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 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Chapter 7: Autobiographical Memory

Test Bank

Multiple Choice

1. Zora remembers the details of where and what she was doing when she heard the
news that Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans. This kind of memory is often referred to
as:
a. storm memory.
b. flashbulb memory.
c. retrograde memory.
d. traumatic memory.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Theories of Flashbulb Memory Formation
Difficulty Level: Medium

2. The term autobiographical memory refers to:

a. personal specific memories and self-knowledge.
b. the memories of famous people for important events.
c. flashbulb memories only.
d. our semantic memory for our life’s narrative.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Easy

3. In Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory, specific events refer to:

a. the specific plans we make for our future selves.
b. the broad patterns of ups and downs in our lives.
c. episodic memories.
d. well-learned scripts of personal events.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

4. In Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory, general events refer to:

a. the combined, averaged, and cumulative memory of highly similar events.
b. details of specific events.
c. the sources of our autobiographical memories.
d. the markers that divide major life periods.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

5. Which is an example of an “extended” event in Conway’s theory?

a. a combined memory of many trips to the grocery store
b. the memory of the specific instant when the check-out person at the grocery store
dropped a large bag of rice on your toes
c. the memory of your life when you worked at a ranch in Utah
d. the memory of the horse-back riding trip you took in the hills of Utah
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

6. An example of a lifetime period is:

a. the memory of your 11th birthday.
b. remembering when your cat was lost for a day.
c. thinking about “when you worked at the grocery store.”
d. remembering the long drive you took from Montreal in Canada to Dallas, in the United
States.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

7. The working self:

a. allows us to generalize life event to specific details.
b. includes the goals and self-images that make up our view of ourselves.
c. is similar to working memory in its time course.
d. integrates our autobiographical memory with our working memory.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Working Self
Difficulty Level: Medium

8. Childhood amnesia refers to:

a. the poor memory of children for episodic details.
b. the poor memory of children for semantic knowledge.
c. the poor memory of adults for children.
d. the poor memory of adults for events from early childhood and infancy.
Ans: d
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. Roxanne cannot recall any details from the first few years of life. This pattern is
called:
a. olfactory memory.
b. childhood amnesia.
c. infantile suppression.
d. encoding binaurality.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Medium

10. By which age is childhood amnesia usually no longer seen?

a. 1 years of age.
b. 2 years of age.
c. 4 years of age.
d. 6 months of age.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Medium

11. When adults do remember events from before the age of four, those memories tend
to be:
a. always reconstructed and patently false.
b. of routine events such as bedtime rituals.
c. of big events, usually later rehearsed, such as the birth of a sibling.
d. highly traumatic events.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Event-Specific Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

12. Asking people to recall the earliest memory they can shows that:
a. self-report is completely unreliable.
b. people will report memories of events that they could not possibly remember.
c. adults will report events from around the age of three.
d. adults can remember events prior to those that they actually report when prompted
with cues provided by parents or older siblings.
Ans: c
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Event-Specific Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

13. The psychodynamic view of childhood amnesia attempts to explain the

phenomenon by:
a. postulating that language is not yet developed.
b. that cultural differences outweigh the amnesia effect.
c. proposing that the brain is still too immature to form episodic memories.
d. that people must repress or suppress childhood memories that cannot understand.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Psychodynamic View
Difficulty Level: Medium

14. Simcock and Hayne (2002) presented two-, three-, and four-year-old children with a
demonstration of their “incredible shrinking machine.” When the children were brought
back one year later, they found that:
a. children only recalled items if the words for those items were in the vocabulary at the
time of presentation.
b. only the oldest children could remember any of the objects seen.
c. because of the onset of childhood amnesia, only the four-year-olds showed deficits in
memory.
d. recall was predicted by the level of trauma in each child’s life.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Hard

15. Simcock and Hayne (2002) found that children only remembered those objects for
which they possessed the vocabulary for when they witnessed the event. Which view of
childhood amnesia does this support?
a. The influence of language development on childhood amnesia
b. The psychodynamic view because children repress what they do not know
c. The view that neural development is not complete
d. The influence of the development of a working self
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Hard

16. Cross-cultural studies show that:

a. people most affected by a public tragedy tend to repress that event.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
b. people most affected by a public tragedy are most likely to have flashbulb memories
for that event.
c. people least affected by a public tragedy often have low confidence in their flashbulb
memories.
d. only some cultures show flashbulb memories at all; it appears to be unique to
western civilization.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

17. Weaver (1993) conducted a study comparing an ordinary memory and a flashbulb
memory. Weaver’s students wrote down as many details as they could remember from
the ordinary interaction with their roommate and their memory of hearing the news of
the start of the Gulf War (1991). He found that:
a. At the end of the semester, each student could remember both events flawlessly.
b. By the end of the semester, confidence was higher for the flashbulb memory, but the
accuracy was equivalent for both memories.
c. Five years later, none of the students could be contacted, so the study was
discontinued.
d. The vivid memories of the start of the war were lost once the second Iraq war began
11 years later.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

18. Joseph, an American from Chicago, was 10 years old when he heard the news of
9/11 in his fourth-grade class. The data suggest that when asked about this memory
now, Joseph will:
a. report a highly confident memory of where he was when he heard the news.
b. be unable to report a memory because of his young age at the time of the event.
c. report a completely accurate memory, but his confidence will be quite low.
d. will show flashbulb-like symptoms of childhood amnesia.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

19. Kensinger and Schacter (2006) examined memories of baseball fans in New York
and Boston for the surprise Game 7 victory of the Boston Red Sox over the New York
Yankees in the American League Championship in 2004. They found that:
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
a. because it was a negative event for New York fans, they showed extreme
overconfidence in their memory.
b. despite the difference in emotional valence, there were no differences between
Boston fans and New York fans.
c. because it was a positive event for Boston fans, they showed greater accuracy in
their memories.
d. because it was a positive event for Boston fans, they showed greater more
overconfidence in their memories.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

20. The special mechanism of flashbulb memory formation suggests that:

a. unlike ordinary memories, flashbulb memories are processed only in the frontal lobes.
b. unlike ordinary memories, flashbulb memories can never be considered veridical.
c. there are no differences between flashbulb and ordinary memories; they are all
“special.”
d. there is a unique and special mechanism responsible for flashbulb memories.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

21. In a landmark diary study, a Willem Wagenaar, a Dutch psychologist, recorded over
2,400 events over the course of six years (Wagenaar, 1986). Wagenaar found that:
a. he could recall remarkably few of the events even with many cues.
b. cues did not improve his ability to recall autobiographical events.
c. using “when” as a cue led to fewer memories than using “who,” “where,” or “what” as
a cue.
d. he could remember many details from trips that he made abroad, but very little of his
daily routines.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Childhood Memories May Result from Multiple Causes
Difficulty Level: Hard

22. One advantage of doing single-subject memory diary studies is that:

a. because the subject is also the researcher, long retention (i.e., several years)
intervals can be employed.
b. because the subject is also usually a professor, the diaries are usually quite legible.
c. single-subject studies are highly generalizable to the general public.
d. because the subject is focusing on memory, his or her memory may be optimal.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

23. In the cue-word technique, an ordinary word is provided to participants and they are
asked to provide the first memory—from any point in their life—which the word elicits. In
general, when older adults are tested,
a. older adults remember few events from the very recent past.
b. older adults show a reminiscence bump; that is, they recall events from late childhood
early adulthood better than events from before or after.
c. older adults show a reminiscence bump; that is, they show better memory for earliest
childhood than do younger adults.
d. older adults do not show reminiscence effects.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

24. Akiko, a 55-year-old, is given a cue word and asked to come up with the first
memory she can come up with. Akiko is likely to:
a. come up with a memory from early childhood.
b. demonstrate anterograde amnesia.
c. either recall a recent event or one from early childhood.
d. either recall a recent event or one from her late teens.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

25. One explanation of the reminiscence bump is that:

a. anterograde amnesia may occur even in healthy older adults.
b. language is most fluent during the time period of age 16–25.
c. cultural differences make an explanation impossible for the reminiscence bump.
d. the time period of age 16–25 is a time period with many “first experiences.”
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Easy
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
26. The socio-cultural explanation of the reminiscence bump states that:
a. neurological changes in the brain account for different cultural perspectives on the
bump.
b. most cultures place great emphasis on the events that take place during the time
period of age 16–25.
c. language is most fluent during the time period of age 16–25.
d. there should be no reminiscence bumps in non-literate cultures.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Sociocultural Views
Difficulty Level: Medium

27. Observer memories are:

a. memories of others’ flashbulb memories.
b. memories in which we see images as they actually occurred from the distant past.
c. memories in which we take the vantage point of an outside observer and see
ourselves as actors in our visual memory.
d. memories that are not susceptible to cultural differences.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Field and Observer Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

28. Field memories are:

a. memories that are resistant to auditory illusions.
b. memories of early childhood events.
c. autobiographical and visual memories in which we see the memory as if we were
looking at the event through our own eyes.
d. memories in which we take the vantage point of an outside observer and see
ourselves as actors in our visual memory.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Field and Observer Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

29. McIsaac and Eich (2004) found that when patients suffering from PTSD retrieved
memories as field memories, their emotional response was more negative and more
intense. When they asked participants to recall them as observer memories,
a. they were more likely to have sudden flashbacks.
b. the observer memories were less likely to feel like flashbulb memories.
c. they experienced less negative emotions.
d. they experienced more PTSD symptoms.
Ans: c
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Field and Observer Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

30. Borrowed Disputed memories are most common:

a. in people who share a field memory PTSD experience.
b. in people who share cultural identities.
c. in people who seldom experience similar events.
d. in identical twins.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Disputed Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

31. Willander and Larsson (2007) conducted a study on the role odors play in
autobiographical memory. They found that:
a. odors elicit more autobiographical memories than did the odor names.
b. odors elicited fewer autobiographical memories than did cue words.
c. odors are not good triggers of autobiographical memories.
d. odors only elicited memories of events that involved odors.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

32. Herz (2004) showed that autobiographical memories produced by odor cues:
a. were more visual-oriented than memories induced by verbal cues.
b. were more emotional than memories induced by verbal cues.
c. were less emotional than memories induced by auditory cues.
d. were more likely to induce field memories than memories induced by verbal cues.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

33. Daselaar et al. (2008) used a standard cue-word technique, that is, participants
heard a word and were asked to think of the first autobiographical memory that came to
mind. During retrieval, an fMRI machine monitored the participants’ brains. The fMRI
technique allows the researchers to obtain a detailed map of where activity in the brain
is taking place. It showed that:
a. there was activity in the medial temporal lobe, the hippocampus, and right prefrontal
cortex.
b. most of the neural activity was in the cerebellum.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
c. there was no activity in the pre-frontal lobe.
d. fMRI could not detect differences based on autobiographical memory.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

34. Adam, a valet, describes what he usually does when he parks a car at work. Adam
is retrieving:
a. an event-specific memory.
b. a general event.
c. a life-time period.
d. from the working self.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

35. Conway’s model of autobiographical memory concerns how we:

a. represent or store autobiographical memory.
b. encode information into autobiographical memory.
c. how we consolidate information into autobiographical memory.
d. how autobiographical memory interacts with visual imagery.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

36. Thomsen and Berntsen (2008) found that, among Danish elders, the bump was
particularly noticeable for the memory of events that were consistent with:
a. general events recalled in field format.
b. the offset of childhood amnesia.
c. less socially-marked memories, such as travel, memorable meals, or political
memories.
d. cultural life scripts, such as first jobs, dating, and leaving home.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

37. Which evidence is consistent with the view that childhood amnesia ends with the
onset of a sense of self?
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
a. Infants begin talking at about their first birthday.
b. The development of a sense of self varies greatly across culture.
c. The hippocampus does not fully mature until about the age of three.
d. A developing sense of self allows the individual to code his or her memories into this
developing sense of self.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Sense of Smell and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

38. Talarico and Rubin (2007), for example, compared memories of their personal
whereabouts when they heard the news of 9/11 and an ordinary event around the same
time. They found that:
a. memories of 9/11differed systematically from other flashbulb memories.
b. confidence and accuracy remained high over retention intervals for both memories.
c. confidence remained high for the news of 9/11 but dropped for the ordinary event.
d. people were unwilling to report their memories.
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

39. Berntsen and Rubin (2008) asked participants to record involuntary memories in a
memory diary. In particular, participants were asked to record involuntary memories that
referred to a serious (or traumatic) event in their lives.
a. They found that involuntary memories could not be retrieved under spontaneous
conditions.
b. They found that involuntary memories were usually made with high confidence.
c. They found that involuntary memories were more common among siblings.
d. They found that involuntary memories are frequent, but decline somewhat with age.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

40. Daselaar et al. (2008) examined the neural correlates of retrieval from
autobiographical memory. They found that:
a. those memories that were given high judgments of emotionality were correlated with
greater activity in the occipital cortex.
b. those memories that were given high judgments of emotionality were correlated with
greater activity in the hippocampus and the amygdala in the limbic system.
c. autobiographical memory was associated with increased blood flow to the pons and
brainstem.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
d. autobiographical memory was associated with increased blood flow to Broca’s area in
the left frontal lobe.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

41. Jack et al. (2012) tracked down the children who had participated in the “magic
shrinking machine” experiment six years later when the children varied from age 8 to
age 10. They found that:
a. The children had all entered the childhood amnesia phase and could not recall the
event.
b. Some, but not all, of the children could recall the event and some of the items that
had been “shrunk.”
c. At the older age, children could only remember items that were not in their vocabulary
as younger children.
d. none of the above are true.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Hard

42. In a study on flashbulb memory it was found that:

a. positive events lead to more encoding failures than negative events.
b. Catholics have more flashbulb memories of the death of Pope John Paul II than do
non-Catholics.
c. positive events lead to greater accuracy of flashbulb memories than do negative
events.
d. Because of the trauma involved, people outside of Turkey had more flashbulb
memories for an earthquake in Turkey than did Turkish people.
Ans: b
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

43. Dickson, Pillemer, and Bruehl (2011) found a reminiscence bump for events:
a. that were surprising and therefore not part of the person’s lifetime period or cultural
scripts as well as positive and script-relevant events.
b. only for recent events.
c. only for young adults.
d. all of the above.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Application
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Answer Location: Memory-Fluency
Difficulty Level: Hard

44. Berntsen, Staugaard, and Sorensen (in press) asked participants to engage in
sound-location task which involved determining if two sounds were being played to the
same ear or one to each ear. They found that:
a. novel sounds were less likely to induce disputed memories.
b. novel sounds were less likely to induce involuntary memories.
c. novel sounds required more attention, creating less cognitive control, which resulted
in more involuntary memories.
d. the novel sounds were annoying and all the participants dropped out of the study
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Involuntary Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

45. Neuroimaging studies on autobiographical memory show that:

a. areas of the brainstem have a critical role in putting a person into “retrieval mode.”
b. retrieval of autobiographical memory is not measurable in fMRI
c. only general cues elicit elevated activity in the hippocampus.
d. both specific and general cues elicit activity in the medial temporal lobe and
hippocampus.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

46. Which of the following statements about neuroimaging studies of autobiographical

memory are true?
a. General cues are more likely to recruit areas in the lateral temporal lobe.
b. Specific cues resulted in stronger responses in the left hippocampus and the medial
prefrontal region than did the general cues.
c. The right prefrontal cortex is associated with going into “retrieval mode,” that is,
initiating the memory search.
d. All of the above are true.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

47. Which of the following is a methodological difficulty in studying involuntary

memories?
a. Involuntary memories seldom occur under natural circumstances.
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
b. Involuntary memories are often false memories.
c. Involuntary memories are often observer memories.
d. Studying involuntary memory is a bit more difficult because the researchers cannot
give direct cues—as that would lead to a voluntary memory.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Involuntary Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

48. Ahmet is 82 years old, has normal memory for someone of his age, and has lived all
his life in Egypt. Based on data on the reminiscence bump, you would expect that:
a. Ahmet would have less of a recency effect than an American senior.
b. Ahmet would show an earlier reminiscence bump than an American senior.
c. Ahmet would show a later reminiscence bump than an American senior.
d. Ahmet would not differ with respect to the reminiscence bump relative to an American
senior.
Ans: d
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Hard

49. Diaries studies on college students show that:

a. memories that were scored as relevant to the persons’ “life story” were recalled better
than those that were not.
b. memory researchers typically have better autobiographical memory than college
students.
c. event-specific memories are recalled better than general events.
d. voluntary memories are more likely to be disputed memories than involuntary
memories.
Ans: a
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Diary Studies and the Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

50. According to your textbook, which is considered the best explanation of childhood
amnesia?
a. The psychodynamic view because children repress what they do not know
b. The view that neural development is not complete
c. The influence of language development on childhood amnesia
d. The influence of the development of a working self
Ans: c
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Medium

True/False

1. The term autobiographical memory refers to our semantic memory for our life’s
narrative.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Easy

2. Cross-cultural studies show that people most affected by a public tragedy tend to
repress that event.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Sociocultural Views
Difficulty Level: Easy

3. In Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory, specific events refer to episodic

memories.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Easy

4. An example of an “extended” event in Conway’s theory would be the memory of the

long car trip you took in the hills of West Virginia.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Hard

5. The working self allows us to generalize life event to specific details.

Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Working-Self
Difficulty Level: Hard

6. Childhood amnesia refers to the poor memory of children for semantic knowledge.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Easy

7. Roxanne cannot recall any details from the first few years of life. This pattern is called
encoding binaurality.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Childhood Amnesia
Difficulty Level: Medium

8. When adults do remember events from before the age of four, those memories tend
to be of big events, usually later rehearsed, such as the birth of a sibling.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Event-Specific Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. Weaver (1993) conducted a study comparing an ordinary memory and a flashbulb

memory. Weaver’s students wrote down as many details as they could remember from
the ordinary interaction with their roommate and their memory of hearing the news of
the start of the Gulf War (1991). He found that by the end of the semester, confidence
was higher for the flashbulb memory, but the accuracy was equivalent for both
memories.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

10. Kensinger and Schacter (2006) examined memories of baseball fans in New York
and Boston for the surprise Game 7 victory of the Boston Red Sox over the New York
Yankees in the American League Championship in 2004. They found that despite the
difference in emotional valence, there were no differences between Boston fans and
New York fans.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

11. Thomsen and Berntsen (2008) found that, among Danish elders, the bump was
particularly noticeable for the memory of events that were consistent with cultural life
scripts, such as first jobs, dating, and leaving home.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Hard

12. McIsaac and Eich (2004) found that when patients suffering from PTSD retrieved
memories as field memories, their emotional response was more negative and more
intense. When they asked participants to recall them as observer memories they
experienced more PTSD symptoms.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Field Observer Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

13. John, a 55-year-old, is given a cue word and asked to come up with the first
memory she can come up with. John is likely to demonstrate anterograde amnesia.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

14. Conway’s model of autobiographical memory concerns how we represent or store

autobiographical memory.
Ans: T
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

15. Berntsen, Staugaard, and Sorensen (in press) asked participants to engage in
sound-location task which involved determining if two sounds were being played to the
same ear or one to each ear. They found that novel sounds were less likely to induce
involuntary memories.
Ans: F
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: Involuntary Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

Short Answer

1. Dickson, Pillemer, and Bruehl (2011) found a ______ bump for events that were
surprising and therefore not part of the person’s lifetime period
Ans: reminiscence
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Application
Answer Location: Memory-Fluency
Difficulty Level: Medium

2. Studying involuntary memory is a bit more difficult because the researchers cannot
give direct cues—as that would lead to a ______ memory.
Ans: voluntary
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Involuntary Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Daselaar et al. (2008) examined the neural correlates of retrieval from ______
memory. They found that those memories that were given high judgments of
emotionality were correlated with greater activity in the hippocampus and the amygdala
in the limbic system.
Ans: autobiographical
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

4. Talarico and Rubin (2007) compared memories of their personal whereabouts when
they heard the news of 9/11 and an ordinary event around the same time. They found
that ______ remained high for the news of 9/11 but dropped for the ordinary event.
Ans: confidence
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

5. Neuroimaging studies on ______ memory show that both specific and general cues
elicit activity in the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus.
Ans: autobiographical
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

6. An example of an “______” event in Conway’s theory was the memory of the horse-
back riding trip you took in the hills of Pennsylvania.
Ans: extended
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium
 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
7. Daselaar et al. (2008) used a standard ______ technique, that is, participants heard a
word and were asked to think of the first autobiographical memory that came to mind.
During retrieval, an fMRI machine monitored the participants’ brains. The fMRI
technique allows the researchers to obtain a detailed map of where activity in the brain
is taking place. It showed that there was activity in the medial temporal lobe, the
hippocampus, and right prefrontal cortex.
Ans: cue-word
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

8. Field memories are ______ and visual memories in which we see the memory as if
we were looking at the event through our own eyes.
Ans: autobiographical
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Field and Observer Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. One advantage of doing ______ memory diary studies is that because the subject is
also the researcher, long retention (i.e., several years) intervals can be employed.
Ans: single-subject
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

10. In Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory, specific events refers to ______

memory.
Ans: episodic
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

Essay

1. Explain the psychodynamic view of childhood amnesia.

Ans: It is caused by active repression.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Psychodynamic View
Difficulty Level: Medium

2. Explain “flashbulb” memories.

 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Ans: Highly confident personal memories of surprising events.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Medium

3. Explain the “reminiscence bump.”

Ans: Recalled memories corresponding to late adolescence to early adulthood or
roughly the ages of 16–25.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump
Difficulty Level: Medium

4. Explain the process of coherence.

Ans: A process that yields autobiographical memories that are consistent with the
working self.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: The Working Self
Difficulty Level: Hard

5. Explain correspondence in memory of events.

Ans: The match between the retrieved memory and the actual past event.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Working Self
Difficulty Level: Medium

6. Explain the “cue-word” technique in memory.

Ans: An ordinary word is provided to participants and they are asked to provide the first
memory that the word elicits.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: The Cue-Word Technique for Eliciting Autobiographical Memories and
the Reminiscence Bump.
Difficulty Level: Medium

7. Explain the results of Weaver’s (1993) study comparing an ordinary memory and a
flashbulb memory.
Ans: He found that by the end of the semester, confidence was higher for the flashbulb
memory, but the accuracy was equivalent for both memories.
Cognitive Domain: Analysis
Answer Location: Flashbulb Memories
Difficulty Level: Hard

8. Explain the results of Willem Wagenaar’s work in a landmark diary study.

 Instructor Resource
Schwartz, Memory: Foundations and Applications, 3e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Ans: In a record of over 2.400 events over a course of six years, when using “when” as
a cue led to fewer memories than using “who,” “where,” or “what” as a cue.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Diary Studies and Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium

9. Explain Conway’s theory of autobiographical memory.

Ans: General events refers to the combined, averaged, and cumulative memory of
highly similar events.
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Conway’s Theory of Representation in Autobiographical Memory
Difficulty Level: Medium
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domes and fanes. All the lower storeys were divided into
compartments by pilasters and bands, these compartments
embellished by figures and groups in bas-relief. The lower part of
this palace was of stone, the upper of wood. Hentzner, the German
traveller, became quite enthusiastic in describing it as a palace in
which everything that architecture could perform seemed to have
been accomplished; and says that it was "so encompassed with
parks full of deer, delicious gardens, groves ornamented with trellis-
work, cabinets of verdure, and walks so embowered by trees, that it
seemed to be a place pitched upon by Pleasure herself to dwell in
along with Health."
But there were two men in the reign of Henry VIII. who drew him
off from this more florid and fanciful style to others of a very
different, but equally imposing character, and full of rich detail.
These were Wolsey and John of Padua. Wolsey appeared to have an
especial fondness for brick-work, and Hampton and the gatehouse of
his mansion at Esher remain as proofs of the admirable masonry
which he used. In Hampton Court (see p. 121) we go back from the
barbaric pomp of Nonsuch to the castellated style; to small windows,
pointed archways, castellated turrets and battlements, mingled with
rich oriel windows over the entrances, rich groined roofs in the
archways, but a very sparing use of the ordinary aid of the bulbous
dome. In this and the other buildings of this class, as Hengrave in
Suffolk, the richly cross-banded chimneys are a conspicuous
ornament. John Thorpe, or John of Padua, who became chief
architect to Henry VIII., and afterwards built Somerset House for the
Protector, seems to have been unknown in his own country, but
originated a modified Italian style here which bears his name,
possessing great grace and dignity, and of which Stoneyhurst
College in Lancashire, Longleat in Wiltshire, and Kirby Hall in
Northamptonshire (built for Sir Christopher Hatton), are fine
examples.
In the smaller houses of town and country there continued to be
little change. They were chiefly of timber, and displayed much more
picturesqueness than they afforded comfort. In towns the different
storeys, one over-hanging another till the inhabitants could almost
shake hands out of the attic windows across the narrow streets, and
their want of internal cleanliness and ventilation, caused the plague
periodically to visit them. The Spaniards who accompanied Philip, in
Mary's reign, were equally amazed at the good living of the English
people and the dirt about their houses. One great improvement
about this time was the introduction of chimneys; and in good
country-houses the ample space of their staircases, often finely
ornamented with balustrade work, diffused a pure atmosphere
through them.
In other arts, however, the sixteenth century in England was almost
destitute of native talent. In Statuary and Carving the preceding
century had made great progress, but the destruction of the
churches, and the outcry raised against images and carving on
tombs as idolatry and vain-glory, gave a decided check to their
development. As for Painting, it had never, except in illumination,
flourished much among the English, and now that the Italian and
Flemish schools had taken so high a position, it became the fashion
of the princes and nobility, not to call forth the skill of natives, but to
import foreign art and artists. In the reign of Henry VII. a Holbein,
supposed to be the uncle of the great Hans Holbein, visited England,
but we know little of his performance here. There is a picture at
Hampton Court, called a Mabuse, of the Children of Henry VII.—
Prince Arthur, Prince Henry, and the Princess Margaret. As Prince
Henry appears to be about seven years old, that would fix the
painting of the picture about 1499. But its authenticity is doubtful,
as, according to some, Mabuse was born that year. In Castle Howard
there is a painting by him of undoubted authority, "The Offering of
the Magi," containing thirty principal figures. It is in the highest state
of preservation, and Dr. Waagen, who was well acquainted with the
productions of this artist in the great galleries of the Continent,
pronounced it of the highest excellence. He is said to have painted
the children of Henry VIII., but if he did so, the picture has perished.
The date of his visit is quite uncertain, and the attribution to him of
portraits is at the best no more than conjectural. Mabuse was a very
dissipated man, and had fled from Flanders on account of his debts
or delinquencies, yet the character of his performances is that of the
most patient industry and painstaking. His works done in England
could not have been many, as his abode here is supposed to have
been only a year. He died in 1532.

ENTRANCE FROM THE COURTYARD OF BURLEIGH HOUSE, STAMFORD.

Besides Mabuse, the names of several other foreign artists are
known as having visited England; but little or nothing is known of
the works of Toto del Nunziata, an Italian, or of Corvus, Fleccius,
Horrebout or Horneband, or of Cornelius, Flemish artists; but
another Fleming was employed, in the early part of the reign of
Henry VIII., by Bishop Sherbourne, in painting a series of English
kings and bishops in Chichester Cathedral.
Of the celebrated Hans Holbein, the case is better authenticated. He
resided in England nearly thirty years, and died in London of the
plague in 1543. There is an obscurity about both the time and place
of his birth, but the latter appears now to be settled to be Grünstadt,
formerly the residence of the Counts of Leiningen-Westerburg. He
accompanied his father to Basle, receiving from him instructions in
his art. There he became acquainted with Erasmus, who gave him
letters to Sir Thomas More. He arrived in England in 1526, and lived
and worked in the house of his noble patron, Sir Thomas, for three
years. The learned chancellor invited Henry VIII. to see his pictures,
who was so much delighted with them, that he took him instantly
into his service. It is related of him that while busily engaged with
his works for the king, he was so much annoyed and interrupted by
a nobleman of the court, that he ordered him to quit his studio, and
on his refusing, pushed him downstairs. When the nobleman
complained to Henry of this rudeness, Henry bluntly told him that
the painter had served him right, and warned him to beware of
seeking any revenge. "For," added he, "remember you now have not
Holbein to deal with, but me: and I tell you, that of seven peasants I
can make as many lords, but I cannot make one Holbein."
The demand of portraits from Holbein by the Court and nobility was
so constant and extensive, that he completed comparatively few
historical compositions. He has left us various portraits of Henry, and
adorned the walls of a saloon at Whitehall with two large paintings
representing the triumphs of riches and poverty. He also painted
Henry as delivering the charter of the barber-surgeons, and Edward
VI. delivering that for the foundation of Bridewell Hospital. The
former piece is still at the hall of that guild. Amongst the finest of
Holbein's paintings on the Continent is that of "The Burgomaster and
his Family" in the gallery at Dresden. There is less of the stiffness of
his manner in that than in most of his pieces; but in spirited design,
clearness and brilliancy of tone, and perfection of finish, few painters
excel Holbein; he wanted only a course of study in the Italian school
to have placed him among the greatest masters of any age.
 ELIZABETH'S DRAWING-ROOM, PENSHURST PLACE.
(From a Photograph by Carl Norman and Co., Tunbridge Wells.)

In the reign of Mary, Sir Antonio More, a Flemish artist, was the
great portrait-painter. In that of Elizabeth, though she was not more
liberal to the arts than to literature, yet her personal vanity led her
to have her own portrait repeatedly painted, and the artists, chiefly
Flemings, were much employed by the nobility in the same
department. Some of the foreign artists also executed historical and
other pieces. Among these artists may be named Frederic Zuccaro,
an Italian portrait-painter; Luke van Heere, who executed a
considerable number of orders here, including a series of
representations of national costume for the Earl of Lincoln; and
Cornelius Vroom, who designed the defeat of the Spanish Armada,
for the tapestry which adorned the walls of the House of Lords, and
which was destroyed by the fire in 1834. In Elizabeth's reign also
two native artists distinguished themselves: Nicolas Hilliard, a
miniature-painter; and Isaac Oliver (b. 1556, d. 1617), his pupil, who
surpassed his master in portraits, and also produced historical works
of merit.
Among the sculptors were Pietro Torregiano, from Florence, who,
assisted by a number of Englishmen, executed the bronze
monument of Henry VII., and is supposed also to be the author of
the tomb of Henry's mother in his chapel. John Hales, who executed
the tomb of the Earl of Derby at Ormskirk, was one of Torregiano's
English assistants. Benedetto Rovezzano designed the splendid
bronze tomb of Henry VIII., which was to have exhibited himself and
Jane Seymour, as large as life, in effigy, an equestrian statue, figures
of the saints and prophets, the history of St. George, amounting to
133 statues and forty bas-reliefs. This monument of Henry's egotism
none of his children or successors respected him enough to
complete; and Parliament, in 1646, ordered the portion already
executed to be melted down.
 SOLDIERS OF THE TUDOR PERIOD.
In Scotland during this period the arts were still less cultivated. The
only monarch who had evinced a taste for their patronage was
James V., who improved and adorned the royal palaces, by the aid of
French architects, painters, and sculptors whom he procured from
France, with which he was connected by marriage and alliance. His
chief interest and expenditure were, however, devoted to the palace
at Linlithgow, which he left by far the noblest palace of Scotland,
and worthy of any country in Europe.
The furniture of noble houses in the sixteenth century was still
quaint; but in many instances rich and picturesque. The walls
retained their hangings of tapestry, on which glowed hunting-scenes,
with their woodlands, dogs, horsemen, and flying stags, or resisting
boars, or lions; scenes mythological or historical. In one of the finest
preserved houses of that age, Hardwicke, in Derbyshire, the state-
room is hung with tapestry representing the story of Ulysses; and
above this are figures, rudely executed in plaster, of Diana and her
nymphs. The hall is hung with very curious tapestry, of the fifteenth
century, representing a boar-hunt and an otter-hunt. The chapel in
this house gives a very vivid idea of the furniture of domestic
chapels of that age; with its brocaded seats and cushions, and its
curious altar-cloth, thirty feet long, hung round the rails of the altar,
with figures of saints, under canopies, wrought in needlework. You
are greatly struck as you pass along this noble old hall, which has
had its internal decorations and furniture carefully retained, with the
air of rude abundance, and what looks now to us nakedness and
incompleteness, mingled with old baronial state, and rich and
precious articles of use and show. There are vast and long passages,
simply matted; with huge chests filled with coals, which formerly
were filled with wood, and having ample crypts in the walls for chips
and firewood. There are none of the modern contrivances to conceal
these things; yet the rooms, which were then probably uncarpeted,
or only embellished in the centre with a small Turkey carpet bearing
the family arms, or perhaps merely with rushes, are still abounding
with antique cabinets, massy tables, and high chairs covered with
crimson velvet, or ornamental satin. You behold the very furniture
used by the Queen of Scots; the very bed, the brocade of which she
and her maidens worked with their own fingers. In the entrance hall
the old feudal mansion still seems to survive with its huge antlers, its
huge escutcheons, and carved arms thrust out of the wall, intended
to hold lights. But still more does its picture gallery, extending along
the whole front of the house, give you a feeling of the rude and
stately grandeur of those times. This gallery is nearly 200 feet long,
of remarkable loftiness, and its windows are stupendous, comprising
nearly the whole front, rattling and wailing as the wind sweeps along
them, whilst the walls are covered with the portraits of the most
remarkable personages of that and prior times. You have Henry
VIII., Elizabeth, the Queen of Scots, with many of the statesmen and
ladies of the age.
In such old houses we find abundance of furniture of the period. The
chairs are generally high-backed, richly carved, and stuffed and
covered with superb velvet or satin. At Charlcote House, near
Stratford-on-Avon, the seat of the Lucys, there are eight fine ebony
chairs, inlaid with ivory, two cabinets, and a couch of the same,
which were given by Queen Elizabeth to Leicester, and made part of
the furniture of Kenilworth. At Penshurst, Kent, the seat of the
Sidneys, in the room called Elizabeth's room, remain the chairs
which it is said she herself presented, with the rest of the furniture.
They are fine, tall, and capacious; the frames are gilt, the drapery is
yellow and crimson satin, richly embroidered, and the walls of each
end of the room are covered with the same embroidered satin. In
the Elizabethan room at Greenwich Court are chairs as well as other
articles of that age. In Winchester Cathedral is yet preserved the
chair, a present from the Pope, in which Queen Mary was crowned
and married.
At Penshurst we have, in the old banqueting-hall, the furniture and
style which still prevailed in many houses in Sir Philip Sidney's time:
the dogs for the fire in the centre of the room, from which the
smoke ascended through a hole in the roof, the rude tables, the
raised daïs, and the music gallery, such as Sir Philip Sidney, Spenser,
Shakespeare, and Bacon, as well as the Royal Elizabeth, witnessed
them. In this house is also preserved a manuscript catalogue of all
the furniture of Kenilworth in Leicester's time, a document which
throws much light on the whole paraphernalia of a great house and
household of that day.
Looking-glasses were now superseding mirrors of polished steel. Sir
Samuel Meyrick had a fine specimen of the looking-glass of this age
at Goodrich, as well as a German clock, fire-dogs, a napkin-press,
and an "arriere-dos" or "rere-dosse," and a small brass fender of
that age. He also possessed the box containing the original portraits
of Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves. The clock, like the large one over
the entrance at Hampton Court, had the Italian face, with two sets
of figures, twelve each, thus running the round of the twenty-four
hours, such as Shakespeare alludes to in "Othello:"—

"He'll watch the horologe a double set,

If drink rock not his cradle."

Richly carved wardrobes and buffets adorned the Tudor rooms:

some of these buffets were of silver and of silver gilt. Engravings of
these, as well as of tables with folding tops, round tables with pillar
and claw, and many beds of that period may still be seen in old
houses, and are represented in engravings in Montfaucon, Shaw,
and Willemin. The beds at Hardwicke, the great bed at Ware, a
bedstead of the time of Henry VIII. at Lovely Hall, near Blackburn,
are good specimens. Forks, though known, were not generally used
yet at table, and spoons of silver and gold were made to fold up,
and were carried by great people in their pockets for their own use.
Spoons of silver—apostle-spoons, having the heads of the twelve
apostles on the handles—were not unfrequent, but spoons of horn
or wood were more common.
The armour of every period bears a coincident resemblance to the
civil costume of the time, and is in this period rather noticeable by
its fashion than by any material change of another kind. The
breastplate was still globose, as in the reign of Edward IV., but was
beautifully fluted in that of Henry VII. In the reign of Henry VIII., the
breastplate being still globose, the old fashion revived of an edge
down the centre, called a tapul; and in this reign puffed and ribbed
armour, in imitation of the slashed dresses of the day, was
introduced. In the reign of Elizabeth the breastplate was thickened
to resist musket-balls. The helmet in all these reigns assumed the
shape of the head, having movable plates at the back to guard the
neck, and yet allow free motion to the head. In the reign of
Elizabeth the morions were much ornamented by engraving. In the
time of Henry VII. the panache which had appeared on the apex of
the bassinets of Henry V. was changed for plumes, descending from
the back of the helmet almost to the rider's saddle. A new feature in
armour also came in with Henry VII., called "lamboys" from the
French "lambeaux," being a sort of skirt or petticoat of steel, in
imitation of the puckered skirts of cloth or velvet worn at that time,
and this fashion, with variations in form, continued through the
whole period. In the reign of Henry VIII. the armour altogether
became very showy and rich, in keeping with the ostentation of that
monarch. A magnificent suit of the armour of Henry is preserved in
the Tower, which was presented to him by the Emperor Maximilian,
on his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and is the fellow to a suit
of Maximilian's preserved in the Little Belvedere Palace in Vienna. It
covers both horse and man, and is richly engraved with legendary
subjects, badges, mottoes, and the like. The seal of Henry presents
a fine figure of him on horseback, in armour, with his tabard and
crowned helmet, and its depending plumes.
The tilting helmet disappeared altogether in the time of Henry VIII.,
and a coursing-hat was worn instead, with a "mentonnière," or
defence for the lower part of the face. In the reign of Mary we learn
that the military force of the kingdom consisted of demi-lancers, who
supplied the place of the men-at-arms; pikemen, who wore back and
breast-plates, with tassets, gauntlets, and steel hats; archers, with
steel skull-caps and brigandines; black-billmen or halberdiers, who
wore armour called almain rivet and morions; and harquebussiers,
similarly appointed. In Elizabeth's reign the armour was seldom worn
on the legs and thighs, except in jousting, and not always then.
There were various changes in the shapes of swords and glaives; the
battle-axe changed into the halberd in the time of Edward IV., which
became general in that of Henry VII. In the reign of Henry VIII. was
added the partisan, a kind of pike or spontoon; but the great change
was in firearms, the hand-gun making several steps towards its
modern termination in the musket and rifle, with detonating caps.
The first improvement was to place a cock to the gun-barrel, to hold
and apply the match instead of the soldier holding it in his hand.
This was called an arc-a-bousa, thence corrupted into the
arquebuse, much used by Henry VII. In his son's reign the wheel-
lock was invented by the Italians, in which a wheel revolving against
a piece of sulphuret of iron ignited the powder in the pan by its
sparks. Pistols were also introduced now, and called pistols or dags,
according to the shape of the butt-ends; the pistol finishing with a
knob, the dag—or tacke—having its butt-end slanting. Pistols at first
more resembled carabines in length, and the pocket pistol was of a
considerable bulk. Cartridges were first used in pistols, and were
carried in a steel case called a patron. In the reign of Elizabeth we
hear of carabines, petronels, and dragons. Carabines were a sort of
light, Spanish troops, who, probably, used this kind of arm; petronels
were so called because their square butt-end was placed against the
chest, or "poitrine;" and the dragon received its name from its
muzzle being terminated with the head of that fabulous monster,
and gave the name of "dragoon" to the soldiers who fought with
them. Bandoliers, or leathern cases, each containing a complete
charge of powder for a musket, were used till the end of the
seventeenth century, when they gave way to the cartridge-box.
With the progress of firearms, it is almost needless to say that the
famous art of archery, by which the English had won such fame in
the world, was gradually superseded. During the reigns of Henry VII.
and Henry VIII., bows were much used in their armies as well as
firearms, but it was impossible long to maintain the bow and arrow
in the presence of the hand-gun and powder. In vain did Henry VIII.
pass severe laws against the disuse of the bow; by the end of his
reign it had fallen, for the most part, from the hands of the warrior
into that of the sportsman. In vain did Henry forbid the use even of
the cross-bow to encourage the practice of archery, and Roger
Ascham in his "Toxophilus" endeavour to prolong the date of the
bow. By the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the endeavour to protract
the existence of archery by statute was abandoned, and its long
reign, except as a graceful amusement, was over.
The costumes of this age come down to us depicted by great
masters, and are displayed to us in their full effect, at least this
much can be said for those of the aristocracy. Looking at these
ladies and gentlemen, they appear as little like plain matter-of-fact
English people as possible. There is a length and looseness of robes
about the men which has more the air of a holiday, gala garb, than
the attire of people who had serious affairs to carry through, and
you would scarcely credit them to be the ancestors of the present
prosaic, buttoned-up, and busy generation. In a MS. called the "Boke
of Custome," the chamberlain is commanded to provide against his
master's uprising, "a clene sherte and breche, a pettycotte, a
doublette, a long cotte, a stomacher, hys hosen, hys socks, and his
shoen." And the "Boke of Kervynge," quoted by Strutt, says to the
chamberlain, "Warme your soverayne his pettycotte, his doublette,
and his stomacher, and then put on his hosen, and then his schone
or slyppers, then stryten up his hosen mannerly, and tye them up,
then lace his doublette hole by hole." Barclay, in the "Ship of Fools,"
printed by Pynson in 1508, mentions some who had their necks

"Charged with collars and chaines,

In golden withs, their fingers full of rings,
Their necks naked almost to the raines,
Their sleeves blazing like unto a crane's winges."

Their coats were generally loose and with broad collars, and turned
back fronts, with loose hanging sleeves, often slashed, and
sometimes without sleeves at all, but the sleeves of their doublets
appearing through them, laced tight to the elbow and puffed out
above. Hats and caps were of various fashions in the time of Henry
VII. There was the square turned-up cap, a round hat something like
the present wide-awake, but the more gay and assuming wore large
felt hats, or bonnets of velvet, fur, or other materials, with great
spreading plumes of party-coloured feathers. They wore the showy
hats so much on one side, as to display under them close-fitting
caps, often of gold network. Others, again, wore only the small cap,
and let the large plumed hat hang on their shoulders.
The hose, when the dress was short enough to show them, were
close-fitting, and of gay, often of two different colours; the long-toed
shoes had given way to others, with toes called duck-bills, from their
shape, being wider in front than they were long. Top-boots were
worn for riding. The face was close shaven, except in the case of
soldiers or old men, and the hair was suffered to hang long and
flowing. The first mention of a collar of the garter occurs in this
reign, and a collar is seen on the effigy of Sir George Daubeny, of
this date.
In the costume of the ladies the sleeves were as wide as they were
in that of the men, and have been imitated in modern times, being
called "bishop's sleeves" in London. The gown was cut square in the
neck, and they wore stomachers, belts, and buckles, girdles with
long pendents in front, and hats and feathers. Others wore caps and
cauls of gold net, or embroidery, from beneath which the hair hung
down the shoulders half way to the ground. The morning dress was
a full, loose, flowing robe, with cape and hood, and the extent and
material of it was regulated by Royal ordinance.
Every one is familiar with the costume of the reigns of Henry VIII.
and Edward VI. The ordinary costume of bluff Harry was a full-
skirted jacket, or doublet, with large sleeves to the wrists; over
which was worn a short but equally full cloak or coat, with loose,
hanging sleeves, and a broad, rolling collar of fur. Many, however,
still wore the doublet sleeves, as in the last reign: tight to the elbow,
puffed out about the shoulders, and the coat sleeveless, allowing
this to appear. The cap was square or round, and still worn
somewhat side-ways, jewelled, and plumed with ostrich feathers.
The hose were now often divided into hose and stockings, and the
shoes, though sometimes square-toed, yet often resembling the
modern shape. The Norman "chausses" were revived under the
older name of "trousses," being close hose, fitting exactly to the
limbs.
THE WEDDING OF JACK OF NEWBURY: THE BRIDE'S PROCESSION. (See
p. 390.)
Henry VIII. was most extravagant in dress, and was followed with so
much avidity by his subjects in his ostentation, that in the twenty-
fourth year of his reign he was obliged to pass a sumptuary law to
restrain them, and the style and quality of dress for every different
rank was prescribed—as we may suppose with indifferent success.
No person of less degree than a knight was to wear crimson or blue
velvet or embroidered apparel, broched or guarded with goldsmith's
work, except sons and heirs of knights and barons, who might use
crimson velvet, and tinsel in their doublets. Velvet gowns, jackets
and coats, furs of martens, &c., chains, bracelets, and collars of
gold, were proscribed to all but persons possessing two hundred
marks per annum; except the sons and heirs of such persons, who
might wear black velvet doublets, coats of black damask, etc.
Henry's own dress was of the most gorgeous kind. He is described at
a banquet at Westminster as arrayed in a suit of short garments of
blue velvet and crymosine, with long sleeves all cut and lined with
cloth of gold, and the outer garments powdered with castles and
sheaves of arrows—the badges of Queen Catherine—of fine ducat
gold; the upper part of the hose of like fashion, the lower parts of
scarlet, powdered with timbrels of fine gold. His bonnet was of
damask silver, flat, "woven in the stall," and therefore wrought with
gold, and rich feathers on it. When he met Anne of Cleves he had
tricked himself out in a frock of velvet embroidered all over with
flatted gold of damask, mixed with a profusion of lace; the sleeves
and breast being cut and lined with cloth of gold, and tied together
with great buttons of diamonds, rubies, and orient pearls. The king
was deemed to be the best dressed sovereign in the world, for he
put on new clothes every holy day.
Henry ordered his subjects to cut off their long hair; beards and
moustaches were now worn at pleasure.
The reigns of Edward and Mary did not vary much in the costume of
the men. The dress worn now by the boys of Christ's Hospital
(familiarly known as the Bluecoat School), founded by Edward, is
very much that which was worn by the London apprentices of that
period—blue coats and yellow stockings being also common to the
citizens generally. The square-toed shoes were banished by
proclamation in the reign of Queen Mary.
The costume of the ladies of the reign of Henry VIII. is extremely
familiar, from the numerous portraits of his six wives, engravings of
which are in Lodge's "Portraits." With the exception of the bonnet or
coif—which, though worn by Catherine of Aragon, came to be called
the Anne Boleyn cap—the dress of the ladies of this reign bears a
striking resemblance to one of the later Victorian fashions, though
differing of course in material. You find the gown fitting close to the
bust of the natural length of waist, and cut square at the chest,
where it is edged with narrow lace. The sleeves, tight at the
shoulder, widened to the elbow, where they hung deep, showing an
under-sleeve of fine lawn or lace extending to the wrist, and
terminated by lace ruffles. On the neck was generally worn a pearl
necklace, with a jewelled cross. The skirts were full, the train long,
according to rank. Seven yards of purple cloth of damask gold were
allowed for a kirtle for Queen Catherine, in a wardrobe account of
the eighth year of Henry's reign. The sleeves of ladies' garments, like
those of gentlemen's dresses, could be changed at pleasure, being
separate and attached at will. They were extremely rich; and we find
in one lady's inventory three pair of purple satin sleeves, one of linen
paned with gold over the arms, quilted with black silk, and wrought
with flounces between the panes and at the hands; one pair of
purple gold tissue damask wire, each sleeve tied with aglets of gold;
one pair of crimson satin, four buttons of gold on each sleeve, and in
every button nine pearls.
The coif was of various materials, from simple linen to rich velvet
and cloth of gold; either with the round front, as in Mary and
Elizabeth as princesses, in Catherine Parr and Catherine Howard, or
dipping in front, which came to be called the "Queen of Scots"
bonnet; but the commonest shape was the five-cornered one. This
last was indeed the hood of the time of Henry VII., in which we have
a portrait of his queen, Elizabeth of York; the lappets of the hood
depending on the bosom, embroidered and edged with pearls; the
scarf behind hanging on the shoulders. In the portrait of Catherine
of Aragon, the front, embroidered and jewelled, had become shorter,
touching the neck only; but the scarf behind still spread on the
shoulder. In Anne Boleyn's portrait the coif had reached its extreme
of elegance; the frontlet, consisting of the five-pointed frame, is still
shorter, only covering the ears, and is faced with a double row of
pearls (see p. 165). Her hair is scarcely seen, being concealed by an
under-coif, which shows as a band in a slanting direction over the
forehead. The back consists of a green velvet hood, with broad scarf
lappets, of which one is turned up over the back of the head, and
the other hangs on the left shoulder. Of the dress of the ladies of the
citizen class we have a curious account in the bride of John of
Winchcomb, the famous clothier, called "Jack of Newbury." "She was
habited in a gown of sheep's russet, and a kirtle of fine worsted, her
head attired with a billiment of gold, and her hair, as yellow as gold,
hanging down behind her, which was curiously combed and plaited.
She was led to church by two boys with bride laces and rosemary
tied about their silken sleeves. When she in after years came out of
her widow's weeds, she appeared in a fair train gown stuck full of
silver pins, having a white cap on her head, with cuts of curious
needlework under the same, and an apron before her as white as
driven snow."
With Elizabeth came in a totally new fashion, not only of women's
but of men's costumes. The large trunk hose made their
appearance; the long-waisted doublet, the short cloak or mantle,
with its standing collar, the ruff, the hat, the band and feather, the
roses in the shoes, are all of this period. To such a degree did the
fashion of puffed and stuffed breeches obtain, which had begun to
swell in the prior reigns, that about the thirty-third of Elizabeth, over
the seats in the Parliament House, were certain holes, some two
inches square, in the walls, in which were placed posts to uphold
scaffolds round about the house for those to sit upon who wore
great breeches stuffed with hair, like woolsacks.
As to ruffs, Stubbs, in his "Anatomie of Abuses," tells us that sooner
than go without them, men would mortgage their lands, or risk their
lives at Tyburn; and he adds, "They have now newly (1595) found
out a more monstrous kind of ruff of twelve, yea, sixteen lengths
apiece, set three or four times double, thence called three steps and
a half to the gallows." The French or Venetian hose, he tells us, cost
often £100 a pair, probably from being cloth of gold and set with
jewels. To these were added boot hose of the finest cloth, also
splendidly embroidered with birds, beasts, and antiques. The
doublets, he says, grew longer and longer in the waist, stuffed and
quilted with four, five, or six pounds of bombast, the exterior being
of silk, satin, taffeta, gold, or silver stuff, slashed, jagged, covered,
pinched, and laced with all kinds of costly devices. Over these were
their coats and jerkins, some with collars, some without, some close
to the body, some loose, called mandilions; some buttoned down the
breast, some under the arm, some down the back. They had cloaks
also—white, red, tawny, yellow, green, violet—of cloth, silk, or
taffeta, and of French, Spanish, or Dutch fashion, ornamented with
costly lace of gold, silver, or silk. These cloaks were as costly inside
as out. Their slippers or "pantoufles" were of all colours, and yet,
says Stubbs, they were difficult to keep on, and went flap-flap up
and down in the dirt, casting the mire up to their knees. Their hats,
he states, were sharp at the crown, peaking up like the shaft of a
steeple a quarter of a yard above the crown of their heads, some
more, some less; others were flat and broad on the crown; some
had round crowns and bands of all colours; and these hats or caps
were of velvet, taffeta, or sarcenet, ornamented with big bunches of
feathers; and finally we hear of beaver hats, costing from twenty to
forty shillings apiece, brought from beyond seas.
But if such was the dress of gentlemen to please the strange taste of
the maiden queen, that of this famous queen herself, as evinced by
her numerous portraits, has nothing like it in all the annals of
fashion. In an early portrait of Elizabeth we have her dressed in a
costume very little different to that of a man. Over her gown or
doublet she wore a coat with the enormous shoulder-points standing
up six inches, and with a close upright collar completely enveloping
her neck, and surmounted by a ruff; her coat cut and slashed all
over, and on her head a round hat, pulled down to a peak in front,
and thickly jewelled. Stubbs, alluding to this particular fashion, says,
"The women have doublets and jerkins as the men have, buttoned
up to the breast, and made with wings, welts, and pinions on the
shoulder-points, as men's apparel in all respects.... Yet they blush
not to wear it."
But it was about the middle of her reign that Elizabeth introduced
that astounding style of dress in which she figures in most of her
portraits, and in which the body was imprisoned in whalebone to the
hips; the partlet or habit-shirt, which had for some time been in use,
and covered the whole bosom to the chin, was removed, and an
enormous ruff, rising gradually from the front of the shoulders to
nearly the height of the head behind, encircled the wearer like the
enormous wings of some nondescript butterfly. In fact, there was
ruff beyond ruff; first, a crimped one round the neck like a collar;
and then a round one standing up from the shoulders behind the
head; and, finally, the enormous circular fans towering high and
wide. The head of the queen is seen covered with one of her eighty
sets of false hair, and hoisted above that a jaunty hat, jewelled and
plumed.
In order to enable this monstrous expanse of ruff to support itself, it
was necessary to resort to starch, and, as Stubbs tells us, also to a
machinery of wires, "erected for the purpose, and whipped all over
with gold thread, silver, or silk." This was called a "supportasse, or
underpropper." The queen sent to Holland for women skilled in the
art of starching; and one Mistress Dingham Vander Plasse came over
and became famous in the mystery of tormenting pride with starch.
"The devil," says Stubbs, "hath learned them to wash and dress their
ruffs, which, being dry, will then stand inflexible about their necks."
From the bosom, now partly left bare, descended an interminable
stomacher, and then the farthingale spread out its enormous
breadth, like the Victorian crinoline. Stockings of worsted yarn and
silk had now become common; and Mistress Montague presented
Her Majesty, in the third year of her reign, with a pair of silk
stockings knit in England; thereupon she would never wear any else.
A fashion of both ladies and gentlemen of this time was to wear
small looking-glasses hanging at their sides or inserted in the fan of
ostrich feathers.
The history of the coinage from Henry VII. to the reign of Elizabeth
is one of depreciation and adulteration, as it had been in the
preceding century. Not till Elizabeth did it begin to return to a sound
and honest standard.
Henry VII. made several variations in the money of the realm. He
preserved the standard of Edward IV. and Richard III., coining 450
pennies from the pound of silver, or thirty-seven nominal shillings
and sixpences. He introduced shillings as actual money, being before
only nominal, and used in accounts. These shillings, struck in 1504—
called at first large groats, and then testons, from the French
"teste," or "tête," a head—bore the profile of the king instead of the
full face; a thing unknown since the reign of Stephen, but ever after
followed, except by Henry VIII. and Edward VI., who, however, used
the profile in their groats. Henry coined also a novel coin—the
sovereign, or "double rose noble," worth twenty shillings, and the
"rose rial," or half-sovereign. These gold coins are now very rare. On
the reverse of his coins he for the first time placed the Royal arms.
The gold coins of Henry VIII. were sovereigns, half-sovereigns, or
rials, half and quarter rials, angels, angelets, or half angels, and
quarter-angels, George nobles—so called from bearing on the
reverse St. George and the dragon—crowns, and half-crowns. His
silver coins were shillings, groats, half-groats, and pennies. Amongst
these appeared groats and half-groats coined by Wolsey at York, in
accordance with a privilege, exercised by the Church long before. In
his impeachment it was made a capital charge that he had placed
the cardinal's hat on the groats under the king's arms. The groats
also bore on each side of the arms his initials, "T. W.," and the half-
groats "W. A."—Wolsey Archiepiscopus.
Not only did Henry adulterate the coin in the most scandalous
manner, but he also depreciated the value of the silver coins, by
coining a much larger number of pennies out of a pound of the base
alloy. Before his time the mixed mint pound had consisted of eleven
ounces two pennyweights of silver, and eighteen pennyweights of
alloy; but Henry, in 1543, altered it to ten ounces of silver and two
ounces of alloy. Two years later he added as much alloy as there was
silver; and not content with that, in 1546, or one year after, he left
only four ounces of silver in the pound, or eight ounces of alloy to
the four ounces of silver! But this even did not satisfy him: he next
proceeded to coin his base metal into a larger amount than the good
metal had ever produced before. Instead of 37s. 6d., or 450
pennies, into which it had been coined ever since the reign of
Edward IV., he made it yield 540 pennies, or 45s., in 1527, and in
1543 he extended it to 48s., or 576 pennies. He thus, instead of 450
pennies out of a pound containing eleven ounces two pennyweights
of silver, coined 576 pennies out of only four ounces of silver! Such
were the lawless robberies which "Bluff Harry" committed on his
subjects. Any one of the smallest debasements by a subject would
have sent him to the gallows. He certainly was one of the most
wholesale issuers of bad money that ever lived.
The counsellors of his son Edward—a most rapacious set of
adventurers—however, even out-Harryed Harry; for though Edward
restored at first the value of the mint mixture in some degree, in
1551 the amount of silver in a pound of that alloy was only three
ounces, or an ounce less than the worst coin of his father. And still
worse, instead of 48s., the largest number coined by his father out
of a pound, he coined 72s., or instead of 450 pennies out of four
ounces of silver, 864 pennies were coined out of three ounces. The
ruin, the confusion of prices, and the public outcry, however,
consequent upon this violent public fraud, at length compelled
Government to restore the amount of silver in the pound to nearly
what it was at the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII., and the
number of shillings was reduced from seventy-two to sixty. The gold,
which was equally debased, was also restored to the same extent.
Queen Mary, while she issued a proclamation at the commencement
of her reign denouncing the dishonest proceedings of her
predecessors, again increased the alloy in a pound of mint silver to
an ounce instead of nineteen pennyweights; and she added two
pennyweights more of alloy to the ounce of gold. The coins issued
by Philip and Mary bear both their profiles.
Elizabeth honourably restored the coinage to its ancient value. She
fixed the alloy in a pound of silver at only eighteen pennyweights;
but she coined sixty-two shillings out of the pound instead of sixty,
at which it remained till 1816, when it became sixty-six, as it still
remains. The standard mixture of Elizabeth has continued the same
to our own day. She called in and melted down the base money of
her father and brother to the nominal value of £638,000, but of real
value only £244,000. The gold coins of Elizabeth are rials, angels,
half-angels, and quarter-angels, crowns and half-crowns, nobles and
double nobles. Some of her coins were the first which had milled
edges, both of gold and silver. Besides shillings, sixpences, groats,
and pence, Elizabeth coined a crown, for the use of the East India
Company, called portcullis crowns, in imitation of the Spanish dollar.
These were valued at four shillings and sixpence, and are now rare.

SHIPS OF ELIZABETH'S TIME.

In Scotland the alloy of the silver at the mint was not so great as in
England during this period; but the number of shillings coined out of
one pound of silver was astonishingly increased. This kind of
depreciation had been going on for two centuries before this period;
but from 1475, when only 144 shillings were coined out of the
pound of silver, the number was rapidly augmented every few years,
till in 1601 no less than 720 shillings were coined out of it, or, in
other words, the original value of one pound was made to pass for
thirty-six pounds.
In tracing the historical events of these reigns, we have had
occasion to show the increasing strength of the Royal navy of
England. Both in the reigns of Henry VIII. and of Elizabeth the sea
fights were of a character and attended by results which marked out
England as a maritime power growing ever more formidable. In the
fourth year of his reign Henry drove the French fleet from the
Channel with forty-two ships, Royal and others. He chastised the
Scots, who, under James V., had become daring at sea; and on
various occasions during his reign he showed his superiority to the
French and Spaniards.
But it was the victory over the Armada under Elizabeth, and the
exploits of Drake, Essex, Raleigh, and others in the Spanish ports,
and of Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher in the Spanish settlements of
America, that raised the fame of the British fleet to a pitch which it
had never reached before. For, after all, the amount of Henry's fleet
never was large. We are told, indeed, that at first he had only one
ship of war, the Great Harry, till he took the Lion, a large Scottish
ship, with its commander, the celebrated Andrew Barton; but
probably this is meant of such size as to merit the name of man-of-
war. Parsimonious as was Henry VII., and careful to avoid any
collisions with foreign powers, we cannot suppose he left the
kingdom totally destitute of a navy. But Henry VIII. was not
contented with owning merely a mediocre fleet; he had an ambition
of building large vessels, and in 1512 he built one of 1,000 tons,
called the Regent. This was blown up in a battle with the French
fleet off Brest, and instead of it he built another called Grâce de
Dieu. The rivalry of Henry was excited by the King of Scotland
building a much larger ship than his Regent, which was said to carry
300 seamen, 120 gunners, and 1,000 soldiers. This ship, like Henry's
Regent, was unfortunately lost at sea. By the end of Henry's reign,
his fleet altogether amounted to 12,500 tons.
Besides building of ships, Henry seems to have planned all the
necessary offices for a naval system. He established the Navy Office,
with a sort of Board of Admiralty for its management, and he also
founded, in the fourth year of his reign, the Corporation of the
Trinity House at Deptford, for managing everything relating to the
education, selection, and appointment of pilots, the putting down of
buoys, and erecting beacons and lighthouses. Similar establishments
were created by him at Hull and Newcastle. He built at great cost
the first pier at Dover, and passed an Act of Parliament for improving
the harbours of Plymouth, Dartmouth, Teignmouth, Falmouth, and
Fowey, which had been choked up by the refuse of certain tin-works,
which he prohibited. But perhaps his greatest works of the kind were
his establishment of the navy-yards and storehouses at Woolwich
and Deptford. No monarch, in fact, had hitherto planned so
efficiently and exerted himself so earnestly to found an English navy.
Great merit is due to him for his advancement of the maritime
interests of the nation.
The manner in which the different monarchs of the Tudor dynasty
advanced or neglected the navy is well shown by the returns of the
Navy Office to Parliament in 1791. At the end of the reign of Henry
VIII. it amounted to 12,500 tons, at the end of that of Edward VI. to
only 11,065 tons, and at the end of Mary's to 7,110 tons, but at the
end of Elizabeth's it rose to 17,110. At the time of the Armada,
Elizabeth had at sea 150 sail, of which, however, only forty were the
property of the Crown; the rest belonged to the merchants who
were liable to be called upon on such emergencies to furnish their
largest craft for the public service. Thirty-four of these ships were
from 500 to 1,100 tons each, and these larger vessels are said to
have carried 300 men and forty cannon each. Besides the vessels
thus called out for war, the mercantile navy at this time amounted to
another 150 sail of various capacity, averaging each 150 tons, and
carrying forty seamen.
This extent of Royal and mercantile navy had not been reached
without much fostering care on the part of the queen. With all her
parsimony and dread of expense, it was one of the finest parts of