of complaint against
him."
"Strange!—most strange!" murmured the Earl.
"Have patience, my dear Arthur," said Sir Ralph. "To-morrow
Georgiana will be better; and then she will doubtless explain——"
"To-morrow—to-morrow!" repeated the nobleman impatiently. "Oh!
what suspense—what terrible suspense! Ah! Sir Ralph, you know not
how wretchedly will pass the weary hours of this night! If I could but
see her—only for a moment! Would it be indiscreet? Dear Sir Ralph,
have pity upon me, and ask Lascelles to come and speak to me."
The baronet, who was a kind-hearted man, instantly departed to
execute this commission; and in a few minutes he returned,
accompanied by the physician.
To the latter the Earl repeated the same question which he had
already addressed to Sir Ralph Walsingham:—"What, in the name of
God! does all this mean?"
And the Doctor gave almost a similar reply:—"I know not—I cannot
understand it."
But there was less sincerity in this answer as given by Lascelles than
there was in the same response as uttered from the heart by the
frank and honest baronet:—for the physician had his suspicions
relative to the mysterious connexion which now appeared to subsist
between Lady Hatfield and the individual whose visit had caused so
much painful excitement.
"That villain Rainford! I am sorry even now that I suffered him to
escape!" ejaculated the Earl, scarcely knowing how to act or speak.
"Rainford!" cried the physician. "Why, that is the name of the man
who was taken up on suspicion of having robbed her ladyship near
Hounslow!"
"And that was Thomas Rainford who was here ere now!" returned
Arthur, with bitter emphasis, as if he hated the name.
"Rainford!" repeated the physician, in astonishment. "I thought that
man's name was Jameson?"
The reader will remember that such was the denomination under
which the highwayman passed when residing in South Moulton
Street.
"What! do you know him?" demanded the Earl, gazing upon the
doctor with unfeigned surprise.
"I once attended a patient at his abode," was the laconic reply: for
Lascelles remembered the solemn promise which he had made to
Tom Rain on that occasion.
"And where did he live?" inquired Arthur, eagerly. "I may wish to see
that man again."
"Where he lived then, he does not live now," returned the physician;
"for he moved away the very next day after I was called in; and
whither he went to, the people of the house knew not."
"I believe him to be a man of bad character," observed Arthur
hastily. "But enough of him—at least for the present. Doctor, can I
be permitted to see Lady Hatfield for a few minutes?"
"Impossible for to-night, my dear Earl," replied the physician. "Her
ladyship is in a state of nervous agitation—feverish excitement,
indeed,—and must not be disturbed. Her maids are now with her,
and she is about to retire to rest. To-morrow, my dear Ellingham,
you shall see her—that is, provided she is more composed."
"Then must I submit to this weary night of suspense!" exclaimed the
young nobleman. "But to-morrow, Doctor, I may see her. You have
promised that I shall see her to-morrow! My visit will be somewhat
early. Will it be indiscreet if I call at eleven?"
"Call at eleven, then," returned the physician, smiling at his friend's
impatience. "But I think I ought to administer a composing draught
to you."
The Earl and Sir Ralph Walsingham shook hands with Dr. Lascelles,
and took their departure. The other guests had already gone; but
the physician remained behind to see his fair patient once more ere
he returned home.
When Lascelles found himself alone in the apartment which the
young nobleman and the baronet had just left, he fell into a train of
reflection which, like the Earl's state of mind, was strangely
characterised by perplexity. Were the Doctor's thoughts put into
words, they would assume as nearly as possible the ensuing shape:
—
"Well, this is an evening of unpleasant adventure! That Jameson, or
Rainford, or whatever his name is, has brought confusion and
dismay into the house. Perplexities increase rapidly. I remember all
that Ellingham said to me the day that he called to inform me that
he was the happiest of men, and that her ladyship had accepted
him. He declared then that he knew all—that he would never allow
what must be considered a misfortune to stand in the way of his
happiness—and so on. I also remember complimenting him on his
moral courage in rising superior to a common prejudice; and then
we dropped the conversation because we agreed that it was a
delicate subject. And so it was, too: a devilish delicate subject! And I
had found out the grand secret by stealth! Ah! the effects of that
opiate were powerful, and she has never suspected that I did find
out the secret. But Ellingham scarcely seems to have his wits about
him; or else he must suspect the object of this Rainford's visit. It's as
clear as day-light! Rainford is the man—and now he wants to extort
money from her ladyship. But Ellingham cannot put two and two
together as I can:"—and the physician rubbed his hands
complacently, little suspecting that his sapient conjecture relative to
the object of the highwayman's visit was totally wrong, as the reader
is aware.—"This Rainford is an extraordinary character; and I do
believe that he really robbed her ladyship, but that she did not dare
say so in the police-court. He has the cut of a dashing fellow who
would as soon rifle a pocket as drink a bumper of wine. Curse him,
for having intruded on the mysteries of my laboratory! Oh! if
Ellingham only knew what I know about the beautiful Esther de
Medina—the charming Jewess! What deceivers some women are! To
look on Esther, one would think she was purity itself? And yet——"
The physician's reverie was interrupted by the entrance of a female
servant, who came to inform him that Lady Hatfield had retired to
her bed, and that the Doctor might now visit her again. He
accordingly repaired to her chamber, and having prescribed some
composing medicine, took his departure, without once alluding to
the incidents of the evening; for he was anxious that Georgiana's
mind should remain as free from causes of excitement and agitation
as possible.
 CHAPTER XLIV.
MR. FRANK CURTIS AGAIN.

In the meantime, Thomas Rainford had quitted the abode of Lady

Hatfield with a heavy heart: for the duty which he had felt himself
called upon to perform, in making a particular statement to
Georgiana, had pained—acutely pained his generous soul.
He had not proceeded many yards from that lady's dwelling, when
he suddenly encountered Mr. Frank Curtis; and as at that precise
moment the glare of a lamp streamed full upon Rainford's
countenance, he was immediately recognised by that impertinent
young gentleman.
"Ah! Captain Sparks!" ejaculated Frank: "so we meet again, do we?
Well, it's very fortunate that I did not accept my friend the Duke's
invitation to his select dinner-party; or else I should have missed this
pleasure. Now what is to prevent me from collaring you, my fine
fellow, and raising a hue and cry?"
"Fear, Mr. Curtis—fear will prevent you," returned Tom Rain,
recovering all his wonted presence of mind: and, taking the young
man's arm, he said, "Walk a little way with me. I want to have a few
minutes' chat with you. Here—put your hand on my great coat
pocket: that's right! Now you can feel a pistol inside—eh? Well its
companion is in the other pocket; and you must know enough of me
already, to be fully aware that any treachery on your part would
meet with its reward; for I would shoot you in the open street, if you
attempted to place my liberty in danger."
"I'm sure I—I don't want to injure you, Captain Sparks," stammered
Frank, trembling from head to foot as he walked along, arm-in-arm
with the highwayman. "I always took you for a capital fellow—and I
should very much like to drink a bottle of wine with you. What do
you say? Shall we go into the Gloucester, or Hatchett's——"
"Neither one nor the other, Mr. Curtis," interrupted Rainford. "I thank
you for your civility all the same."
"Oh! it's nothing, Captain. I learnt politeness in France, where, to be
sure, I had excellent—I may say peculiar advantages. The King was
very much attached to me—and as for the ladies of the Court—Oh!
don't ask me to speak about them, Captain Sparks!"
"Indeed I will not," returned Tom drily. "I want you to let me know
how your uncle gets on. Does he still remember that pleasant little
adventure—ha! ha!"—and the highwayman's merry laugh denoted
that his spirits were reviving once more.
"Sir Christopher! Oh! the old fool—don't talk to me about him!"
ejaculated Frank Curtis. "I have done with my uncle—I shall cut him
—I can never speak to him again, Captain Sparks. He has disgraced
himself—disgraced his family, which was a very ancient one——"
"I always thought Sir Christopher made a boast of having risen from
nothing?" said Tom ironically.
"Ah! so he did. But that was only a part of his system of gammoning
people," continued Frank. "His family was originally the celebrated
Blondevilles of France: about three thousand years ago they settled
in Scotland, and their name was corrupted to Blundevil;—then a
branch came to England about fifteen hundred years ago, and in
process of time they spelt their name with a t—Bluntevil. At last the
e was left out, and it became Bluntvil; and God only knows why, but
three hundred and seventy-seven years ago, come next Michaelmas,
the vil was dropped, and the name settled down into simple Blunt.
So you see, Captain, that Sir Christopher is of a good family after
all."
"Why don't you try and get a situation in the Herald's College?"
demanded Rainford. "You would be able to find pedigrees for all the
Browns, Jones's, Thompsons, and Smiths in the country."
"Come—come, Captain Sparks," exclaimed Frank: "this observation
isn't fair on your part. I may have my faults—I know I have; but I
don't shoot with the long bow. I hate that kind of thing!"
"But let us return to the subject of your uncle Sir Christopher," said
Tom. "What has he been doing?"
"Run away with a lady's-maid—gone to Gretna with Lady Hatfield's
female servant Charlotte!" cried Frank, with great bitterness of tone.
"The damned old fool!—but I'll cut him—cut him dead—and that's
some consolation."
"Gone to Gretna with Lady Hatfield's maid!" exclaimed Rainford.
"Maid, indeed! I hope he'll find her so!" said Curtis. "The hussey! But
I'll be even with her yet!"
"And when did this happen?" inquired Tom.
"Oh! only a few days ago. They are not come back yet. I dare say
Sir Christopher already repents his bargain. But I'll cut him!"
"I'm afraid if you cut his acquaintance, he'll cut off your supplies,"
observed Rainford jocosely.
"And what does that matter?" ejaculated Frank. "Do you think there
are no rich women in London that would be glad to have a decent-
looking fellow like myself. Egad! I've already got introduced to a
widow as wealthy as if her late husband had been a Nabob. It's true
that she's blest with five pledges of the said late husband's affection;
but then she's got five thousand a-year—and one five is a good set-
off against the other, Captain Sparks. Rather so—eh? old fellow?"
"Well, I think it is," returned the highwayman. "But how did all this
happen about Sir Christopher and the lady's-maid?"
"I'll tell you," answered Curtis. "You see, Sir Christopher was going
to run away with Miss Mordaunt, Lady Hatfield's friend, and I found
it out in one of my clever ways. So I resolved to baulk Sir
Christopher; and I bribed this lady's-maid Charlotte—in fact, I gave
her five hundred pounds and a gold watch, the hussey!—to go to
the appointment, get into the carriage, personate Miss Julia
Mordaunt, and keep up the farce until they got to St. Alban's, where
me and a parcel of my friends were to be at the inn to receive them.
That was to be the joke."
"And how did the joke turn so completely against yourself?" asked
Tom.
"Why, me and my friends waited—and waited—and waited at the
infernal hotel at St. Alban's; and no Sir Christopher—no Charlotte
came. We had a glorious supper, and made a regular night of it. All
next day we waited—and waited again; but no Sir Christopher—no
Charlotte. 'What the devil can this mean?' thought I to myself. So I
came up to London, leaving my friends at the inn at St. Alban's in
pawn for the bill—for somehow or another none of us had money
enough about us to settle it. Well, when I came back to town, I went
home: that is, you know, to my uncle's house in Jermyn Street; and
there I found a letter that had just come for me by the post. It was
written from some town a good way north, and was from Sir
Christopher. I began to think something was wrong; and sure
enough there was! For, when I opened the letter, I found that my
silly old uncle had written to thank me for throwing in his way a
delightful and most amiable woman, who had consented to take his
name and share his fortune. The letter went on to say that they
were then pretty far on their road to Gretna, and that as they should
stop at St. Alban's as they came back, I might be there, if I chose, to
have the pleasure of handing my aunt out of the carriage. That was
all said to irritate me, you know, Captain Sparks; and most likely that
vixen Charlotte made Sir Christopher write the letter just to annoy
me. But I'll cut them both dead; and we shall see what my precious
aunt—for such she is by this time, I suppose—will say then!"
"This is really a very pleasant little adventure," cried Tom Rain. "But
I think you carried your joke too far, Mr. Curtis; and so it has recoiled
on yourself. Have you seen Mr. Torrens lately?"
"Not I!" exclaimed Curtis. "But don't you confess, Captain, that you
carried matters a trifle too far that night? Never mind the two
thousand pounds: I'm glad my old hunks of an uncle has lost that!
But I allude to the affair of helping the gals to run away. I suppose
you were in league with Villiers all the time?"
"What makes you think that Villiers had any thing to do with the
matter?" inquired Rainford.
"Simply because I don't imagine you carried off the gals for your
own sake. However," continued Frank, "I care but little about the
matter now. I certainly liked Adelais very much at the time; but
there are plenty of others in the world quite as handsome. Besides, I
now see through all Sir Christopher's trickery in wanting me to marry
Miss Torrens in such a deuce of a hurry, and in giving me a separate
establishment. The old bird wanted to commit matrimony himself;
and I should have been poked off with a few paltry hundreds a-
year."
"And so you will now," said Tom. "Or matters may be even worse,
after the trick you endeavoured to play upon your uncle."
"Not a bit of it!" cried Frank. "Had old Blunt's scheme succeeded, I
should have been married to a portionless gal, and forced to live on
whatever he chose to give me. Now that his project has failed, I am
free and unshackled, and can secure myself a position by marriage. I
might even look as high as my friend the Duke's niece; but she is
horribly ill-tempered, and so I think of making an offer of my heart
and hand—I can do the thing well if I like, you know, Captain—to
Mrs. Goldberry, the widow I spoke of just now."
"The name sounds well, I confess," observed Tom. "But did your
uncle never—I mean, did he not instruct his lawyer to adopt any
proceedings about that little affair of the two thousand pounds?"
"Not he, Captain!" exclaimed Frank Curtis. "As far as my uncle is
concerned, you may rest quite satisfied that he will never take any
notice of the business: and Howard wouldn't act without his
instructions."
They had now reached Charing Cross; and Tom Rain, having had
quite enough of Mr. Curtis's company, signified his desire that they
should separate.
"You won't pass an hour with me over a bottle of wine?" said the
young man. "I really should like to have a chat with such a gallant,
dashing fellow as you are, Captain; for you're quite after my own
heart—barring the——"
"The highway business—eh?" cried Tom, laughing. "Why, you cannot
for a minute suppose that it is my regular profession, Mr. Curtis? No
such a thing! I merely eased you of the two thousand pounds for the
joke of it—just as you played off your tricks on Sir Christopher."
"You talk about easing me, Captain," returned Frank; "but I can
assure you that you're the first man that ever got the better of me.
Don't fancy for a moment that I—I'm a coward, Captain Sparks——"
"Far from it, my dear sir," exclaimed Tom. "I know you to be as
brave as you are straight-forward in your conversation. So good
night—and pray take care not to follow me; for I've an awkward
habit of turning round and knocking on the head any one that I
imagine to be watching me."
With these words the highwayman hurried off up the Strand: and
Frank Curtis entered a cigar shop, muttering to himself, "Damn the
fellow! I almost think he meant that for insolence. Egad! if he did,
the next time I meet him——"
But the valiant young gentleman did not precisely make up his mind
what he should do, in the case supposed: and any resentment which
he experienced, speedily evaporated with the soothing influence of a
cheroot.
Meantime Tom Rain pursued his way along the Strand and Fleet
Street, and repaired to the lodgings of Mr. Clarence Villiers in Bridge
Street.
That gentleman was at home, and received his visitor in a very
friendly manner.
"You are most welcome, Captain Sparks," he said; "and the more so
if you intend to pass an hour or two with me; for my aunt is so very
particular that she would take the girls to church with her this
evening; but of course I did not offer to accompany them, as I could
not wear a veil over my face, you know," he added, laughing; "and
were I recognised by Mr. Torrens or any of his friends, attention
would be immediately directed to any ladies who might happen to
be in my company. So I shall not visit Old Burlington Street this
evening; and if you will bear me company over a bottle of wine——"
"I cannot possibly remain many minutes," interrupted Rainford. "In
fact I am going to leave England very shortly——"
"Leave England!" ejaculated Clarence. "I am truly sorry to hear that
announcement—just as we begin to get friendly together."
"Circumstances compel me to take this step," answered Rainford;
"and my time for preparation is short. I have called to-night upon
business—for, in a word, you can do me a service, perhaps, if you
will."
"As if there were any doubt relative to my inclination, provided I
have the power," exclaimed Clarence, who was busily employed in
decanting a bottle of port-wine: then, having placed upon the table
two glasses, which he filled, he said, "You know, Captain Sparks,
that I am under the greatest obligation to you. Through your kind—
your generous intervention, Adelais will be mine. The banns were
published at St. George's, Hanover Square, a second time to-day;
and to-morrow week we shall be united. The bridal breakfast will
take place at my aunt's: shall we not have the pleasure of your
company? Pray, do not refuse me."
"It is impossible—much as I should rejoice at being the witness of
that union which no severe or mercenary father will be able to
subvert," said Rainford in a feeling tone. "My affairs compel me to
leave this country—at least for a time; and for that reason I am
anxious to place in your hands a certain document, the mystery of
which some accident might probably lead you to clear up."
Rainford then produced the letter which had been found about the
person of the deceased Sarah Watts, and which he now requested
Villiers to peruse.
"You observe that there is no address to indicate the name of the
lady to whom that letter was written," continued the highwayman,
when Clarence had read it with attention. "The child to whom it
refers is now in my care: accident threw him in my way—and his
adopted mother, who was the writer of that letter, is no more."
"Will the child accompany you?" asked Villiers.
"He will. But I will write to you the moment I reach America—to
which country I am going—and let you know my address, or at all
events through what channel a letter will come direct to me. Then,
should you have made any discovery—which is however scarcely to
be expected—still, as a wise precaution, I have adopted this step
——"
"You are right, Captain," said Villiers; "and I shall not forget the trust
you have now confided to me. Should anything transpire respecting
this matter, I will not fail to communicate with you. But will you not
pass one evening with me in the society of my aunt and the two
young ladies, who will all be delighted to receive you? Mrs. Slingsby
is a most amiable and excellent woman——"
"A little of a saint—is she not?" exclaimed the highwayman drily.
"She is certainly of a religious turn of mind—indeed, I may say,
enthusiastically so," answered Villiers. "But she is extremely
charitable—and her benevolence embraces a very wide circle."
"I believe she is a handsome woman, too!" observed Tom Rain.
"She is possessed of personal as well as mental attractions, Captain
Sparks," responded Villiers seriously. "But, when in her society, you
would think of her only as the pious—benevolent—and
compassionate woman, whose heart is ever ready to sympathise
with the woes of her fellow creatures."
"To speak candidly, Mr. Villiers," said Rainford, "I am no friend to the
saints. It may be a prejudice on my part—but I can't help it. Excuse
me for my frankness—I beg of you to take it in good part: still I
always think that the stillest water runs deepest; and I would not
——"
"Remember, Captain Sparks," interrupted Villiers, somewhat warmly,
"that you are speaking of my aunt, who is a most worthy and
estimable woman. Deeply as I am indebted to you—much as I am
inclined to esteem you—yet——"
"I understand you, my dear Mr. Villiers," cried Tom: "you cannot
permit me to breathe even a suspicion against Mrs. Slingsby in your
presence. Well—I know that it is most ungracious on my part: still,
as I was more or less instrumental in inducing those too artless,
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