4 Kinematics

Kinematics is the study of the motion of particles along curves. Here we apply the vector algebra
and vector calculus introduced in the previous sections to physical problems. This is our first
step into the world of “Applied Mathematics”.

4.1 Velocity and acceleration

Consider a particle P moving in space along a curve C. Let the position vector of P be x(t),
where t represents time.
O x(t) v(t)
P

Definition 4.1 The velocity v(t) is the rate of change of position:

x(t + △t) − x(t) dx(t)

v(t) = lim = = ẋ(t).
△t→0 △t dt

The velocity vector is tangential to C (remember r′ - the tangent vector in §3.2).

d dx dẋ d2 x
Notation Usually we use “ ˙ = ”, so we write ẋ = , and ẍ = = 2.
dt dt dt dt

Definition 4.2 The speed v is the magnitude of v. So

 
dx ds
v = kvk = = = ṡ
dt dt

where s denotes arc length (see §3.3).

Definition 4.3 The acceleration vector a is the rate of change of velocity:

dv d2 x
a = =
dt dt2
= v̇ = ẍ

Notation We write r(t) = kx(t)k or, dropping the ‘t’, r = kxk.

Useful identities

(1) r ṙ = x.ẋ

(2) v v̇ = ẋ.ẍ = v.v̇

41
 d
Proof of (1) (Compare with the example in §3.2 to calculate dt krk, and Theorem 13.2.8 in
Anton.)
r 2 = kxk2 = x.x,

therefore, differentiating,
2r ṙ = 2x.ẋ.

Proof of (2) Similar to the proof of (1) - see Sheet 6 Qn 6.

4.2 Equations of Motion and Vector Differential Equations

The equations of motion in two and three dimensions produce vector differential equations. The
usual rules for solving differential equations apply. To show this we’ll look at two examples.
Example 1: Consider the motion of a particle described by the vector differential equation:

ẍ = k x ∧ ẋ, (4.1)

where k is a constant.

(i) Show that the speed v is constant throughout the motion.

(ii) Find a differential equation for r(t) = kx(t)k, and hence solve for r(t).

Solution

(i) Take the dot product of (4.1) with ẋ to give:

ẋ.ẍ = ẋ.(kx ∧ ẋ) = 0.

Thus, via the second “useful identity” above,

v v̇ = 0.

1 d 2

Therefore 2 v = 0, and so v is a constant.
dt

(ii) Remember that r 2 = x.x. To make use of the differential equation (4.1) we need to

42
 differentiate twice to get a term containing ẍ.
 
d2 2 d d
(r ) = (x.x)
dt2 dt dt
d
= (2x.ẋ)
dt
= 2ẋ.ẋ + 2x.ẍ

= 2kvk2 + 2x.(kx ∧ ẋ)

= 2v 2 .

But v is constant by (i), so solving this scalar ODE gives

r(t)2 = v 2 t2 + At + B,

or
p
r(t) = v 2 t2 + At + B,

where A, B are constants of integration to be determined e.g. from the initial conditions.
2

Example 2 The motion of a particle is described by the vector differential equation

ẍ + ω 2 x = 0, (4.2)

where ω is constant.

(i) Show that ẋ ∧ x = h, a constant vector.

(ii) Determine x(t) given that x(0) = x0 and ẋ(0) = v0 .

(iii) Describe the motion geometrically.

Solution

(i) To show a quantity is constant it is usually easiest to prove its derivative is zero. Now,

d
(ẋ ∧ x) = ẍ ∧ x + ẋ ∧ ẋ = −ω 2 x ∧ x + 0 = 0.
dt

Therefore, ẋ ∧ x = h, for some constant vector h.

43
 (ii) Equation (4.2) is a 2nd order constant coefficient ODE for the vector function x(t) and
has general solution (think of 3 scalar ODEs)

x(t) = a cos ωt + b sin ωt, a, b are arbitrary constant vectors.

From the initial conditions

x0 = a cos 0 + b sin 0 = a,
v0
v0 = − aω sin 0 + b ω cos 0 = b ω. ∴ b= .
ω
Thus the solution is
1
x(t) = x0 cos ωt + v0 sin ωt .
ω
(iii) Now, since x0 , v0 are constant vectors, x(t) remains in the plane generated by x0 and v0 .
2

See one more example in lectures, and also Sheet 6 for more examples.

4.3 Velocity and Acceleration in polar coordinates in 2-D

So far we have always used the unit vectors i, j, k to represent vectors. However, it is often
convenient to deal with “moving” or “rotating” axes, as we show using polar coordinates (see
Anton §11.1, and pp. 917-918).
Introduce on the plane OXY the polar coordinates (r, θ) where r := kxk, θ is the angle
between x and the OX-axis as on the diagram.
y
er
x = r cos θ
eθ θ y = r sin θ
θ
j P
r

θ
x
O i

Let the position vector of P be x(t). We introduce the unit vectors

x
er = ( the radial direction),
r
eθ ⊥ er , in the direction of increasing θ ( the angular direction).

44
Hence er , eθ are unit vectors pointing in the direction of increasing r and θ, respectively. In
terms of i and j, from trigonometry,

er = cos θ i + sin θ j, 
(4.3)
eθ = − sin θ i + cos θ j. 

Note that er , eθ are independent of r. Differentiate (4.3) with regard to θ:


der 
= − sin θ i + cos θ j = eθ , 

dθ
(4.4)
deθ 

= − cos θi − sin θj = − er . 
dθ
So, for a moving point x(t), the chain rule gives,

der der dθ
ėr = = = θ̇ eθ .
dt dθ dt
deθ deθ dθ
ėθ = = = − θ̇ er .
dt dθ dt
The resulting important equations, that you should remember, are

ėr = θ̇ eθ ,
(4.5)
ėθ = −θ̇ er .

Velocity in polar coordinates. From the definition of er , the position vector of P is given by

x(t) = r(t)er (θ(t)), (4.6)

and differentiating with respect to t gives, via (4.5),

v = ẋ = ṙer + r ėr = ṙer + r θ̇eθ (4.7)

r θ̇eθ ṙer
P
x
C
O

So, ṙ and r θ̇ are the components of the velocity v in the er and eθ directions, respectively.
The speed is given by:
q
v = kvk = ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇ 2 , (4.8)

45
(using Pythagoras’ theorem, or directly via v 2 = v · v etc.).
Acceleration in polar coordinates
Differentiating one more time, and using again (4.5),
d d  
ẍ = (ẋ) = ṙer + r θ̇eθ
dt dt

= r̈er + ṙėr + ṙ θ̇eθ + r θ̈eθ + r θ̇ėθ

= r̈er + ṙθ̇eθ + ṙθ̇eθ + r θ̈eθ − r θ̇ 2 er .
Thus
   
ẍ = r̈ − r θ̇ 2 er + r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ eθ . (4.9)

Hence, (r̈ − r θ̇ 2 ) and (r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇) are the acceleration components in the er and eθ directions,
respectively. Note that for the angular component,
1 d  2 
r θ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ = r θ̇ .
r dt
Definition 4.4 θ̇ is the rate of change of the angle θ, often called “angular speed” ω. So θ̇ = ω.

Example 1: A particle moves on a circle of radius R with a constant angular acceleration α

(i.e. θ̈ = α). If the particle starts from rest, show that after time t, (a) its angular speed, ω, is
R
given by ω = αt, and (b) the arc length covered is 2 ωt.
Solution

ẋ = ṙer + r θ̇ eθ = Rθ̇eθ (since ṙ = 0)

ẍ = (r̈ − r θ̇ 2 )er + (2ṙ θ̇ + r θ̈)eθ = −Rθ̇ 2 er + Rθ̈eθ .

(a) Angular acceleration

θ̈ = α

hence θ̇ = αt + A.

But A = 0 since θ̇(0) = 0 (that is, the particle starts from rest).

∴ ω = θ̇ = αt .

(b)
1 2
θ= αt (we can take θ(0) = 0)
2
R
∴ Rθ = αt2
2
R R
∴ arclength travelled = Rθ = αt2 = ωt.
2 2

46
2
Next we give an example to show how the fixed i, j frame and the moving er , eθ frame can be
used together.
Example 2:
eθ
ω P er
C
θ j
a

i
Q O

A wheel of radius a rolls without slipping at a constant angular speed ω along a horizontal plane.
At t = 0 the spoke CP is vertically downwards. Find the acceleration of the point P .
Solution First, note that “no slipping” implies that the arc length from P to Q is given by
−−→
a θ = aω t = OQ . After time t, the position vector of P , namely x(t), is given by
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
x(t) = OP = OQ + QC + CP

= − a θi + aj + aer .

So, the velocity is given by (using θ̇ = ω)

v = ẋ = − aθ̇ i + aėr = − aωi + aθ̇eθ

= aω(eθ − i).

Hence, the acceleration is given by,

a = ẍ = aω ėθ = − aω θ̇er = − aω 2 er ,

and so a acts only in the radial direction. 2

4.4 Some curves in polar coordinates (r, θ)

Recall that in polar coordinates (x, y) = (r cos θ, r sin θ). Here is a short discussion of some
well-known curves in 2-D.
Example 1 The curve given by r = l, l > 0, is a circle of radius l, centred on (0, 0).
l
Example 2 (See Anton §§11.4, 11.6) The curve given by r = , with e, l constants,
1 + e cos θ
l > 0, and 0 < e < 1, is an ellipse. Since we need to know about elliptical orbits of planets later
on, we give a derivation.

47
Derivation: l = r + e |r cos
{z θ}
=x
∴ l − ex = r
∴ (l − ex)2 = r 2 = x2 + y 2
∴ (1 − e2 )x2 + 2lex + y 2 = l2
 2
le l2
∴ (1 − e2 ) x+ + y2 =
1 − e2 1 − e2
 2
le
x+ l−e2 y2
∴  2 + 2 = 1.
l l
1−e2 √
1 − e2
This is the usual equation of an ellipse in Cartesian coordinates (cf. Anton p. 755) where,

x̂2 ŷ 2
+ 2 = 1,
a2 b
le
x̂ = x + , ŷ = y,
1 − e2

l l
a = , b= √ .
1 − e2 1 − e2

Here, e is called the “eccentricity” and l is the “semilatus rectum”. If e = 0 then we have a
circle.
Example 3
l
r= , e > 1,
±1 + e cos θ
is the equation of a hyperbola.
Example 4
l
r= ,
1 + cos θ
is the equation of a parabola. (See Anton §11.6 for more on the Examples 3 and 4, even though
this is non-examinable for MA10208.)

4.5 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

Read Anton §12.8 (pp.854-859). This material won’t be examined in MA10208.

4.6 Angular velocity

The vector product arises naturally in the description of rotating systems. Here we show why.

48
 n

C eφ
Π
Q P
a
φ eR

x(t)

Consider the rotation of a point P about a fixed axis. Let x(t) be the position vector of P . Let
n be a unit vector along the axis and let x(t) make a constant angle α with n. Let r(= kxk) be
a constant, so that P traces a circle, of radius a say, in the plane Π perpendicular to n.
−−→
Introduce polar coordinates on Π : Let Q be the origin, set R = kQP k. Let φ be the polar angle
in Π (increasing φ is “anti-clockwise” looking along n from its terminal point), let eR be the
−−→
unit vector in the direction QP , and let eφ be the unit vector in Π perpendicular to eR pointing
in the direction of the increase of φ. Then

−−→ −−→
x(t) = OQ + QP

= |OQ|n + a eR .

Therefore the velocity is

ẋ = aėR = aφ̇eφ

(c.f §4.3, (4.5)). Notice that eR , eφ , n form a right-handed orthonormal system. Therefore,

eφ = n ∧ eR .

Hence,

−−→
n ∧ x = n ∧ OQ +an ∧ eR = aeφ .
| {z }
=0

Therefore

ẋ = aφ̇ eφ = (φ̇n) ∧ x.

49
Denoting
−
→
ω = φ̇ n, (4.10)

then
ẋ = −
→
ω ∧x . (4.11)

Also, note that from (4.11) if −

→
ω is constant we have the following expression for the acceleration:

ẍ = −
→
ω ∧ (−
→
ω ∧ x) (4.12)

since ẍ = −
→
ω ∧ ẋ.

Definition 4.5 The vector −

→
ω := φ̇ n is called the angular velocity, and ω = φ̇ is the angular
speed.

In particular, if ω is constant, and

φ = ωt + φ0 ,

for some initial value φ0 , then φ increases by 2π after a full circuit has been completed. The
2π
time taken, T = , is called the period of revolution.
ω
Exercise: Is the converse true, that is, does (4.11) imply that the motion is circular? (See
Problem Sheet 7 Qn 2.)

4.7 Relative velocity

So far, position and velocity were considered relative to some fixed reference point. However,
it is often necessary to consider velocities with respect to moving reference points. Let P1 and
P2 be two moving particles with position vectors x(1) and x(2) respectively (relative to a fixed
origin O).

Definition 4.6 The position of P1 relative to P2 , is defined as

−−−→
x(12) := P2 P1 = x(1) − x(2) .

Similarly, the velocity of P1 relative to P2 is defined as

v(12) := ẋ(12) = ẋ(1) − ẋ(2) =⇒ v(12) = v(1) − v(2) .

50
 Example: (Not in lectures, still a useful illustration.) The distance between the points A
and B is d. An aeroplane flies on a straight course from A to B and back, with constant speed
v relative to the air. There is a wind of speed w < v blowing in the direction inclined at angle
θ to AB opposing the motion. Find the total time taken to get from A to B and back.
Solution Let v(1) represent the velocity of the aeroplane relative to the ground, and let v(2)
be the velocity of the wind relative to the ground. Hence v(12) is the velocity of the aeroplane
relative to the air. Introducing an appropriate coordinate system, it follows that

v(1) = u j, where u ∈ R is unknown, and v(2) = w = w(− sin θi − cos θj),

and

v(12) = v e = v(1) − v(2) == w sin θi + (u + w cos θ)j, where e is unknown unit vector, kek = 1.

Hence, taking magnitudes gives

p
v 2 = w2 sin2 θ + (u + w cos θ)2 =⇒ u = − w cos θ ± v 2 − w2 sin2 θ.

Thus, the time taken for the forward journey is

d d
t1 = =p ,
u v 2 − w2 sin2 θ − w cos θ
taking the positive root (otherwise u < 0). For the return journey, the negative root must be
taken, so the time t2 taken on the return journey is

−d
t2 = p .
v 2 − w2 sin2 θ + w cos θ
Hence the total journey time, t, is
p
2d v 2 − w2 sin2 θ
t = t1 + t2 = .
v 2 − w2
Notice that this time t = t(θ) is minimal when θ = π/2, which physically represents a crosswind.
2

5 Laws of Motion

Up till now the equations of motion (namely, vector differential equations) have just been written
down and then solved. In this section we’ll show how they can be derived from physical “laws”.
In §5.1 we’ll look at Kepler’s laws and derive an inverse square law for the acceleration of a
planet. In §5.2 we’ll consider Newton’s laws which lead to the universal law of gravitation.

51