ED472671
ED472671
ABSTRACT
Historically, in the educational field, numerous efforts have
been made to facilitate the complex process of second language (L2) reading
comprehension. While computers are increasingly being used for instruction
for L2 reading, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this technology
can be effectively used in the area of L2 reading instruction. This study
examines the effect of the computer on developing L2 reading comprehension.
To this end, the study reviews relevant empirical studies conducted both in
Li and L2 contexts. Although some studies reported contradictory findings,
previous research has generally supported the notion that computer-assisted
reading programs facilitate L2 reading comprehension. Several advantages of
using the computer for enhancing reading comprehension have been identified,
for example, facilitating automatic word recognition and vocabulary
acquisition, providing multimedia glossing, strengthening the benefits of
reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation toward reading.
The literature review also points out the need for reading software
incorporating sound theoretical principles of the reading process. Reflecting
the need, this study establishes practical guidelines for designing and
evaluating reading software on the basis of interactive processing theory,
which is currently one of the most prevalent reading theories. (Contains 49
references.). (Author)
Myonghee Kim
Indiana University
Historically, in the educational field, numerous efforts have been made to facilitate the
used for instruction for L2 reading, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this
technology can be effectively used in the area of L2 reading instruction. The present
this end, this study reviews relevant empirical studies conducted both in Ll and L2
contexts. Although some studies reported contradictory findings, previous research has
reading comprehension. Several advantages of using the computer for enhancing reading
comprehension have been identified, for example, facilitating automatic word recognition
reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation toward reading. The
literature review also points out the need for reading software incorporating sound
theoretical principles of the reading process. Reflecting the need, this study establishes
practical guidelines for designing and evaluating reading software on the basis of
interactive processing theory, which is currently one of the most prevalent reading
theories.
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The Use of the Computer in Developing L2 Reading Comprehension:
Literature Review and its implications
I. Introduction
Research in first language (L1) and second language (L2) reading comprehension
has gained impetus over the past three decades and resulted in many valuable insights for
understanding the process of reading. In spite of its constant shift in focus throughout the
history of reading research, it has been generally agreed that reading is a very
complicated process involving a variety of factors that interact with one another. Chun &
Plass (1997) claimed that this complexity is further compounded for L2 readers.
research in the field. Based on a psycholinguistic model of reading, for example, Clarke
and Silberstein (1977) convincingly argued for the need for instruction on reading
strategies. In addition, pictures, videos, sound, and diagrams have been valued for their
potential aid in the reading comprehension process by activating the schemata relevant to
the story being read (Chun & Plass, 1996; Hanley, Herron, & Cole, 1995; Omaggio,
1979). More recently, since the advent of computers, increasing interest has been paid in
the use of computers for developing reading comprehension skills. Some writers have
even claimed that the incorporation of computer technology into the reading process may
bring about a change in reading theory and reading practice (Wilkinson, 1983; Reinking,
1987). While computers are increasingly being used for instruction for L2 reading
(Borchardt & Johnson, 1995), however, there is not yet a solid understanding of how this
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The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of the computer on developing
L2 reading comprehension. For this purpose, two questions have been posed: 1) What
studies have been conducted on the use of computers for improving reading
software? This study will first review relevant empirical studies conducted both in Ll
and L2 contexts and then offer practical guidelines for designing and evaluating reading
processes, which in turn can significantly contribute to the actual reading instruction.
that computer-based reading programs should also be designed and implemented in such
a way that they reflect current knowledge about the reading process in terms of how to
teach reading and what to focus on in order to maximize their effectiveness (Singhal,
1998).
as a conceptual framework for critically evaluating studies and programs that will be
reviewed in this study and for presenting practical guidelines for selecting and designing
(Samuels & Kamil, 1984; Silberstein, 1987; Swaffar, Arens, & Byrnes, 1991). The term,
interactive processing, refers to two different conceptions. First, it can refer to the
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interaction that happens between the reader and the text. In other words, reading is the
process in which the reader intelligently interacts with the text to comprehend it. While
interacting with the text, the reader builds the text information with the help of the
knowledge gained from the text and the background or prior knowledge he or she already
Second, it can also refer to the interaction among many reading component skills.
To be more specific, reading is the result of the simultaneous, not sequential, interaction
skills (Carrell, 1988b, Eskey, 1986, Eskey & Grabe, 1988; Sameuls & Kamil, 1984).
Bottom-up processing is primarily concerned with textual decoding and requires such
fluent reading. On the other hand, top-down processing is more related to the macro
level of comprehension, interpretation and use of prior knowledge. Research has shown
that good readers skillfully use higher-level reading strategies which facilitate reading
expressions through the contextual clues, predicting what will come next, and mobilizing
background or prior knowledge. Due to its ability to describe how input is processed in a
meaningful, convincing way, the interactive processing theory has been widely applied to
between the reader and the text while most cognitive psychologists and education
psychologists emphasize the second one, interaction of diverse reading skills. However,
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these two perspectives are not mutually exclusive, but complementary (Grabe, 1991).
Grabe explained that this division largely results from the difference in emphasis placed
on defining how reading processes interact and how the processes can be investigated
through research. To sum up, interactive processing theory views reading as interactive
in that the reader makes use of information from his/her background knowledge as well
as information from the printed page while reading. Reading is also interactive in the
comprehension have been conducted in the Ll context. Considering the current situation,
this literature review will include the research conducted in Ll environments to offer
readers a broader, concrete understanding of what has been accomplished in this field and
Mostly for the studies conducted in L2 contexts, the literature review will also entail a
critical evaluation of the studies in terms of study design and the computer programs used
to make a more valid assessment of the effectiveness of the computer as a medium for L2
reading instruction
Using computers for reading instruction dates back to the mid-1960s when broad-
scaled projects such as the Stanford Project, which were often supported by U.S. federal
For example, the reading curriculum which the Stanford Project produced for
mainframe computers, eliminating the need for a classroom teacher, and computer-
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assisted instruction focused on individual reading skills including word attack skills.
With respect to the Stanford project, Spache (1967) raised the issues that it ignored the
role of the teacher and overemphasized the mastery of isolated skills in a drill-and-
practice format.
on the effect of specific computer programs on reading ability. Several studies, for
instance, have been conducted to examine the effect of using the computer on developing
reading readiness skills. Gore, Morrison, Maas, and Anderson (1989) conducted a study
with 14 five-year-old children for five months to determine whether the computer can
pre- and posttest revealed that there were significant differences in the scores in the pre-
reading skill areas of rhyming skill related to learning phonics for decoding and school
language related to sequencing, organization and word meaning. On the other hand, no
differences existed in the areas of letter recognition and visual matching. In spite of the
mixed results, the researchers claimed that computers can be used effectively to teach
In the studies of elementary and junior high school students on the effectiveness
determine the effect of extended use of computers on reading achievement of the students
achievement gains on the IOWA Tests of Basic Skills for 30 seventh graders who were
exposed to extensive computer instruction for a year compared with nonusers. She
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enhanced student motivation toward learning. But it is questionable whether the mere
traditional basal instruction group. But both studies did not provide sufficient
Besides, the results have limited generalizability, due to the small sample size.
knowledge through the use of computer software and teaching reading strategies in
Illinois. After analyzing the possible causes of the problem of declining reading scores
among elementary and middle school students, Lange, McCarty, Norman and Upchurch
learning, use of appropriate software matching the strategies, and integration of reading
strategies into other subject areas. After receiving reading instruction integrating reading
strategies with computer technology for five months, students showed improvement in
both overall reading scores and specific reading skills on a standardized test. And the
data of interview with teachers and students as well as case studies of four students
revealed that learning multiple reading strategies helped students transfer the reading
skills to other subject areas. The value of this intervention program used in this study
lies in the fact that an attempt was actually made to incorporate the findings of the
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research regarding the crucial importance of reading strategies and their training into
classroom practices.
CD-ROM, many studies have involved comparing the effect of electronic CD-ROM
composed of 14 fourth graders read seven CD-ROM books and a control class composed
of 17 students read the same narratives from the actual books over an eight-week period.
A comparison of the performance of the two groups on six multiple-choice questions for
each book revealed that whereas there were no significant differences between the two
groups when they read the short and easy texts, the computer group earned higher scores
for the longer and difficult narratives. The researcher claimed that textual manipulations
of the interactive CD-ROM software, such as a click of words for pronunciation and
explanation, could account for the higher scores for difficult texts. However, a question
remains of why the same characteristic is not applicable to reading easy texts. In
two of which are literal, one vocabulary, and three inferential questions, can serve as a
students with reading difficulties. Due to its great potential for providing reading
supports including glossing, visual and audio supports, and speech supports, computer
software has been credited as an effective tool for teaching reading to students who suffer
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from reading difficulties. And in fact several efficacy studies have reported the positive
results for the effectiveness of the computer as a means of developing literacy skills in
struggling readers. Reasoning from their previous studies that lack of word recognition
skills is a primary factor of the struggling readers' problems, Wise and Olson (1994)
conducted a study with 45 struggling readers in second through sixth grade to examine
whether or not the talking computer can help them to develop word recognition and
phonological decoding skills. Students read stories on the computer for thirty minutes for
four to five days per week for 10 weeks, having access to pronunciation of unfamiliar
words they encountered in the text through the computer's speech synthesizer. Results in
pre- and post tests on word recognition, non-word reading, spelling, reading
comprehension, and phonemic awareness revealed that the children's word recognition
students who were assigned to regular classroom language arts instruction. This result is
consistent with the findings of other studies on the effect of the computer on increasing
word recognition skills (McKenna, Reinking, Labbo, and Watkins, 1996). The
researchers also reported the students' improved attitude toward reading and enthusiastic
in this study on the results of reading comprehension tests, which makes it possible to
determine whether the increased word recognition in fact affected the improvement in
reading ability.
The research attempts described thus far were exclusively for Ll reading. Only
during the past two decades have studies on the use of computers in the field of teaching
L2 reading been increasing (AlKanhtani, & Abalhassan 1999). Included among them are
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a couple of studies with ESL learners. In a study conducted to investigate the effects of a
toward it, Saracho (1982) compared the performance of two groups of 256 Spanish-
speaking migrant children in third through sixth grade. The control group participated in
regular classroom instruction, while the experimental group received computer assisted
instruction as well as the regular instruction for five months. Based on the scores on
Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills, Saracho claimed that students in the computer
group gained higher achievement than those in the control group. However, this study
has serious methodological flaws in that it failed to fully control the variables that might
explain the difference between the two groups. That is, the experimental group was
instruction, whereas the counterpart group received only classroom instruction. In this
case, it can be claimed that the improvement in reading performance might result from
the additive effects of additional instruction, not from the computer instruction. Stricter
skills of third to sixth grade Lakota Indian students with limited English proficiency,
Edeburn and Jacobi (1984) reported that students failed to reach the objective as
measured by pre- and post-tests on the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills. With regard
to the research, Kleinmann (1987) argued that this report was incomplete in that it did not
contain sufficient information on the characteristics of the program and materials and
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Several studies involved actual implementation of computer assisted reading
computer software into a college reading course has beneficial effects on reading
achievement, Kleinmann (1987) conducted a study with 76 ESL college students enrolled
in a basic skills college reading course over a semester. In this study, both experimental
groups and control groups received two hours of conventional lectures on reading and
one hour of individualized reading instruction in the reading laboratory for fourteen
weeks. The only difference was that whereas control groups used traditional reading
materials such as reading selections from the humanities and social sciences, ESL
materials, and exercises on vocabulary and reading skills in the reading laboratory,
experimental groups could get access to not only reading materials available to control
groups but also reading software packages for every other week, i.e. six hours all told.
The pre- and posttest results found no significant differences in the score gains between
the experimental and control groups. Kleinmann attributed the results to the poor
create more innovative reading software programs that foster more interaction between a
student and the computer and provide activities for enhancing reading comprehension
limitations of this study, insufficient treatment time should be mentioned. Merely six
hours of exposure to reading software is not long enough to make a valid judgment of its
effect. In addition, no information was provided on what kind of software students used
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most, what content the software is composed of, and what students actually did with it.
At any rate, however, this study succeeded in alerting language educators to the
significant role of high quality software designed in harmony of theoretical principles and
skills in English through the use of computers. The course integrated nine computer
programs designed to offer exercises in specific reading skills including word recognition
skimming and scanning skills, and reading for global understanding. The activities in the
programs addressed both bottom-up (e.g. textual decoding) and top-down reading
approaches (e.g. interpretation, comprehension), which largely took an isolated drill and
Several studies in the use of computers for reading have been undertaken using
languages other than English. For instance, Aweiss (1994) conducted a study to examine
American AFL students were exposed to four conditions for four different experimental
electronic texts:1) text only, 2) text with glossary, 3) text with glossary and verb
conjugation, and 4) text with glossary, verb conjugation and background information
about the text. Analysis of the relationship between the scores of immediate recall
protocol and the number and type of reading supports accessed revealed that readers with
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access to reading supports showed better performance on the comprehension test than
when no reading supports were provided. And the glossary was identified as the most
frequently used reading support in the study. However, with regard to the immediate
recall protocol test in which subjects were required to write everything they could
remember about the text in their first language, it was claimed that recall protocol was
like a memory test used simply to recall information rather than reveal global
understanding of the text. And use of four different groups for the four conditions instead
of using one group for all four conditions would greatly enhance the generalizability of
words, visual supports, and information on the text. Lomicka (1998) undertook a pilot
study with 12 college students enrolled in a French course to explore the effect of three
asked to think aloud which glosses they were using, why, and what their understanding of
each line was while they read text. And a tracker was set up to keep record of the type of
glosses used and the amount of time they spent consulting each gloss. Based on the
analysis of "think aloud" data and tracker data, Lomicka suggested that computerized
reading with full glossing including question glosses and reference glosses promoted a
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A study by Chun and Plass (1996) produced results consistent with Lomika's.
Chun and Plass (1996) conducted three sub-studies with a total of 160 second year
incorporated the interactive processing theory of reading. This reading theory views
inference and interpretation. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a
visual advance organizer on the macro level and different modes of multimedia
annotations of vocabulary items on the micro level. On the basis of the analysis of the
recall protocol completed by students in their first language, the researchers claimed that
annotation on reading comprehension, the result revealed that words annotated with both
text and video help comprehension better than those annotated only in one form or not at
all. Chun and Plass claimed that the results supported the dual coding theory (Paivio,
1971, 1986) that two different storage systems for information (a verbal and a nonverbal
system) make additive effects possible if information is coded dually. The greatest value
of this study lies in the fact that it attempted to investigate the effect of multimedia
reading software that reflects a well-accepted current reading theory that stresses the
interactive process of reading. In addition to the problem concerning the use of recall
protocol as in Aweiss' study, however, this study has a couple of limitations. First, the
absence of a control group weakened the research findings. That is, a comparison of an
experimental group who used the reading software and a control group working with the
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printed text with the similar reading supports would strengthen the findings of the study.
Second, insufficient information was given on to what extent students accessed the
accessible.
student glossing choices and vocabulary acquisition with intermediate level students
studying French with the multimedia program designed for an excerpt from a French
story. The rationale behind this study is that vocabulary knowledge is critical for
quiz, the researchers claimed that students who had access to multimedia annotations in
computerized text learned more vocabulary words than students who could consult the
same glosses in printed text. In view of the current reading theory, this study appeared to
focus on the bottom-up approach. Regarding the rationale, it can be claimed that though
the reader succeeded in recalling words, he or she may not understand the text globally.
French to examine how they interact with a computerized L2 reading glossing and to
determine the relationship between the use of glossing and reading comprehension.
While interactive reading theory was integrated into the multimedia reading software
developed by Chun and Plass for their study, Davis and Lyman-Hager used Bernhardt's
multimedia annotations for six factors that Bernhardt claimed constitute the L2 reading
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errors), 3) grammatical explanation (grammar), 4) explanation of linking statements and
the study, students first briefly read a short French story in a printed form, then read a
protocol and a multiple-choice test. Results indicated that there were no observable
relationships between the number of times reading supports were accessed and reading
comprehension. Besides, it was found that students consulted the English definitions
students, which is in agreement with the findings of the study by Aweiss. But the results
of exit interviews showed that students showed a unanimously positive attitude toward
the effectiveness of the computer reading program. Like the study by Chun and Plass,
this study has a great value in that it attempted to carefully apply one of the prevalent
the fact that students primarily turned to the reading support of word definition in spite of
the availability of other supports implies that additional efforts should be made to make
students fully utilize the other choices to maximize reading comprehension. This study
has a weakness in its design concerning the absence of a control group. A meaningful
group and a control group who read a story in the printed form or a computerized story
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Chun, Mayer, and Leutner (1998) found a significant interaction among learning
learning preferences for visual and verbal information in multimedia learning settings,
103 college students enrolled in German language courses were classified as visualizers
that prefer to learn from the visual modes of the presented material, as verbalizers that
prefer to learn from verbal options, and as showing no strong preferences. In two 50-min
class periods on 2 consecutive days, the students had access to a multimedia program
presenting a German short story in which for 82 words a translation with pronunciation
was available to them along with its corresponding picture or the video. On the
vocabulary test, the students were asked to report which annotation type of the three
came to their mind first when they saw the vocabulary word as well. And for the
comprehension test, they were instructed to write a summary of the story in English. The
result of the study demonstrated that visualizers performed better when both verbal and
visual information was available, whereas verbalizers benefited more from verbal
information. Thus the researchers concluded that multimedia reading programs that can
offer readers chances to select their preferred mode from both options have a great
potential to address individual differences in visual and verbal preferences. They tried to
provide a rationale for the effectiveness of multimedia reading programs by saying that
comprehension have produced positive results as shown by higher score gains in reading
the immediate availability of annotations for the text being read. Obviously multimedia
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annotations provided for a text can facilitate the comprehension of the given text, but it is
not certain whether students have in fact received any benefits from the use of
contexts.
It is clear from the literature review that various studies have been conducted to
assess the effectiveness of the use of computers for improving reading comprehension.
Although some studies reported contradictory findings, previous research has generally
reading software aids readers in acquiring vocabulary and comprehending the text more
reading software can enhance automaticity in word recognition and reinforce the benefits
encourage a more positive attitude toward reading. However, partly due to the
limitations of many studies such as small sample size, insufficient treatment time,
absence of a control group, and use of immediate recall protocol as a measurement tool,
caution is needed in measuring the truly reliable pedagogical value of using computers
for developing L2 reading comprehension until more convincing research findings in this
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)0
theoretical principles of reading and appropriate practices in reading skills. And it is a
fact that much reading software has been criticized for its poor quality due to lack of
reading instruction.
The following section of this study will offer a set of guidelines for creating and
evaluating computer reading software on the basis of reading theory. For establishing
conceptual framework for this study views reading as interactive in that the reader
intelligently interacts with the text to make sense out of it and also in that many reading
component skills involved in bottom-up and top-down processing interact with one
In order to cover the full range of the reading theory, this study establishes two
main frameworks reflecting the two types of interaction specified by the theory:
interaction between the reader and the text, and interaction between bottom-up processing
framework are built and presented in detail along with an example of exercises. Based on
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the major claims of the theory and empirical findings, these guidelines put an emphasis
on promoting interaction between the reader and the computer, integrating decoding
One of the potential benefits of the computer for reading is the opportunity for
increased interaction between the reader and the text on the computer. Interactive
capabilities of the computer have been recognized as an effective tool to make reading
less frustrating and more enjoyable (McKenna et al., 1996). In order to maximize
Reading software can provide useful glossing, such as definitions of key words in both
visual and verbal forms, their pronunciation, and grammar explanation. Easy availability
of glossing can help readers move through the text when they face comprehension
In order for the interaction between the reader and the text to be meaningful, computer
software can provide the reader with hints or clues to work with to help them to get the
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c) Provides immediate and adequate feedback on reader's responses:
Reading software should provide immediate feedback on answers the reader gives in
response to the questions presented by the computer. Feedback should be relevant to the
responses and provided in such a way that promotes interactivity and refines the reader's
software to keep record of the type and frequency of the access the reader has to glosses
and the performances. By looking at the records kept by the computer, both the reader
and the teacher can assess the student's current level of L2 reading, diagnose his or her
problems in reading and take proper steps toward enhancing L2 reading comprehension.
Through the option of timed reading, the reader selects the speed with which he or she
wants to read. The reader can increase or decrease the speed depending on the current
competence and comfort level. Timed reading is also a good means of furthering the
Considering the fact that the reader is simultaneously engaged in bottom-up and
to teach both types of skills. To this end, software programs should provide the reader
with opportunities for practice in reading skills and strategies that are critical for
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successful reading comprehension. Provision of a variety of relevant activities embedded
constitutes a major part of the information processing involved in reading. And textual
decoding requires automatic word identification which is widely recognized as one of the
crucial components of reading. With respect to the role of word recognition skill in
reading, much research shows that fluent readers have fully developed automaticity in
word recognition, whereas unskilled readers lack this skill. Reflecting the obvious need
for developing the word recognition skill, reading software programs should offer
exercises designed for this purpose. For example, word recognition exercises can engage
the reader in reading several words that are similar in shape and marking the same word
as the first one as quickly as possible (e.g. word: work, worm, world, word, ward). Or
the reader can be asked to draw a line between the boundaries of a nonsense word
processes. Many studies support the effect of knowledge of structure on fluent reading
(Garnham, 1985; Perfetti, 1989; Rayner, 1990). Considering the role of knowledge of
meaningful groups and ask the reader to divide a sentence into meaningful units quickly
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while reading. These exercises help the reader not only to enhance sentence-decoding
in building background knowledge about the topic of the text prior to reading. Pre-
an advance organizer in the form of video or short reading abstracts. Questions can also
be used to activate the reader's prior knowledge of the text during reading.
skills such as guessing, inferring, and prediction and thus computer programs must be
designed in a way that addresses them. Studies have shown that training in reading
comprehension (Jimenez & Gamez, 1996; Kern, 1989). Exercises should be designed to
on clues, hints, and contextual information. Such activities can take the form of problem-
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f) Encourages readers to read for main ideas:
to constructing main ideas from the text. Activities can include reading instructions on
getting general meaning of the text and answering questions presented by the computer.
VI. Conclusion
reading comprehension. A review of relevant literature revealed that the use of the
strengthening the benefits of reading strategy training, and stimulating student motivation
toward reading. On the other hand, the literature review also pointed out the need for
process. Reflecting on the need, this study attempted to establish guidelines for creating
and evaluating computer reading software programs using the interactive processing
guidelines, however, are not comprehensive in that they were devised only from the
perspective of interactive processing theory. It is true that there are other considerations
in evaluating reading software, such as text style, fonts, graphic features, and ease of use,
which is beyond the scope of this paper. It is hoped that the guidelines will assist
language instructors and software developers in developing an awareness of the need for
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