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This document reviews the use of computers in enhancing second language (L2) reading comprehension, highlighting both empirical studies and theoretical frameworks. It identifies advantages of computer-assisted instruction, such as improved vocabulary acquisition and student motivation, while also noting the need for software grounded in sound reading theories. Practical guidelines for designing effective reading software based on interactive processing theory are proposed to maximize instructional effectiveness.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views33 pages

ED472671

This document reviews the use of computers in enhancing second language (L2) reading comprehension, highlighting both empirical studies and theoretical frameworks. It identifies advantages of computer-assisted instruction, such as improved vocabulary acquisition and student motivation, while also noting the need for software grounded in sound reading theories. Practical guidelines for designing effective reading software based on interactive processing theory are proposed to maximize instructional effectiveness.

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 472 671 IR 021 876

AUTHOR Kim, Myonghee


TITLE The Use of the Computer in Developing L2 Reading
Comprehension: Literature Review and Its Implications.
PUB DATE 2002-09-27
NOTE 30p.
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)
EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS *Computer Assisted Instruction; Computer Uses in Education;
Educational Research; *Educational Technology; Literature
Reviews; *Reading Comprehension; *Second Language
Instruction; *Second Language Learning; *Second Language
Programs; Second Languages; Teaching Methods

ABSTRACT
Historically, in the educational field, numerous efforts have
been made to facilitate the complex process of second language (L2) reading
comprehension. While computers are increasingly being used for instruction
for L2 reading, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this technology
can be effectively used in the area of L2 reading instruction. This study
examines the effect of the computer on developing L2 reading comprehension.
To this end, the study reviews relevant empirical studies conducted both in
Li and L2 contexts. Although some studies reported contradictory findings,
previous research has generally supported the notion that computer-assisted
reading programs facilitate L2 reading comprehension. Several advantages of
using the computer for enhancing reading comprehension have been identified,
for example, facilitating automatic word recognition and vocabulary
acquisition, providing multimedia glossing, strengthening the benefits of
reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation toward reading.
The literature review also points out the need for reading software
incorporating sound theoretical principles of the reading process. Reflecting
the need, this study establishes practical guidelines for designing and
evaluating reading software on the basis of interactive processing theory,
which is currently one of the most prevalent reading theories. (Contains 49
references.). (Author)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made


from the original document.
Q The Use of the Computer
in Developing L2 Reading Comprehension:
Literature Review and its Implications

Myonghee Kim
Indiana University

Sept. 27, 2002


BEST COPY AVAILABLE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION


Office of Educational Research and Improvement
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS CENTER (ERIC)
BEEN GRANTED BY ItThis document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
M. Kim Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES


Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do not necessarily represent
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) official OERI position or policy.
1
Abstract

Historically, in the educational field, numerous efforts have been made to facilitate the

complex process of L2 reading comprehension. While computers are increasingly being

used for instruction for L2 reading, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this

technology can be effectively used in the area of L2 reading instruction. The present

study examines the effect of the computer on developing L2 reading comprehension. To

this end, this study reviews relevant empirical studies conducted both in Ll and L2

contexts. Although some studies reported contradictory findings, previous research has

generally supported the notion that computer-assisted reading programs facilitate L2

reading comprehension. Several advantages of using the computer for enhancing reading

comprehension have been identified, for example, facilitating automatic word recognition

and vocabulary acquisition, providing multimedia glossing, strengthening the benefits of

reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation toward reading. The

literature review also points out the need for reading software incorporating sound

theoretical principles of the reading process. Reflecting the need, this study establishes

practical guidelines for designing and evaluating reading software on the basis of

interactive processing theory, which is currently one of the most prevalent reading

theories.

1
3
The Use of the Computer in Developing L2 Reading Comprehension:
Literature Review and its implications

I. Introduction

Research in first language (L1) and second language (L2) reading comprehension

has gained impetus over the past three decades and resulted in many valuable insights for

understanding the process of reading. In spite of its constant shift in focus throughout the

history of reading research, it has been generally agreed that reading is a very

complicated process involving a variety of factors that interact with one another. Chun &

Plass (1997) claimed that this complexity is further compounded for L2 readers.

Historically, in the educational field, numerous efforts have been made to

facilitate the complex process of L2 reading comprehension, incorporating the findings of

research in the field. Based on a psycholinguistic model of reading, for example, Clarke

and Silberstein (1977) convincingly argued for the need for instruction on reading

strategies. In addition, pictures, videos, sound, and diagrams have been valued for their

potential aid in the reading comprehension process by activating the schemata relevant to

the story being read (Chun & Plass, 1996; Hanley, Herron, & Cole, 1995; Omaggio,

1979). More recently, since the advent of computers, increasing interest has been paid in

the use of computers for developing reading comprehension skills. Some writers have

even claimed that the incorporation of computer technology into the reading process may

bring about a change in reading theory and reading practice (Wilkinson, 1983; Reinking,

1987). While computers are increasingly being used for instruction for L2 reading

(Borchardt & Johnson, 1995), however, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this

technology can be effectively used in the area of L2 reading instruction.

2
4
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the computer on developing

L2 reading comprehension. For this purpose, two questions have been posed: 1) What

studies have been conducted on the use of computers for improving reading

comprehension? 2) What considerations should be taken in creating computer reading

software? This study will first review relevant empirical studies conducted both in Ll

and L2 contexts and then offer practical guidelines for designing and evaluating reading

software on the basis of a reading theory and the literature review.

II. Conceptual Framework

Reading research has greatly aided in understanding reading comprehension

processes, which in turn can significantly contribute to the actual reading instruction.

Understanding an adequate theory of reading comprehension is a prerequisite for the

development and improvement of educational practices. In line with this, it is important

that computer-based reading programs should also be designed and implemented in such

a way that they reflect current knowledge about the reading process in terms of how to

teach reading and what to focus on in order to maximize their effectiveness (Singhal,

1998).

This section will describe a current theoretical view of L2 reading comprehension

as a conceptual framework for critically evaluating studies and programs that will be

reviewed in this study and for presenting practical guidelines for selecting and designing

theoretically grounded, empirically validated reading software.

One of the current prevalent views of reading is interactive processing theory

(Samuels & Kamil, 1984; Silberstein, 1987; Swaffar, Arens, & Byrnes, 1991). The term,

interactive processing, refers to two different conceptions. First, it can refer to the

3
5
interaction that happens between the reader and the text. In other words, reading is the

process in which the reader intelligently interacts with the text to comprehend it. While

interacting with the text, the reader builds the text information with the help of the

knowledge gained from the text and the background or prior knowledge he or she already

has (Barnett, 1989; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983).

Second, it can also refer to the interaction among many reading component skills.

To be more specific, reading is the result of the simultaneous, not sequential, interaction

between lower-level, bottom-up processing skills and higher-level, top-down processing

skills (Carrell, 1988b, Eskey, 1986, Eskey & Grabe, 1988; Sameuls & Kamil, 1984).

Bottom-up processing is primarily concerned with textual decoding and requires such

skills as word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, and knowledge of sentence structure.

Automaticity in lower-level processing has been shown to contribute importantly to

fluent reading. On the other hand, top-down processing is more related to the macro

level of comprehension, interpretation and use of prior knowledge. Research has shown

that good readers skillfully use higher-level reading strategies which facilitate reading

comprehension, such as inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words, phrases, and

expressions through the contextual clues, predicting what will come next, and mobilizing

background or prior knowledge. Due to its ability to describe how input is processed in a

meaningful, convincing way, the interactive processing theory has been widely applied to

the area of reading instruction.

Interestingly enough, most L2 researchers stress the first type of interaction

between the reader and the text while most cognitive psychologists and education

psychologists emphasize the second one, interaction of diverse reading skills. However,

6
these two perspectives are not mutually exclusive, but complementary (Grabe, 1991).

Grabe explained that this division largely results from the difference in emphasis placed

on defining how reading processes interact and how the processes can be investigated

through research. To sum up, interactive processing theory views reading as interactive

in that the reader makes use of information from his/her background knowledge as well

as information from the printed page while reading. Reading is also interactive in the

sense that many skills work together simultaneously in the process.

III. Literature Review

A vast majority of studies on the use of computers for developing reading

comprehension have been conducted in the Ll context. Considering the current situation,

this literature review will include the research conducted in Ll environments to offer

readers a broader, concrete understanding of what has been accomplished in this field and

to aid them in applying valuable insights gained from LI research to L2 situations.

Mostly for the studies conducted in L2 contexts, the literature review will also entail a

critical evaluation of the studies in terms of study design and the computer programs used

to make a more valid assessment of the effectiveness of the computer as a medium for L2

reading instruction

Using computers for reading instruction dates back to the mid-1960s when broad-

scaled projects such as the Stanford Project, which were often supported by U.S. federal

grants, were carried out to develop a comprehensive computer-based reading curriculum.

For example, the reading curriculum which the Stanford Project produced for

kindergarteners through third graders was characterized by utilizing centrally located

mainframe computers, eliminating the need for a classroom teacher, and computer-

5
7
assisted instruction focused on individual reading skills including word attack skills.

With respect to the Stanford project, Spache (1967) raised the issues that it ignored the

role of the teacher and overemphasized the mastery of isolated skills in a drill-and-

practice format.

Since then, widespread availability of microcomputers has made possible research

on the effect of specific computer programs on reading ability. Several studies, for

instance, have been conducted to examine the effect of using the computer on developing

reading readiness skills. Gore, Morrison, Maas, and Anderson (1989) conducted a study

with 14 five-year-old children for five months to determine whether the computer can

serve to teach preschoolers pre-reading skills. Analysis of the Metropolitan Readiness

pre- and posttest revealed that there were significant differences in the scores in the pre-

reading skill areas of rhyming skill related to learning phonics for decoding and school

language related to sequencing, organization and word meaning. On the other hand, no

differences existed in the areas of letter recognition and visual matching. In spite of the

mixed results, the researchers claimed that computers can be used effectively to teach

preschoolers some important pre-reading skills.

In the studies of elementary and junior high school students on the effectiveness

of computer-assisted instruction, findings have been mixed. In a study undertaken to

determine the effect of extended use of computers on reading achievement of the students

of low socio-economic status, Arroyo (1992) found significantly higher reading

achievement gains on the IOWA Tests of Basic Skills for 30 seventh graders who were

exposed to extensive computer instruction for a year compared with nonusers. She

suggested that in addition to reading improvement, computer-assisted instruction

6
enhanced student motivation toward learning. But it is questionable whether the mere

exposure to general computer instruction not specifically related to reading instruction

could truly contribute to improvement in reading comprehension. On the other hand, a

study by Hamilton (1995) of 46 third- through sixth-grade students reported no

significant differences between the computer-assisted instruction group and the

traditional basal instruction group. But both studies did not provide sufficient

information on what specific computer-assisted reading instruction was given to students.

Besides, the results have limited generalizability, due to the small sample size.

Serious efforts were made to improve reading comprehension and vocabulary

knowledge through the use of computer software and teaching reading strategies in

Illinois. After analyzing the possible causes of the problem of declining reading scores

among elementary and middle school students, Lange, McCarty, Norman and Upchurch

(1999) designed a reading intervention program composed of three major categories:

instruction of reading strategies through using graphic organizers and cooperative

learning, use of appropriate software matching the strategies, and integration of reading

strategies into other subject areas. After receiving reading instruction integrating reading

strategies with computer technology for five months, students showed improvement in

both overall reading scores and specific reading skills on a standardized test. And the

data of interview with teachers and students as well as case studies of four students

revealed that learning multiple reading strategies helped students transfer the reading

skills to other subject areas. The value of this intervention program used in this study

lies in the fact that an attempt was actually made to incorporate the findings of the

7
research regarding the crucial importance of reading strategies and their training into

classroom practices.

As recent developments in computer technologies have led to the appearance of

CD-ROM, many studies have involved comparing the effect of electronic CD-ROM

storybooks with that of conventional paper storybooks on reading comprehension. In a

study designed by Greenlee-Moore and Smith (1994) to determine the effects of

interactive CD-ROM software on reading comprehension, an experimental class

composed of 14 fourth graders read seven CD-ROM books and a control class composed

of 17 students read the same narratives from the actual books over an eight-week period.

A comparison of the performance of the two groups on six multiple-choice questions for

each book revealed that whereas there were no significant differences between the two

groups when they read the short and easy texts, the computer group earned higher scores

for the longer and difficult narratives. The researcher claimed that textual manipulations

of the interactive CD-ROM software, such as a click of words for pronunciation and

explanation, could account for the higher scores for difficult texts. However, a question

remains of why the same characteristic is not applicable to reading easy texts. In

addition, it is questionable whether only six multiple-choice comprehension questions,

two of which are literal, one vocabulary, and three inferential questions, can serve as a

true indicator of overall comprehension of the texts.

Another major category of studies was on the effect of computer programs on

students with reading difficulties. Due to its great potential for providing reading

supports including glossing, visual and audio supports, and speech supports, computer

software has been credited as an effective tool for teaching reading to students who suffer

8
10
from reading difficulties. And in fact several efficacy studies have reported the positive

results for the effectiveness of the computer as a means of developing literacy skills in

struggling readers. Reasoning from their previous studies that lack of word recognition

skills is a primary factor of the struggling readers' problems, Wise and Olson (1994)

conducted a study with 45 struggling readers in second through sixth grade to examine

whether or not the talking computer can help them to develop word recognition and

phonological decoding skills. Students read stories on the computer for thirty minutes for

four to five days per week for 10 weeks, having access to pronunciation of unfamiliar

words they encountered in the text through the computer's speech synthesizer. Results in

pre- and post tests on word recognition, non-word reading, spelling, reading

comprehension, and phonemic awareness revealed that the children's word recognition

and phonological decoding abilities improved significantly, compared with similar

students who were assigned to regular classroom language arts instruction. This result is

consistent with the findings of other studies on the effect of the computer on increasing

word recognition skills (McKenna, Reinking, Labbo, and Watkins, 1996). The

researchers also reported the students' improved attitude toward reading and enthusiastic

responses toward the computer-assisted program. However, no information was included

in this study on the results of reading comprehension tests, which makes it possible to

determine whether the increased word recognition in fact affected the improvement in

reading ability.

The research attempts described thus far were exclusively for Ll reading. Only

during the past two decades have studies on the use of computers in the field of teaching

L2 reading been increasing (AlKanhtani, & Abalhassan 1999). Included among them are

9
11
a couple of studies with ESL learners. In a study conducted to investigate the effects of a

computer-assisted instruction program on basic reading skills achievement and attitudes

toward it, Saracho (1982) compared the performance of two groups of 256 Spanish-

speaking migrant children in third through sixth grade. The control group participated in

regular classroom instruction, while the experimental group received computer assisted

instruction as well as the regular instruction for five months. Based on the scores on

Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Saracho claimed that students in the computer

group gained higher achievement than those in the control group. However, this study

has serious methodological flaws in that it failed to fully control the variables that might

explain the difference between the two groups. That is, the experimental group was

administered additional instruction through the computer as well as conventional

instruction, whereas the counterpart group received only classroom instruction. In this

case, it can be claimed that the improvement in reading performance might result from

the additive effects of additional instruction, not from the computer instruction. Stricter

control of such a variable would increase the validity of the study.

In an evaluation report of a 3-year project to use computers to improve reading

skills of third to sixth grade Lakota Indian students with limited English proficiency,

Edeburn and Jacobi (1984) reported that students failed to reach the objective as

measured by pre- and post-tests on the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills. With regard

to the research, Kleinmann (1987) argued that this report was incomplete in that it did not

contain sufficient information on the characteristics of the program and materials and

how they were used.

10
12
Several studies involved actual implementation of computer assisted reading

programs in a college reading course. In order to determine whether the introduction of

computer software into a college reading course has beneficial effects on reading

achievement, Kleinmann (1987) conducted a study with 76 ESL college students enrolled

in a basic skills college reading course over a semester. In this study, both experimental

groups and control groups received two hours of conventional lectures on reading and

one hour of individualized reading instruction in the reading laboratory for fourteen

weeks. The only difference was that whereas control groups used traditional reading

materials such as reading selections from the humanities and social sciences, ESL

materials, and exercises on vocabulary and reading skills in the reading laboratory,

experimental groups could get access to not only reading materials available to control

groups but also reading software packages for every other week, i.e. six hours all told.

The pre- and posttest results found no significant differences in the score gains between

the experimental and control groups. Kleinmann attributed the results to the poor

software programs used, most of which took a drill-practice format based on a

behavioristic theory of language learning. He portrayed them as little more than

electronic textbooks. Significantly enough, he strongly argued that it is important to

create more innovative reading software programs that foster more interaction between a

student and the computer and provide activities for enhancing reading comprehension

skills and strategies based on a solid understanding of L2 reading. Regarding the

limitations of this study, insufficient treatment time should be mentioned. Merely six

hours of exposure to reading software is not long enough to make a valid judgment of its

effect. In addition, no information was provided on what kind of software students used

11
most, what content the software is composed of, and what students actually did with it.

At any rate, however, this study succeeded in alerting language educators to the

significant role of high quality software designed in harmony of theoretical principles and

methodological insights of L2 reading.

Krasilnikov (1989) reported a course developed in Russia to improve reading

skills in English through the use of computers. The course integrated nine computer

programs designed to offer exercises in specific reading skills including word recognition

and word comprehension, recognition of word boundaries and sentence structures,

vocabulary development, recognition of the devices used to create textual cohesion,

skimming and scanning skills, and reading for global understanding. The activities in the

programs addressed both bottom-up (e.g. textual decoding) and top-down reading

approaches (e.g. interpretation, comprehension), which largely took an isolated drill and

practice format. Unfortunately, however, no information on the actual effects of the

programs was provided in this report.

Several studies in the use of computers for reading have been undertaken using

languages other than English. For instance, Aweiss (1994) conducted a study to examine

the effects of varying types of computer-mediated reading annotations on the reading

comprehension of beginning learners of Arabic as a foreign language (AFL). 24

American AFL students were exposed to four conditions for four different experimental

electronic texts:1) text only, 2) text with glossary, 3) text with glossary and verb

conjugation, and 4) text with glossary, verb conjugation and background information

about the text. Analysis of the relationship between the scores of immediate recall

protocol and the number and type of reading supports accessed revealed that readers with

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14
access to reading supports showed better performance on the comprehension test than

when no reading supports were provided. And the glossary was identified as the most

frequently used reading support in the study. However, with regard to the immediate

recall protocol test in which subjects were required to write everything they could

remember about the text in their first language, it was claimed that recall protocol was

like a memory test used simply to recall information rather than reveal global

understanding of the text. And use of four different groups for the four conditions instead

of using one group for all four conditions would greatly enhance the generalizability of

the findings of this study.

A number of more recent studies have attempted to investigate the effects of

multimedia annotations on reading comprehension. The studies mostly used computer

programs with different types of reading supports such as annotations of individual

words, visual supports, and information on the text. Lomicka (1998) undertook a pilot

study with 12 college students enrolled in a French course to explore the effect of three

different types of multimedia annotations on reading comprehension: no glossing, limited

glossing (definitions in French; translations in English), or full glossing (definitions in

French; images, questions, pronunciation, and translation in English). Students were

asked to think aloud which glosses they were using, why, and what their understanding of

each line was while they read text. And a tracker was set up to keep record of the type of

glosses used and the amount of time they spent consulting each gloss. Based on the

analysis of "think aloud" data and tracker data, Lomicka suggested that computerized

reading with full glossing including question glosses and reference glosses promoted a

deeper level of text comprehension.

15 13
A study by Chun and Plass (1996) produced results consistent with Lomika's.

Chun and Plass (1996) conducted three sub-studies with a total of 160 second year

university students enrolled in a German course using a multimedia application which

incorporated the interactive processing theory of reading. This reading theory views

reading as a combination of lower-level, bottom-up processing skills such as word

identification and decoding, and higher-level, top-down comprehension skills such as

inference and interpretation. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a

visual advance organizer on the macro level and different modes of multimedia

annotations of vocabulary items on the micro level. On the basis of the analysis of the

recall protocol completed by students in their first language, the researchers claimed that

the visual advance organizer aids in overall reading comprehension by providing

background and contextual knowledge for text comprehension. As to the effect of

annotation on reading comprehension, the result revealed that words annotated with both

text and video help comprehension better than those annotated only in one form or not at

all. Chun and Plass claimed that the results supported the dual coding theory (Paivio,

1971, 1986) that two different storage systems for information (a verbal and a nonverbal

system) make additive effects possible if information is coded dually. The greatest value

of this study lies in the fact that it attempted to investigate the effect of multimedia

reading software that reflects a well-accepted current reading theory that stresses the

interactive process of reading. In addition to the problem concerning the use of recall

protocol as in Aweiss' study, however, this study has a couple of limitations. First, the

absence of a control group weakened the research findings. That is, a comparison of an

experimental group who used the reading software and a control group working with the

14
printed text with the similar reading supports would strengthen the findings of the study.

Second, insufficient information was given on to what extent students accessed the

annotations, which is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the annotations

accessible.

Lyman-Hager, Davis, and Chennault (1993) investigated the relationship between

student glossing choices and vocabulary acquisition with intermediate level students

studying French with the multimedia program designed for an excerpt from a French

story. The rationale behind this study is that vocabulary knowledge is critical for

successful reading comprehension. Based on a written recall protocol and vocabulary

quiz, the researchers claimed that students who had access to multimedia annotations in

computerized text learned more vocabulary words than students who could consult the

same glosses in printed text. In view of the current reading theory, this study appeared to

have overemphasized the role of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension, with a

focus on the bottom-up approach. Regarding the rationale, it can be claimed that though

the reader succeeded in recalling words, he or she may not understand the text globally.

Davis and Lyman-Hager (1997) undertook a study with 42 college students of

French to examine how they interact with a computerized L2 reading glossing and to

determine the relationship between the use of glossing and reading comprehension.

While interactive reading theory was integrated into the multimedia reading software

developed by Chun and Plass for their study, Davis and Lyman-Hager used Bernhardt's

reading model to design a computer reading program that provided appropriate

multimedia annotations for six factors that Bernhardt claimed constitute the L2 reading

process: 1) word definitions (word recognition), 2) pronunciation (phonemic/graphic

15
17
errors), 3) grammatical explanation (grammar), 4) explanation of linking statements and

ideas (intratextual perception), 5) cultural information (cultural references), and 6) built-

in tracker device for gathering information on students' strategy use (metacognition). In

the study, students first briefly read a short French story in a printed form, then read a

computerized version with multimedia annotations and finally completed a recall

protocol and a multiple-choice test. Results indicated that there were no observable

relationships between the number of times reading supports were accessed and reading

comprehension. Besides, it was found that students consulted the English definitions

category most frequently, though different types of annotations were available to

students, which is in agreement with the findings of the study by Aweiss. But the results

of exit interviews showed that students showed a unanimously positive attitude toward

the effectiveness of the computer reading program. Like the study by Chun and Plass,

this study has a great value in that it attempted to carefully apply one of the prevalent

theoretical views of the reading process to a computer instructional program. However,

the fact that students primarily turned to the reading support of word definition in spite of

the availability of other supports implies that additional efforts should be made to make

students fully utilize the other choices to maximize reading comprehension. This study

has a weakness in its design concerning the absence of a control group. A meaningful

answer to the research questions posed would require a comparison of an experimental

group and a control group who read a story in the printed form or a computerized story

without any annotations.

In a study on the effect of individual learning preferences such as visualizer vs.

verbalizer preference on L2 reading comprehension in multimedia environments, Plass,

16
Chun, Mayer, and Leutner (1998) found a significant interaction among learning

preferences, annotation type, and text comprehension. On the basis of an analysis of

learning preferences for visual and verbal information in multimedia learning settings,

103 college students enrolled in German language courses were classified as visualizers

that prefer to learn from the visual modes of the presented material, as verbalizers that

prefer to learn from verbal options, and as showing no strong preferences. In two 50-min

class periods on 2 consecutive days, the students had access to a multimedia program

presenting a German short story in which for 82 words a translation with pronunciation

was available to them along with its corresponding picture or the video. On the

vocabulary test, the students were asked to report which annotation type of the three

came to their mind first when they saw the vocabulary word as well. And for the

comprehension test, they were instructed to write a summary of the story in English. The

result of the study demonstrated that visualizers performed better when both verbal and

visual information was available, whereas verbalizers benefited more from verbal

information. Thus the researchers concluded that multimedia reading programs that can

offer readers chances to select their preferred mode from both options have a great

potential to address individual differences in visual and verbal preferences. They tried to

provide a rationale for the effectiveness of multimedia reading programs by saying that

they skillfully address individual learning differences.

Most studies on the effects of multimedia annotations on L2 reading

comprehension have produced positive results as shown by higher score gains in reading

comprehension tests. However, the gains in reading achievement can be explained by

the immediate availability of annotations for the text being read. Obviously multimedia

17
19
annotations provided for a text can facilitate the comprehension of the given text, but it is

not certain whether students have in fact received any benefits from the use of

annotations in relation to reading skills which can be applied to different reading

contexts.

IV. Summary of Literature Review

It is clear from the literature review that various studies have been conducted to

assess the effectiveness of the use of computers for improving reading comprehension.

Although some studies reported contradictory findings, previous research has generally

supported the notion that computer-assisted reading programs facilitate L2 reading

comprehension. Several advantages of using the computer for enhancing reading

comprehension have been identified. For example, multimedia glossing offered in

reading software aids readers in acquiring vocabulary and comprehending the text more

effectively, especially through addressing individual learning preferences. Use of

reading software can enhance automaticity in word recognition and reinforce the benefits

of reading skill instruction. In addition, it can stimulate student motivation and

encourage a more positive attitude toward reading. However, partly due to the

limitations of many studies such as small sample size, insufficient treatment time,

absence of a control group, and use of immediate recall protocol as a measurement tool,

caution is needed in measuring the truly reliable pedagogical value of using computers

for developing L2 reading comprehension until more convincing research findings in this

area are available.

With respect to computer software programs, it is worthwhile to mention that not

many computer programs used in the reviewed studies incorporated well-founded

18
)0
theoretical principles of reading and appropriate practices in reading skills. And it is a

fact that much reading software has been criticized for its poor quality due to lack of

theoretical foundations (Balajthy, 1995; Reinking, 1989). Considering the importance of

theoretical principles as a guide to educational practices, it is important that reading

software be designed based on knowledge of reading process. This claim can be

strengthened by the critical role of the software in the success of computer-assisted

reading instruction.

The following section of this study will offer a set of guidelines for creating and

evaluating computer reading software on the basis of reading theory. For establishing

guidelines, the interactive processing theory of reading is employed as a conceptual

framework. In addition to the reading theory, careful consideration will be taken of

research findings for devising more valid, effective guidelines.

V. Guidelines for Creating Reading Software

As described earlier, the interactive processing theory of reading adopted as the

conceptual framework for this study views reading as interactive in that the reader

intelligently interacts with the text to make sense out of it and also in that many reading

component skills involved in bottom-up and top-down processing interact with one

another simultaneously while the reader is reading the text.

In order to cover the full range of the reading theory, this study establishes two

main frameworks reflecting the two types of interaction specified by the theory:

interaction between the reader and the text, and interaction between bottom-up processing

and top-down processing. And individual, specific guidelines relevant to either

framework are built and presented in detail along with an example of exercises. Based on

19
21
the major claims of the theory and empirical findings, these guidelines put an emphasis

on promoting interaction between the reader and the computer, integrating decoding

skills and comprehension skills, and providing relevant activities as a means of

developing reading skills.

1. Interaction between the reader and the computer

One of the potential benefits of the computer for reading is the opportunity for

increased interaction between the reader and the text on the computer. Interactive

capabilities of the computer have been recognized as an effective tool to make reading

less frustrating and more enjoyable (McKenna et al., 1996). In order to maximize

reading achievement in computer-assisted reading environments, these capabilities must

be taken full advantage of in developing software programs.

a) Provides individual supports such as multimedia annotations:

Reading software can provide useful glossing, such as definitions of key words in both

visual and verbal forms, their pronunciation, and grammar explanation. Easy availability

of glossing can help readers move through the text when they face comprehension

problems and explore the supporting materials at an individualized pace.

b) Presents open-ended questions as well as well-designed true/false questions:

In order for the interaction between the reader and the text to be meaningful, computer

reading programs should contain open-ended questions instead of heavily relying on

true/false or multiple-choice questions. Open-ended questions entail more interaction by

responding to reader's answers in an individual way. For both types of questions,

software can provide the reader with hints or clues to work with to help them to get the

correct answer before the correct answer is given.

22 20
c) Provides immediate and adequate feedback on reader's responses:

Reading software should provide immediate feedback on answers the reader gives in

response to the questions presented by the computer. Feedback should be relevant to the

responses and provided in such a way that promotes interactivity and refines the reader's

comprehension of the text.

d) Keeps record of individual students' performance and progress:

Recent technological developments make it possible to build a tracker system in reading

software to keep record of the type and frequency of the access the reader has to glosses

and the performances. By looking at the records kept by the computer, both the reader

and the teacher can assess the student's current level of L2 reading, diagnose his or her

problems in reading and take proper steps toward enhancing L2 reading comprehension.

e) Provides a timed reading option:

Through the option of timed reading, the reader selects the speed with which he or she

wants to read. The reader can increase or decrease the speed depending on the current

competence and comfort level. Timed reading is also a good means of furthering the

interaction between the reader and the text on the computer.

2. Interaction between bottom-up processing and top-down processing

Considering the fact that the reader is simultaneously engaged in bottom-up and

top-down processing for reading comprehension, reading software programs should be

focused on simultaneously addressing decoding skills and comprehension skills in order

to teach both types of skills. To this end, software programs should provide the reader

with opportunities for practice in reading skills and strategies that are critical for

23 21
successful reading comprehension. Provision of a variety of relevant activities embedded

in reading texts is recommendable.

a) Enhances word recognition skills:

As described earlier, interactive processing theory postulates that textual decoding

constitutes a major part of the information processing involved in reading. And textual

decoding requires automatic word identification which is widely recognized as one of the

crucial components of reading. With respect to the role of word recognition skill in

reading, much research shows that fluent readers have fully developed automaticity in

word recognition, whereas unskilled readers lack this skill. Reflecting the obvious need

for developing the word recognition skill, reading software programs should offer

exercises designed for this purpose. For example, word recognition exercises can engage

the reader in reading several words that are similar in shape and marking the same word

as the first one as quickly as possible (e.g. word: work, worm, world, word, ward). Or

the reader can be asked to draw a line between the boundaries of a nonsense word

composed of several words without any interval (e.g. aboyiswalkingtowardtheschool).

b) Promotes sentence-decoding skills:

Knowledge of sentence or language structure also plays a significant role in reading

processes. Many studies support the effect of knowledge of structure on fluent reading

(Garnham, 1985; Perfetti, 1989; Rayner, 1990). Considering the role of knowledge of

sentence structure, reading software should present sentence-decoding activities.

Sentence-decoding exercises can involve the reader in reading a sentence in meaningful

units. To be more specific, computer programs should be designed to model reading in

meaningful groups and ask the reader to divide a sentence into meaningful units quickly

24 22
while reading. These exercises help the reader not only to enhance sentence-decoding

skills but also to overcome the tendency toward word-by-word reading.

c) Promotes vocabulary development:

Almost every L2 reading researcher agrees that vocabulary knowledge is a critical

element of reading comprehension (Grabe, 1991). Vocabulary building activities should

be set within the context of a reading passage. Contextualized vocabulary exercises

facilitate word acquisition and retention more effectively.

d) Builds background knowledge about the text:

A large number of research findings support the significant role of background

knowledge in reading. To facilitate reading comprehension, reading software should aid

in building background knowledge about the topic of the text prior to reading. Pre-

reading activities designed to create background knowledge include looking at or reading

an advance organizer in the form of video or short reading abstracts. Questions can also

be used to activate the reader's prior knowledge of the text during reading.

e) Prompts students to guess, inference, and predict while reading:

Successful reading requires the knowledge and implementation of higher-level, reading

skills such as guessing, inferring, and prediction and thus computer programs must be

designed in a way that addresses them. Studies have shown that training in reading

strategies including the skills described can contribute to enhancing reading

comprehension (Jimenez & Gamez, 1996; Kern, 1989). Exercises should be designed to

offer students opportunities to practice drawing inferences or making predictions based

on clues, hints, and contextual information. Such activities can take the form of problem-

solving games, simulations, cloze exercises or text reconstruction exercises.

23
25
f) Encourages readers to read for main ideas:

Reading an L2 text requires going beyond understanding an individual word or sentence

to constructing main ideas from the text. Activities can include reading instructions on

getting general meaning of the text and answering questions presented by the computer.

VI. Conclusion

This study aimed to investigate the effect of the computer on developing L2

reading comprehension. A review of relevant literature revealed that the use of the

computer has a beneficial effect on enhancing L2 reading particularly by facilitating

automatic word recognition, and vocabulary acquisition, providing multimedia glossing,

strengthening the benefits of reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation

toward reading. On the other hand, the literature review also pointed out the need for

designing reading software incorporating sound theoretical principles of the reading

process. Reflecting on the need, this study attempted to establish guidelines for creating

and evaluating computer reading software programs using the interactive processing

theory of reading as a conceptual framework and also empirical findings. These

guidelines, however, are not comprehensive in that they were devised only from the

perspective of interactive processing theory. It is true that there are other considerations

in evaluating reading software, such as text style, fonts, graphic features, and ease of use,

which is beyond the scope of this paper. It is hoped that the guidelines will assist

language instructors and software developers in developing an awareness of the need for

theoretically grounded and empirically validated reading software.

24
26
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