Component-I (A) – Personal details:
Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy
Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Prof. K.P. Rao
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.
Dr. Sila Tripati
Marine Archaeology Centre, CSIR - NIO, Goa.
Prof. R. N. Singh
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
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Component-I (B) – Description of module:
Subject Name Indian Culture
Paper Name Principles and Methods of Archaeology
Maritime Archaeology – Definition, Aims, Scope,
Module Name/Title
Objectives
Module Id IC / APM / 23
Pre requisites
To understand the definition, aim, scope and
Objectives
objectives of the Maritime archaeology
Maritime Archaeology/ Underwater archaeology/
Keywords
Nautical Archaeology
E-Text (Quadrant-I) :
1. Introduction
Maritime Archaeology is the scientific study of past seafaring from the material remains of a
man and his activities in the sea. It is an interdisciplinary study, which acts as a bridge
between the humanities and the sciences. Maritime archaeology is a discipline that studies
human interaction with seas, lakes and rivers through the study of ships, boats, and their
remains, port installations, cargoes, material remains and submerged landscapes. It is a
distinct and emerging field within the broader discipline of archaeology. Maritime
archaeological investigations are also carried out in seas, rivers and lakes, and their
discoveries are sometimes associated with historical events. Maritime archaeology is also
known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ or ‘Nautical’ archaeology. There is often confusion over the
use of the terms ‘maritime’, ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’. One aspect of underwater
archaeology is the study of the past through any submerged remains such as shipwrecks,
habitations or ports. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been
coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. All
these are correct terms for different aspects and differences between underwater, marine
and nautical archaeology. ‘Nautical Archaeology’ is a study of various types of seagoing
vessels, their construction techniques, maritime technology, varieties of practices and
usages; whereas ‘maritime archaeology’ encompasses all kinds of maritime activities, which
include trade, commerce, water transport technology, seafaring, coastal settlements, ports
and harbours, aspects related to maritime cultures including socio-economic, religious and
political elements of past societies. Maritime archaeology, while similar to ‘underwater
archaeology’, goes beyond because it includes all disciplines related to this aspect covering
maritime and nautical archaeology, not necessarily under water. It is equally concerned with
archaeological remains found in the coastal, intertidal zone and the seabed. ‘Marine
archaeology’ exclusively deals with archaeology in the sea.
In addition to the above, archaeological research is carried out in the rivers and deep-sea.
From the earliest times, the river played a significant role in the line of communication, unlike
seas and oceans. Riverine Archaeology specialises in the study of artefacts of early river
traffic, archaeological evidence observed along river banks and traces of abandoned log
boats, rafts and barges used at one time for carrying cargo and passengers. Furthermore,
port installations, anchors, slipways, wharfs and docks are found along the riverbanks. The
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archaeological study related to river traffic regarding trade and communication and
associated findings is known as riverine archaeology. Deep-sea archaeology is beyond the
reach of divers, so the amount of archaeology which can be achieved is severely limited. It is
a recent development in maritime archaeological studies and started in 1988 with the
discovery of ancient deep water trade routes between the Roman seaport of Ostia and
ancient Carthage. The exploration between 1988 and 1997 brought to light the largest
number of ancient shipwrecks ever found in the deep-sea. In an area of 210 km2 eight
shipwrecks, datable from 100 BCE to 400 AD, were located in 1000 m water depth. The
discovery was possible because of available sophisticated deepwater equipment and
techniques, namely, remotely operated vehicle (ROV), automated underwater vehicles
(AUV) and manned submersibles. More recently, two more shipwrecks of the Phoenician
period, probably 2700 years old, have been located in 450 m water depth about 55 km north
of Egypt. Similarly, there are many shipwrecks which have been explored in deep-sea
waters, and still, numerous finds await the spade of maritime archaeologists.
Sometimes maritime archaeological study specialises in submerged habitational sites both in
lakes and seas. The sites which once stood above water are now submerged, either due to
subsidence of land, rising water levels or a combination of both. Submerged sites exist in
shallow waters and are common in some areas and rare in others, depending on the
geological history. Many submerged prehistoric/ historical habitation and port sites have
been explored and excavated all along the coastlines of the world. This happens only with
low lying cities and ports and several instances have come to light from the Mediterranean
Sea that occurred due to subsidence. In Jamaica, one such incident occurred due to the
earthquake in 1692 AD in which 90 percent of the town of Port Royal sank into the sea.
Similarly, some habitation sites in Switzerland located on low ground at the side of lakes
have been submerged. They date from the Neolithic period to the Early Iron Age.
2. Importance of underwater archaeological sites
Underwater archaeological sites are as important as land archaeological sites to reconstruct
the maritime history of the country and contacts with other nations. Sometimes remains of
port installations and habitation sites can be seen on the shore or intertidal zone because
once upon a time they were on land; subsequently, some unique natural phenomena such
as submergence of land, the rise in sea level, coastal erosion, accretion or reclamation of
land for industrial activities might have submerged. Material evidence lasts, without any
disintegration, for a longer duration under water than on land sites. Figure - 1 shows a
comparison between material disintegration on land and underwater. This material evidence
indicates, directly and indirectly, the importance of underwater archaeological sites. Often,
artefacts or objects are preserved under water without having been disturbed, as artefacts
on land often are. On account of this, underwater archaeological sites are also known as
‘time capsules’, with their artefacts enabling approximation of the date. At times clues
available on land sites do not necessarily give accurate information about what exactly
happened at any particular period; instead, they indicate the changes and processes over
time. Under these circumstances, it becomes difficult to understand the nature of a site at
any particular stage. The answer to the oft-repeated question, ‘why make archaeology even
more challenging by trying to do it underwater?’ could be that the water hides, preserves,
protects and traps clues of archaeology, which are often not found on land sites. Using our
ingenuity to find these clues and evidence seems a small price to pay.
3. Importance and prospects of maritime archaeology in India
The results of the exploration of ports, trade centres and shipwrecks help to reconstruct the
maritime history, trade and cultural contacts of India with other countries in bygone ages.
The rate of sea level and shoreline changes are inferred from coastal archaeological studies.
The study and documentation of traditional boatbuilding and navigational techniques help us
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understand the skills gained by mariners in ancient times and show the types of boats and
ships used in rivers, lakes and seas for various purposes. The outcome of research is
disseminated among the scholars, researchers, students of similar disciplines and the
general public, either through research publications, lectures or by print and visual media.
From the Harappan period onwards, several ports and trade centres existed along the 7516
km long coastline of India. Available archaeological and literary evidence indicates that ports
and trade centres declined because of various factors. Some of the ports and trade centres
have been identified, whereas some are mentioned in literature, but so far have not been
located due to lack of substantial evidence. Similarly, ships which have been wrecked in
Indian waters need to be explored. Students and scholars can undertake various kinds of
research on maritime archaeology as their MA or MPhil dissertations and PhD programmes,
while researchers and college and university teachers can pursue research in this field (even
without undertaking underwater explorations). Some of the subjects related to maritime
archaeology can be introduced in school and college curricula in India. There is a wide
scope for further research in this discipline.
4. Beginning of maritime archaeological explorations in India
In India, maritime archaeological research was initiated in 1981 by the establishment of the
Marine Archaeology Centre (MAC) at the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO),
Goa, with financial assistance from the Indian National Science Academy (INSA), New Delhi,
to undertake studies off Dwarka. Subsequently, the Department of Science and Technology
(DST) funded further explorations off Dwarka. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
funded for training of manpower for diving and underwater explorations off Dwarka, Bet
Dwarka and Somnath and the Department of Ocean Development (DOD) (currently known
as the Ministry of Earth Sciences) (MoES) funded projects for undertaking exploration of
shipwrecks on the west coast of India and explorations off Dwarka, Bet Dwarka and
Somnath. In the year 1990, the Marine Archaeology Centre became an integral part of the
NIO. The emergence of maritime archaeology has added a new chapter to Indian
oceanographic studies. Though maritime archaeology developed late, it has made excellent
progress and is a fast developing discipline in India. The centre at NIO, Goa, is foremost in
maritime archaeological studies in India. In the last three and hald decades, significant
achievements have been made in maritime archaeological researches in India. Over a
period of time underwater surveys and shipwreck explorations have been carried out, both
on the east and west coasts of India. In the early years of marine archaeological studies,
underwater explorations have been conducted in Dwarka, Bet Dwarka and Somnath and
Poompuhar waters with the objective of locating submerged habitation sites and ports and
correlating the finds with the descriptions in literature; but the purpose of underwater
explorations off Goa was to discover and explore shipwrecks. Goa has been the focal point
for maritime archaeological investigations since the establishment of the Maritime
Archaeology Centre at NIO.
5. Is treasure hunting a part of maritime archaeology?
Treasure hunting or salvaging of cargo from lost ships or artefacts from submerged sites
goes back much farther than marine archaeological research. Treasure hunting is absolutely
not a part of maritime archaeology. It is the commercial search for, and exploitation of,
economically valuable items from historic wrecks. The people involved in this activity are
wrongly directed into an illegal practice. This practice is threatening our underwater cultural
heritage because it destroys evidence for ever. If such treasure is salvaged with no
archaeological documentation, in the worst case, looted, unique information is lost forever.
Neither governments nor any authorities encourage treasure hunting. Treasure hunting or
treasure salvage is not a scientific approach. Hence it should not be confused with maritime
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archaeology; such activities should be curbed and stopped. Attempts should be made to
make everyone understand the importance of our heritage.
6. Aims of maritime archaeology
The objectives of maritime archaeology or underwater archaeology are to incorporate
archaeological data and interpret the findings into the broader study of the human past,
emphasizing not only materials of maritime activities and submerged sites, but also
accommodating them as the remains of human endeavours. As it is well known that water
covers two thirds of the earth, many human settlements, cities, shipwrecks, aeroplanes, etc.
have been submerged in the seas, lakes and rivers because of both human error and natural
calamities. In order to understand the complete picture of human development, contacts,
progress of the past, archaeological, historical and anthropological data and interpretations
of human behaviour can also be obtained from submerged or underwater sites. The aim of
the archaeologists working in this field is to focus on better integration of the data and
interpretation with the wider professional community and dissemination of their research to
the public. Scholars who are involved in this study are committed to the care and
appreciation of maritime heritage, including archaeological remains which are lying
underwater. Similarly, many of archaeologists and scientists of our country are involved in
locating, exploring and preserving them for the future.
7. Sources for the study of maritime archaeology in India
The sources for studies on maritime trade, ports, shipwrecks, cultural contacts of India can
be classified into the following:
(a) Literary sources: epics such as the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, Buddhist
Jatakas, Milindapanho, Arthasastra Sangam Texts, Ratnavali, Dasakumaracarita,
Kathasaritsagara, Pancatantram and Rajatarangini Tilakamanjari, Yuktikalpataru,
Kappal Sattiram, regional literature, palm leaf manuscripts, etc.
(b) Travellers’ accounts: Periplus of the Erythaean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei),
Pliny’s Natural History, Ptolemy’s Geography, Strabo’s Geography, and the writings
of Megasthenes, Panini, Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, Al-Biruni, Al-Masudi, Abu Hanifa
Dainuri, Marco Polo, Lodavico de Varthema, Thomas Bowery, Nicolo Conti, etc.
(c) Inscriptions and coins: Early Brahmi and Kharosthi inscriptions, Chola inscriptions,
Motupalli pillar inscription, old Balinese inscriptions and Indonesian inscriptions,
punch mark coins, Satavahana, Pallava, Roman and Greek coins, etc.
(d) Archaeological artefacts collected from explorations and excavations such as
various types of pottery, amphorae, beads, metal artefacts.
(e) Paper records: Archival records and documents pertaining to shipping, maritime
trade, charts and maps, maritime casualties which are housed in archives, libraries
and private collections in India and abroad.
(f) Information from local fishermen, scholars, folklore, traditional knowledge and
legends.
8. Objectives of maritime archaeology in India
Underwater Archaeology is a relatively new discipline of archaeology, and it started in the
last quarter of the twentieth century with the pioneering efforts of the archaeologists to
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unearth the unknown past of humanity for posterity. The objectives of maritime archaeology
are as follows:
To explore and excavate ports, shipwrecks and trade centres bringing to light the
unknown past,
To reconstruct the maritime history and interactions of India through maritime
archaeological discoveries,
To infer sea level and shoreline changes through coastal archaeological studies,
To deploy geophysical equipment for locating submerged and buried artefacts and
structures,
To document and research traditional boatbuilding and navigational techniques,
To disseminate the knowledge gained to scholars, researchers and students of
similar disciplines, as well as to the general public.
Collection of maritime archaeological data before undertaking offshore surveys
Literary information is collected on ports, maritime trade, navigational and
shipbuilding technology and shipwrecks from various libraries and archives in India
and abroad.
Onshore exploration artefacts from a site help as a pointer to undertake offshore
exploration.
Scholars and experts in relevant subjects are consulted to learn the potential of
archaeological sites.
Interaction and discussion are made with local fishermen, academics and villagers
regarding shipwrecks, maritime remains and traditions of the region which help to
know the presence of archaeological artefacts.
9. General awareness of maritime archaeology
A public awareness of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage in India is
growing among the people and needs to be enhanced as soon as possible. Maritime
archaeology is perceived to be a very skilled and specialised subject, which is a very wrong
notion and should be removed. Similarly, in India diving is known only to a very limited
number of people and an awareness drive on diving and underwater exploration is
imperative among the scholars involved in this research. Further, this nascent discipline
should be introduced in school and college syllabi, and public lectures and posters should be
delivered and displayed all over India. Above all, for the progress and better prospects of this
discipline, proper initiatives should be taken by Government as well as concerned authorities
at every stage.
The other important aspect is that as a part of globalisation varieties of new industries and
constructions are evolving and developments are taking place along the coastal belt as well
as in the near-shore and offshore region of India. These activities may destroy forever the
evidence of a bygone civilisation which has been neither located nor explored. In view of
this, it is highly imperative for maritime archaeologists to undertake coastal and offshore
exploration and demarcate endangered areas before any further destruction takes place.
Each discovery has some importance which cannot be ignored because it may shed new
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light on the maritime archaeology of India. Once the evidence is lost, it can never be
retrieved. For this reason, it should be protected for the coming generations and studied in
detail.
