MODULE 6 MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

SUBMODULE 6.9 – TRANSMISSIONS

Gear types and their application; Gear ratios, reduction and multiplication
gear systems, driven and driving gears, idler gears, mesh patterns; Belts and
pulleys, chains and sprockets.

TRANSMISSION
 INTRODUCTION
A transmission is a mechanical device that transmits a movement from one
part to another.
The purpose of this element in the energy chain is to adapt the torque and the
speed between the driving component and the driven component.
This course will cover, in particular, transmissions by:
1. Gears
2. Belts
3. Chains

 In mechanical engineering term, transmission consist of:

 A series of connected parts/mechanism
 Whereby, a source of power can be applied to another
component.
 And then, able to do the required work (motion)
 Transmissions can be used to :
 Connect two shafts to allow one to drive the other.
 Change the speed of one shaft compared to another.
 Change the direction of a shaft relative to another.
 Covert rotary motion to linear or vice versa.
 A gear is made up of a pinion, as the smallest wheel is called, and a
wheel, a rack, a crown or a screw. When more than two sprockets are
present, the term used is gear train
 Transmission refers to the mechanism that transmits power from the
engine or motor to the wheels or other machinery. This process involves
the use of gears, belts, and chains to control the speed and torque of the
output.
 Gears: These are toothed wheels that interlock to change the speed and
direction of the power being transmitted. They are commonly used in
vehicles to adjust the engine's output to the desired speed and torque.
 Belts: These are flexible loops of material that transfer power between
pulleys. They are often used in applications where smooth and quiet
operation is needed, such as in conveyor systems.
 Chains: These consist of linked segments that engage with sprockets to
transmit power. Chains are typically used in situations where high
strength and durability are required, such as in bicycles and motorcycles.
 Each of these components plays a crucial role in ensuring efficient and
effective power transmission in various mechanical systems.

 Gears are mechanical components with teeth that mesh with each other
to transmit torque and rotational motion. They are fundamental in many
mechanical systems, from simple machines to complex industrial
equipment.
 PURPOSE OF GEARS
1. Transmit Motion: Gears transfer motion from one shaft to another.
2. Change Speed and Torque: They can increase or decrease the speed and
torque of a system.
3. Change Direction: Gears can alter the direction of motion.
4. Synchronize Rotations: They ensure that connected components rotate
in sync.

GEAR TERMS
 BACKLASH (OR LASH)
 The terms used to describe the clearance which must exist between gear
teeth at point of mesh, essential with all forms of gearing to allow for
expansion and lubrication.
 IDLER GEAR
 A gear which is interposed between the driving and driven gear, its
function is to connect the drive between two shafts. A spur idler gear is
used between two parallel shafts to maintain the direction of rotation
and does not affect the ratio of the gears. A bevel idler may be used
where two shafts intersect and/or are co-axial.
 INTERMEDIATE GEAR
 A gear which is positioned between the driving gear and one or more
driven gears in a gear train. It may function as an idler gear or transmit
drive through its own shaft.
 COMPOUND GEAR
 This is a gear wheel which has more than one driving face. These faces
may be formed integrally on one casting or forging, or it may comprise
two or more gears bolted or splined together to transmit drive to a
number of shafts.
 PINION
 This term is usually applied to the smaller of two mating gears.
 LAY-SHAFT
 A shaft which supports an idler gear or intermediate gear, it may be
integral with the gear and be supported by bearings, or may be fixed and
provide a bearing surface for the rotating gear.
 RACK AND PINION
 A device in which a toothed rod (rack) meshes with a mating pinion to
translate the rotary movement of the pinion into linear movement.
 STEP -UP DRIVE
 A drive through a gear train in which the speed of rotation of the output
(driven) shaft is increased. Example: Used in aero-engines in a generator
drive. It ensures that the generator has sufficient rev/mm to remain "on
charge" at engine idling rev/mm.
 STEP -DOWN DRIVE
A reduction gear in which the rev/mm of the output shaft is reduced
while the torque is increased. Example: Used between the engine and
propeller in order to allow the engine to develop its power by running at
high rpm while maintaining high propeller efficiency by avoiding the tips
speeds reaching Mach 1

TYPES OF GEARS
1. Spur Gears:
 Design: Straight teeth parallel to the axis of rotation.
 Usage: Common in simple machinery and gear trains.
 Characteristics: Efficient for moderate speeds and loads.
2. Helical Gears:
 Design: Angled teeth that form a helix around the gear.
 Usage: Used in automotive transmissions and high-speed
applications.
 Characteristics: Smoother and quieter operation compared to
spur gears.
3. Bevel Gears:
 Design: Conical shape with teeth cut on the cone's surface.
 Usage: Used in differential drives and right-angle drives.
 Characteristics: Transmit motion between intersecting shafts.
4. Worm Gears:
 Design: Screw-like worm meshes with a gear.
 Usage: Used in lifting mechanisms and conveyors.
 Characteristics: High reduction ratios and self-locking capabilities.
5. Rack and Pinion:
 Design: A linear gear (rack) meshes with a circular gear (pinion).
 Usage: Used in steering systems and linear actuators.
 Characteristics: Converts rotational motion to linear motion.
6. Planetary Gears:
 Design: Consists of a central sun gear, planet gears, and a ring
gear.
 Usage: Used in automatic transmissions and differential systems.
 Characteristics: Compact design with high torque transmission.
 The purpose of any gear is to take an input, and modify it in some way,
so that it produces a different output.
 Gears are used in conjunction with bearings and shafts to, for example,
transmit power to another shaft, change drive directions and increase or
decrease rotational speed.
 GEAR RATIO AND SPEED RATIO
 Gear Ratio (Torque Focus): This is typically expressed as the number of
teeth on the driven gear divided by the number of teeth on the driving
gear. This ratio helps you understand how the torque is multiplied. For
example, if the driven gear has 40 teeth and the driving gear has 20
teeth, the gear ratio is 40:20 or 2:1. This means the driven gear will have
twice the torque of the driving gear but will rotate at half the speed.
 Speed Ratio: This is often expressed as the number of teeth on the
driving gear divided by the number of teeth on the driven gear. This
ratio helps you understand how the speed is affected. Using the same
example, if the driving gear has 20 teeth and the driven gear has 40
teeth, the speed ratio is 20:40 or 1:2. This means the driving gear rotates
twice as fast as the driven gear but with half the torque.
 In summary, the gear ratio (driven gear teeth / driving gear teeth) is
correct when focusing on torque, while the speed ratio (driving gear
teeth / driven gear teeth) is correct when focusing on speed.

1. Contact Ratio: This is the average number of teeth in contact between

the meshing gears. A higher contact ratio generally means smoother and
quieter operation.
2. Backlash: This is the small gap or play between the meshing teeth, which
allows for thermal expansion and prevents binding.
3. Pressure Angle: The angle at which the teeth of the gears engage.
Common pressure angles are 20° and 14.5°, affecting the strength and
smoothness of the gear mesh.
1. Pitch Circle: The imaginary circle that represents the size of the gear. It's
where the teeth of two gears effectively touch and transfer motion.
2. Pitch Diameter: The diameter of the pitch circle. It's crucial for
determining the gear size and spacing.
3. Addendum: The distance from the pitch circle to the top of the gear
tooth.
4. Dedendum: The distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the gear
tooth.
5. Module: A measure of the size of the gear teeth, calculated as the pitch
diameter divided by the number of teeth.
6. Pressure Angle: The angle between the line of action (where the teeth
engage) and the tangent to the pitch circle. Common pressure angles are
20° and 14.5°.
7. Backlash: The small gap between the teeth of meshing gears, allowing
for smooth operation and preventing binding.
8. Face Width: The width of the gear tooth, measured parallel to the gear
axis.
 The mechanical advantage in terms of distance (rpm in this case), would
be 12 + 9, or 1.33.
 This analysis tells us that when a large gear drives a small one, the small
one turns faster and has less available force.
 In order to be a force gaining machine, the small gear needs to turn the
large one.
 When the terminology reduction gearbox is used, such as a propeller
reduction gearbox, it means that there is more rpm going in than is
coming out.
 The end result is an increase in force, and ultimately torque.
 Spur gears, also known as straight-cut gears, are the simplest type of
gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially.
 Design and Structure
 Teeth: The teeth are straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation.
 Shape: Typically cylindrical or disk-shaped.
 Material: Commonly made from steel, brass, plastic, or other durable
materials.
 Characteristics
 Efficiency: High efficiency in transmitting power.
 Noise: Can be noisy at high speeds due to the sudden engagement of
teeth.
 Load Capacity: Suitable for moderate speeds and loads.

 Advantages
 Simplicity: Simple design and easy to manufacture.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive to produce compared to other
types of gears
 Disadvantages
 Noise: Can be noisy at high speeds.
 Stress: Sudden application of load can lead to stress concentrations and
potential fatigue failure
1. External Spur Gears:
1. Teeth Location: Teeth are cut on the outer surface of the cylinder.
2. Rotation: When meshed, they rotate in opposite directions.
2. Internal Spur Gears:
1. Teeth Location: Teeth are cut on the inner surface of the cylinder.
2. Rotation: When meshed with an external gear, they rotate in the
same direction.
3. Spur Rack and Pinion:
1. Design: A linear gear (rack) meshes with a circular gear (pinion).
2. Usage: Converts rotational motion to linear motion, commonly
used in steering systems

 Internal gears, also known as annular gears, have teeth cut on the inner
surface of a cylindrical or conical rim. They mesh with external pinion
gears inside the gear body, providing unique advantages in various
applications.
 CHARACTERISTICS
 Compact Design: Internal gears are more compact compared to external
gears.
 Torque Handling: Capable of handling higher torque.
 Smooth Operation: Provide smoother and quieter operation due to
increased contact area between teeth.
 Durability: Generally more durable due to the enclosed design
Applications
 Planetary Gear Systems: Integral part of planetary gear systems,
providing compact and efficient power transmission.

 External gears have teeth cut on the outer surface of a cylindrical or

conical body. They are the most common type of gears used in various
mechanical systems.
 DESIGN AND STRUCTURE
 Teeth: Cut on the outer surface of the gear.
 Shape: Typically cylindrical or conical.
 Material: Commonly made from steel, brass, bronze, or plastic,
depending on the application.
 CHARACTERISTICS
 Versatility: Widely used in many applications due to their
straightforward design.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Noise: Can be noisy at high speeds, especially spur gears.
 Load Capacity: Suitable for a wide range of speeds and loads.
 Advantages
 Simplicity: Simple design and easy to manufacture.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Cost-Effective: Generally less expensive to produce compared to other
types of gears.
 Disadvantages
 Noise: Can be noisy at high speeds, especially spur gears.
 Stress: Sudden application of load can lead to stress concentrations and
potential fatigue failure.

 Helical gears are a type of cylindrical gear with teeth that are cut at an
angle to the axis of rotation. This design allows for smoother and quieter
operation compared to spur gears.
 Design and Structure
 Teeth: Angled teeth that form a helix around the gear.
 Shape: Typically cylindrical.
 Material: Commonly made from steel, brass, bronze, or plastic,
depending on the application.
 Characteristics
 Smooth Operation: The angled teeth engage gradually, resulting in
smoother and quieter operation.
 Load Distribution: The load is distributed over several teeth, which
increases the gear's load-carrying capacity.
 Axial Thrust: Generates axial thrust due to the angled teeth, which
requires the use of thrust bearings to absorb the force.

1. Single Helical Gears:

1. Teeth: Teeth are cut in a single helix.
2. Usage: Common in automotive transmissions and high-speed
applications.
 3. Characteristics: Smoother and quieter operation compared to
spur gears.
2. Double Helical Gears (Herringbone Gears):
1. Teeth: Two sets of teeth cut in opposite helices, forming a V-
shape.
2. Usage: Used in heavy machinery and high-load applications.
3. Characteristics: Eliminates axial thrust and provides even
smoother operation.
 Advantages
 Smooth and Quiet Operation: Gradual engagement of teeth reduces
noise and vibration.
 High Load Capacity: Load is distributed over multiple teeth, increasing
the gear's strength.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Disadvantages
 Axial Thrust: Generates axial thrust, requiring additional components
like thrust bearings.
 Complex Manufacturing: More complex to manufacture compared to
spur gears, leading to higher costs.
 Double helical gears, also known as herringbone gears, are an advanced
type of gear system that improve on the design and functionality of
single helical gears. They are recognized by their unique "V" shape,
formed by two sets of helical teeth that are cut in opposite directions.
 Design and Structure
 Teeth: Two sets of teeth cut in opposite helices, forming a "V" shape.
 Helix Angles: The helix angles of the two helical gears are typically
identical but in opposite directions, which helps eliminate axial thrust.
 Gap Between Helices: Often, a small gap exists between the left and
right helix to ensure no direct contact between them. When there’s no
gap, it’s called a herringbone gear
 ADVANTAGES
 Elimination of Axial Thrust: One of the major benefits is the elimination
of axial thrust forces, which reduces the load on the bearings and
housing components, extending the lifespan of the machinery.
 High Load Capacity: The balanced axial forces and increased tooth
engagement allow them to handle heavier loads.
 Smooth and Quiet Operation: The constant engagement of the teeth
results in smoother transmission, reducing noise and vibration
 DISADVANTAGES
 Complex Manufacturing: More complex to manufacture compared to
single helical gears, leading to higher costs.
 Alignment: Requires precise alignment during installation to ensure
optimal performance
 Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect, and the
tooth-bearing faces of the gears themselves are conically shaped. They
are used to transmit motion between intersecting shafts, typically at a
90-degree angle, but can be designed for other angles as well.
 Design and Structure
 Teeth: Cut on a conical surface.
 Shape: Conical, with the pitch surface being a cone.
 Characteristics
 Angular Motion: Capable of changing the axis of rotation.
 Torque Modification: Can increase or decrease torque while inversely
affecting angular speed.
 Types of Teeth: Available in straight, spiral, or hypoid teeth, each
influencing performance and characteristics
 STRAIGHT BEVEL GEARS
 These gears have straight teeth and are used to transmit power between
intersecting shafts, typically at a 90-degree angle.
 Characteristics:
 Simple design
 Teeth are straight and taper towards the apex of the cone
 Produce more noise and vibration compared to other bevel gears
 Applications: Used in applications where low-speed and low-torque
transmission is required, such as in hand drills and some automotive
differentials.
 Hypoid bevel gears are a specialized type of bevel gear with non-
intersecting and non-parallel axes. They are similar to spiral bevel gears
but have a distinct offset between the pinion and the crown gear,
allowing for unique advantages in certain applications.
 Advantages
 High Torque Capacity
 Smooth and Quiet Operation
 Compact Design
 Hypoid bevel gears are essential in many high-torque and high-precision
applications
 Disadvantages
 Complex Manufacturing:
 Specialized Lubrication: Requires specialized lubrication to prevent
excessive wear due to the sliding action between the teeth
 A hypoid gear is a type of spiral bevel gear whose axis does not intersect
with the axis of the meshing gear.
 This design allows for smoother and quieter operation compared to
straight bevel gears.
 Hypoid gears are commonly used in automotive differentials, where they
help to transfer power from the driveshaft to the wheels at a right angle,
while also allowing for a lower mounting position of the driveshaft,
which can improve vehicle stability and handling.

 HYPOID BEVEL GEARS

 Definition: A type of spiral bevel gear where the axes of the gears do not
intersect. The pinion is offset from the centerline of the ring gear.
 Characteristics:
 Offset design allows for a lower driveshaft position
 Smoother and quieter operation than spiral bevel gears
 Can handle higher torque and load capacities
 Applications: Widely used in automotive differentials, especially in rear-
wheel-drive vehicles, to improve stability and handling.
 SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS
 These gears have curved teeth that are cut at an angle, allowing for
gradual engagement and smoother operation.
 Characteristics:
 Teeth are curved and oblique
 Smoother and quieter operation compared to straight bevel gears
 Can handle higher speeds and loads
 Applications: Commonly used in automotive differentials, aircraft
engines, and other high-performance machinery.
 Comparison of straight bevel gear ,spiral bevel gear and hypoid gear
 Teeth Design: Straight bevel gears have straight teeth, spiral bevel gears
have curved teeth, and hypoid bevel gears have offset curved teeth.
 Noise and Vibration: Straight bevel gears are noisier and produce more
vibration, while spiral and hypoid bevel gears offer smoother and quieter
operation.
 Load Capacity: Hypoid bevel gears can handle higher loads and torque
compared to straight and spiral bevel gears.
 Applications: Straight bevel gears are used in simpler, low-speed
applications, while spiral and hypoid bevel gears are used in high-
performance and high-load applications.

MITER GEAR
 A miter gear is a type of bevel gear where the two gears have an equal
number of teeth and are mounted on shafts that intersect at a 90-
degree angle. This design allows for the transmission of rotational
motion between two perpendicular shafts without changing the speed
or torque.
 Characteristics:
 Equal Number of Teeth: Both gears in a miter gear set have the same
number of teeth.
 90-Degree Angle: The shafts intersect at a right angle.
 No Speed Change: The gear ratio is 1:1, meaning the input and output
speeds are the same.
 Applications:
 Right-Angle Drives: Used in applications where a change in the direction
of the drive is needed without altering the speed, such as in hand drills
and some machinery.
 Simple Mechanisms: Ideal for simple mechanical systems requiring a 90-
degree power transmission.

BEVEL GEAR
 ADVANTAGES
 Versatility: Can be designed for various angles and applications.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Load Capacity: Capable of handling high loads due to the conical design
 DISADVANTAGES
 Complex Manufacturing: More complex to manufacture compared to
spur gears, leading to higher costs.
 Alignment: Requires precise alignment during installation to ensure
optimal performance
 Bevel gears are essential components in many mechanical systems,
offering unique benefits for transmitting motion between intersecting
shafts.
 Spiral bevel gears are a type of bevel gear with helical teeth that are
curved and angled, allowing for smoother and quieter operation
compared to straight bevel gears. They are commonly used in
applications requiring a change in direction and speed, particularly in
perpendicular shaft configurations.
 ADVANTAGES
 Smooth and Quiet Operation: Gradual tooth engagement reduces noise
and vibration.
 High Load Capacity: The curved teeth allow for better load distribution
and higher strength.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission
 DISADVANTAGES
 Complex Manufacturing: More complex to manufacture compared to
straight bevel gears, leading to higher costs.
 Alignment: Requires precise alignment during installation to ensure
optimal performance
 Spiral bevel gears are essential components in many high-load and high-
precision applications, offering unique benefits over traditional gear
types.
 Worm gears consist of a worm (which is similar to a screw) and a worm
wheel (which resembles a spur gear). They are used to transmit motion
and power between non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts, typically at a
90-degree angle.
 Design and Structure
 Worm: A cylindrical shaft with a helical thread.
 Worm Wheel: A gear with teeth that mesh with the worm's thread.
 Characteristics
 High Reduction Ratios: Worm gears can achieve high reduction ratios
with relatively small gear sizes.
 Self-Locking: Due to the high friction between the worm and the worm
wheel, worm gears can be self-locking, preventing the back-driving of
the gear system1
 Smooth and Quiet Operation: The continuous sliding contact between
the worm and the worm wheel results in smooth and quiet operation
 A worm and worm wheel setup converts rotational motion from one axis
to another, typically at a 90-degree angle.
 Rotation Conversion
 Worm: The worm, which is the driving component, rotates along its axis
(usually horizontal).
 Worm Wheel: The worm wheel, which is the driven component, rotates
along an axis perpendicular to the worm (usually vertical).
 Example
 If the worm rotates horizontally, the worm wheel will rotate vertically.
This 90-degree conversion is one of the key features of worm gear
systems, making them useful in applications where space constraints
require a change in the direction of rotation.
 ADVANTAGES
 Compact Design: High reduction ratios can be achieved in a compact
space.
 Self-Locking: Prevents back-driving, enhancing safety in certain
applications.
 Smooth Operation: Continuous sliding contact ensures smooth and
quiet operation
 DISADVANTAGES
 Efficiency: Lower efficiency compared to other gear types due to high
friction.
 Heat Generation: High friction can lead to significant heat generation,
requiring effective lubrication.
 Wear and Tear: The continuous sliding contact can lead to wear and
tear, especially on the worm wheel
 Rack and pinion systems consist of a circular gear (the pinion) engaging
with a linear gear (the rack). This setup converts rotational motion into
linear motion, making it a fundamental mechanism in various
applications.
 Design and Structure
 Pinion: A circular gear with teeth that mesh with the rack.
 Rack: A linear gear with teeth that mesh with the pinion.
 Material: Commonly made from steel, brass, or plastic, depending on
the application.
 Advantages
 Simplicity: Simple design and easy to manufacture.
 Efficiency: High efficiency in converting rotational motion to linear
motion.
 Precision: Provides precise control over linear movement, making it
ideal for applications requiring accuracy.
 Disadvantages
 Wear and Tear: Continuous engagement of teeth can lead to wear and
tear, requiring regular maintenance.
 Backlash: Can experience backlash (slight movement between the teeth)
if not properly maintained or designed.
 Sector gears, also known as sector shafts or sector plates, are specialized
gears that have teeth along only a portion of their circumference. They
are used to convert rotary motion into linear motion or vice versa,
making them essential in various mechanical systems.
 Design and Structure
 Teeth: Only a segment of the gear's circumference has teeth, while the
rest is smooth.
 Shape: Typically a sector of a circle.
 Material: Commonly made from high-strength alloy steel, stainless steel,
brass, or high-impact plastics, depending on the application
 Advantages
• Compact Design: Efficient for applications requiring short arc
movements.
• Precision: High precision in converting motion, making them ideal for
applications requiring accurate control.
• Versatility: Can be used in various mechanical systems for different
types of motion conversion
Disadvantages
• Limited Range: Only suitable for applications requiring short arc
movements.
• Wear and Tear: Continuous engagement of teeth can lead to wear and
tear, requiring regular maintenance

 Gear Ratio
 Definition: The gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on the
driven gear to the number of teeth on the driving gear. It determines the
relationship between the speeds and torques of the two gears.
 Impact: A higher gear ratio means the driven gear will rotate slower but
with more torque, while a lower gear ratio means the driven gear will
rotate faster but with less torque
 Impact of Gear Ratio
 Speed: A higher gear ratio reduces the speed of the output gear relative
to the input gear. For example, a 2:1 gear ratio means the output gear
rotates at half the speed of the input gear.
 Torque: A higher gear ratio increases the torque of the output gear
relative to the input gear. For example, a 2:1 gear ratio means the
output gear has twice the torque of the input gear
 The gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on the driven gear to
the number of teeth on the driving gear. It determines how the
rotational speed and torque are transmitted between gears. The formula
is:
 Gear Ratio=Number of Teeth on Driven Gear/
Number of Teeth on Driving Gear
 The speed ratio is the inverse of the gear ratio and indicates how the
rotational speeds of the gears relate to each other. It tells you how many
times the driving gear must rotate to make the driven gear rotate once.
The formula is:
 Speed Ratio=Rotational Speed of Driving Gear/
Rotational Speed of Driven Gear
 Gear ratio is a fundamental concept in mechanical engineering that
describes the relationship between the number of teeth on two meshing
gears. It determines how the speed and torque are transmitted between
the gears.
 Definition
 The gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the number of teeth on the
driven (output) gear to the number of teeth on the driving (input) gear.
It can be expressed using the formula:
 Calculation Example
 If an output gear has 40 teeth and an input gear has 20 teeth, the gear
ratio is:
 Gear Ratio=40 /20=2:1
 This means that for every complete rotation of the input gear, the
output gear rotates half a revolution

 When two gears are used in an aircraft component, the rotational speed
of each gear is represented as a speed ratio.
 As the number of teeth in a gear decreases, the rotational speed of that
gear increases, and vice-versa.
 Therefore, the speed ratio of two gears is the inverse (or opposite) of
the gear ratio.
 If two gears have a gear ratio of 2:9, then their speed ratio is 9:2.
 Gear Ratio
 First Number: Refers to the output (driven) gear.
 Example: In a gear ratio of 2:1, the "2" represents the output gear,
meaning the output gear has twice the torque but rotates at half the
speed of the input gear.
 Speed Ratio
 First Number: Refers to the input (driving) gear.
 Example: In a speed ratio of 2:1, the "2" represents the input gear,
meaning the input gear rotates twice as fast as the output gear.
 So, in summary:
 Gear Ratio (e.g., 2:1): The first number (2) is about the output gear.
 Speed Ratio (e.g., 2:1): The first number (2) is about the input gear.
Gear Ratio
• Definition: The gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on the
output gear (driven gear) to the number of teeth on the input gear
(driving gear).
• Formula:
• Gear Ratio=Teeth on Output /GearTeeth on Input Gear
• Purpose: It indicates how torque is transmitted between the gears. A
higher gear ratio means more torque but less speed at the output gear.
• Example: If the input gear has 10 teeth and the output gear has 20
teeth, the gear ratio is 20:10 or 2:1.
• This means the output gear will rotate at half the speed of the input
gear but with twice the torque.
Speed Ratio
• Definition: The speed ratio is the inverse of the gear ratio. It is the ratio
of the number of teeth on the input gear to the number of teeth on the
output gear.
• Formula: Speed Ratio=Teeth on Input Gear / Teeth on Output Gear
 • Purpose: It indicates how speed is transmitted between the gears. A
higher speed ratio means higher speed but less torque at the output
gear.
• Example: Using the same gears as above, the speed ratio is 10:20 or 1:2.
This means the input gear rotates twice as fast as the output gear.
Speed Ratio
• Definition: The speed ratio is the inverse of the gear ratio. It is the ratio
of the number of teeth on the input gear to the number of teeth on the
output gear.
• Formula: Speed Ratio=Teeth on Input Gear / Teeth on Output Gear
• Purpose: It indicates how speed is transmitted between the gears. A
higher speed ratio means higher speed but less torque at the output
gear.
• Example: Using the same gears as above, the speed ratio is 10:20 or 1:2.
This means the input gear rotates twice as fast as the output gear.
• Gears can be used to alter the speed of a shaft.
• The speed of rotation is dependant on the ratio between the number of
teeth of the input gear to that of the output gear.
• If the input gear has 25 teeth and the output gear has 75 teeth
• Calculate gear ratio -------------------------------------
 Calculate speed ratio -----------------------------
 Comparison
 Gear Ratio: Focuses on torque. A higher gear ratio means more
torque at the output gear.
 Speed Ratio: Focuses on speed. A higher speed ratio means more
speed at the input gear.

• DRIVING GEAR AND DRIVEN GEAR
• The gear that supplies the driving force is known as either the driving
gear or the driver. The gear which receives the force is known as the
driven gear or is sometimes called the follower.
• The driving gear or driver is attached to a source of mechanical power
such as an electric motor or internal combustion engine. The driven gear
or follower is attached to the output shaft where this mechanical force is
transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle, through a series of other shafts
or gears.
• Driving gear and driven gear form part of a mechanical system. The
mechanical power from an engine, turbine or electric motor is
transmitted to a driven component in the machine. The output speed
and torque can be varied by using different sizes of driven gears and
driving gears. Different configurations of gears will increase or decrease
the rotational speed of the output shaft.
• Gears are simple wheels with teeth or cogs placed on their periphery.
They are a mechanical system to transfer force, power, and torque, to
change direction, or vary the speed from the input shaft to the output
shaft.
• The simplest form of a gear drive has two gear wheels meshing with
each other. In all types of gear systems, one gear provides the turning
force to the other gear. The gear providing the force is called the driver
gear while the gear that turns due to the force is called the driven gear.
• If both the gears have the same number of teeth and are of the same
radius, then the driving gear and driven gear both rotate at the same
speed but in opposite directions.
• If the driven gear consists of a higher number of teeth than the driver
gear, then the driven gear rotates at a slower speed than the driver gear.
• If the driven gear consists of a lower number of teeth than the driver
gear, then the driven gear will have a higher rotational speed than the
driver gear.
• To calculate the mechanical advantage provided by a set of gears, you
have to divide the number of teeth in the driven gear by the number of
teeth in the driving gear.
• For example, if the driving gear has 20 teeth and the driven gear has 10
teeth, then the gear ratio is 10 /20 = 0.5. If you have a system where the
driving gear has 10 teeth and the driven gear has 20 teeth, then the gear
ratio or mechanical advantage is 20 / 10 = 2.
•

• In a gear system, the drive gear (also known as the driving gear) and
the driven gear (also known as the follower gear) work together to
transmit motion and power from one shaft to another.
• Drive Gear
• Function: The drive gear is connected to the power source, such as a
motor or engine. It initiates the motion and transmits power to the
driven gear.
• Characteristics: The drive gear's speed and torque are determined by
the power source. It can be larger or smaller than the driven gear,
depending on the desired output
• Driven Gear
• Function: The driven gear receives motion and power from the drive
gear. It is responsible for performing the work in the system, such as
turning a wheel or moving a conveyor belt.
• Characteristics: The speed and torque of the driven gear are influenced
by the drive gear's size and the gear ratio between the two gears
•

•
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•
•

• IDLER GEARS
• Idler gears, also known as intermediate gears or dummy gears, are gears
placed between two other gears to transmit motion and power without
altering the gear ratio. They serve several important functions in
mechanical systems.
• PURPOSE OF IDLER GEARS
• Change Direction of Rotation:
• Maintain Gear Spacing:
• Power Transmission:
• Load Distribution:
• Tension and Timing Adjustment
• Advantages
• Versatility: Can be used in various applications to achieve different
mechanical objectives.
• Durability: Helps reduce wear and tear on gears by distributing the load
evenly.
• Efficiency: Ensures smooth and efficient power transmission without
altering the gear ratio
• Disadvantages
• Additional Components: Adds complexity to the gear system by
introducing additional components.
• Maintenance: Requires regular maintenance to ensure optimal
performance and longevity
• Idler gears are essential components in many mechanical systems,
offering unique benefits for power transmission and motion control.
•
• An idler gear, as the name implies, does no work. However, its use is
frequent in drive trains where its default position is between a driving
gear and a driven counterpart. In this article, you will learn about the
purpose of the idler gear, its influence in torque calculations, as well as
review the reverse idler gear.
• PURPOSE OF IDLER GEARS
• Although idler gears do not perform work, they have two basic functions
that make them popular in transmission systems. One is to change the
direction of rotation, while the other is to enable transmission over a
long distance.
 Simple gear trains consist of two or more gears connected in series,
where each gear is mounted on its own shaft. The primary purpose is to
transmit motion and power between shafts.
 Design and Structure
 Gears: Each gear is mounted on a separate shaft.
 Arrangement: Gears are arranged in a series, with each gear meshing
with the next.
 Material: Typically made from steel, brass, or plastic, depending on the
application.
 Characteristics
 Speed and Torque: The speed and torque of the output gear depend on
the gear ratio between the input and output gears.
 Direction of Rotation: The direction of rotation alternates with each
gear in the train.
 Efficiency: Generally high efficiency in power transmission.
 Compound gear trains consist of multiple gears on the same shaft,
allowing for more complex gear ratios and higher torque transmission.
 Design and Structure
 Gears: Multiple gears can be mounted on the same shaft.
 Arrangement: Gears are arranged in a series, with some shafts carrying
more than one gear.
 Material: Typically made from steel, brass, or plastic, depending on the
application.
 Characteristics
 Complex Gear Ratios: Allows for more complex gear ratios by combining
the effects of multiple gears.
 High Torque Transmission: Capable of transmitting higher torque due to
the combination of gears.
 Efficiency: Generally high efficiency, but slightly lower than simple gear
trains due to additional gears.
 Gear mesh patterns are crucial for ensuring the proper functioning and
longevity of gear systems.
 KEY CONCEPTS
 Contact Pattern: The area where the teeth of two gears come into
contact during rotation. A proper contact pattern ensures smooth
operation and even load distribution.
 Backlash: The slight gap between meshing gear teeth, allowing for
lubrication and thermal expansion. Proper backlash is essential to
prevent excessive wear and noise.
 Alignment: Proper alignment of gears is critical to achieving the desired
mesh pattern. Misalignment can lead to uneven wear and potential gear
failure.
 Inspection and Adjustment
 Visual Inspection: Use gear marking compound to visualize the contact
pattern. Apply the compound to the gear teeth and rotate the gears to
observe the pattern.
 Adjustments: Adjust gear spacing, alignment, and backlash to achieve
the ideal contact pattern. This may involve shimming, repositioning
gears, or adjusting mounting positions.
 Importance of Proper Gear Mesh Patterns
 Longevity: Proper mesh patterns reduce wear and extend the lifespan of
gears.
 Efficiency: Ensures efficient power transmission with minimal energy
loss.
 Noise Reduction: Minimizes noise and vibration during operation.
 Reliability: Prevents gear failure and ensures reliable performance.

 Backlash is the clearance or play between two gears in mesh.

 A certain amount of backlash is required for lubricant penetration
between the teeth of the gears, and to allow for thermal expansion of
the gear train.
 Too much backlash will case excessive wear of the gear teeth due to
free play between the teeth.
 Too little backlash will cause wear of the gear teeth and possibly
overheating due to insufficient lubrication and excessive friction.
 Gear backlash refers to the small gap or play between the teeth of
meshing gears when the direction of load or motion is reversed. This gap
is essential for several reasons, including preventing gear teeth from
binding, allowing for lubrication, and accommodating thermal expansion
and manufacturing imperfections.
 Backlash is the amount of play between mating gear teeth, allowing for
free movement before the opposite tooth faces engage.
 Importance: Proper backlash ensures smooth operation, reduces noise
and vibration, and prevents premature wear and gear failure
Causes of Backlash
1. Manufacturing Tolerances: Slight deviations in gear dimensions during
manufacturing necessitate a small gap to ensure proper meshing1
2. Thermal Expansion: Gears expand with temperature changes, and
backlash accommodates this expansion to prevent binding
3. Lubrication: The gap allows for the presence of lubrication between gear
teeth, reducing friction and wear
 A bevel epicyclic gear arrangement combines the principles of bevel
gears and epicyclic (or planetary) gears.
 Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect, and the
tooth-bearing faces of the gears themselves are conically shaped. They
are typically used to change the direction of a shaft's rotation.
 Epicyclic gears (or planetary gears) consist of a central "sun" gear, planet
gears that rotate around the sun gear, and an outer ring gear that
meshes with the planet gears.
 This setup allows for multiple gear ratios and is known for its
compactness and high efficiency.
 In a bevel epicyclic gear arrangement, the planet gears are bevel gears
instead of the usual spur gears.
 This configuration allows the axes of the gears to intersect at an angle,
which can be useful in applications where space constraints or specific
directional changes are required.
 This type of gear arrangement is often used in automotive differentials
and other machinery where complex motion and torque distribution are
needed
 Epicyclic gears, also known as planetary gears, consist of a central sun
gear, planet gears, and a ring gear. This configuration allows for compact
and efficient power transmission with high torque capacity.
 Design and Structure
 Sun Gear: The central gear around which the planet gears revolve.
 Planet Gears: Multiple gears that orbit the sun gear and mesh with both
the sun and ring gears.
 Ring Gear: An outer gear with internal teeth that mesh with the planet
gears.
 Carrier: A structure that holds the planet gears in place and rotates to
carry them around the sun gear
 Characteristics
 Compact Design, High Efficiency: ,Multiple Gear Ratios:
 Load Distribution: The load is distributed among multiple planet gears,
increasing the system's load-carrying capacity
 Engines must operate at relatively high speeds for maximum efficiency.
Propellers must operate at lower speeds for maximum efficiency.
 Therefore, reduction gears are used to allow both the engine and the
propeller to operate within their most efficient rotational speeds.
 Reduction gears are classified by the number of step used to bring
about the speed reduction. A single reduction gear is a gear mechanism
consisting of a pair of gears or a small drive gear (pinion), which directly
drives a large (bull) gear.
 For example, in a 2-to-1 single reduction gear, the number of teeth on
the driven gear is twice that of the driving pinion.
 Reduction gears are mechanical devices used to reduce the input speed
to a lower output speed while increasing the torque. They are essential
in various applications where high-speed input needs to be converted to
low-speed, high-torque output.
 Characteristics
 Speed Reduction: Achieves speed reduction by using gears of different
sizes. The ratio of the number of teeth on the gears determines the
reduction ratio.
 Torque Increase: As the speed decreases, the torque increases
proportionally, allowing the system to handle heavier loads
 Advantages
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Compact Design: Allows for significant speed reduction in a compact
space.
 Versatility: Can be used in various applications requiring different
reduction ratios
 Disadvantages
 Complexity: More complex than simple gear systems, leading to higher
manufacturing and maintenance costs.
 Heat Generation: Can generate heat due to friction, requiring effective
lubrication1
 Reduction gears are crucial in many mechanical systems, offering unique
benefits for speed reduction and torque increase.

CHAINS
 Transmission chains are essential components in mechanical systems,
used to transmit power and motion between shafts. They are widely
used due to their efficiency, durability, and versatility.
 Components of a Transmission Chain System
1. Chain Links: The primary components that interconnect to facilitate
power transfer.
2. Sprockets: Toothed wheels that engage with the chain links to transmit
motion.
3. Chain Tensioners: Devices used to maintain the proper tension in the
chain, preventing slippage.
4. Guide Rails: Components that help keep the chain aligned during
operation
 ADVANTAGES OF TRANSMISSION CHAINS
 High Efficiency: Minimal energy loss during power transmission.
 Durability: Long-lasting and capable of handling high loads.
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications, from industrial
machinery to automotive systems
 DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSMISSION CHAINS
 Maintenance: Requires regular cleaning, lubrication, and tension
adjustments to ensure optimal performance.
 Noise: Can be noisy, especially in high-speed applications.
 Wear and Tear: Chains can wear down and elongate over time, reducing
transmission efficiency

\
 The chain's main purpose is to transfer motion from one point, to
another, remote, point where the input motion is replicated.
 An example of this would be found in the input action of moving a
control lever, on the flight deck of an aircraft, and the subsequent
output action of the movement of a control surface.
 Most installations use chains to generate and convert rotary motion at
each end but use cables to connect the chains together over long
distances.
 Inspect for nicks, wear, lubrication, cleanliness and corrosion.
 Wear check is carried out by trying to lift the chain off the pulley and
checking for looseness of the links.
 A chain can be checked for stretching, by removing it and applying a set
tensile load.
 If its length is 2% or longer than when it was fitted, it is replaced.
 Check for twist in situ or after removal , suspend it
 Check for stiff link by running it slowly around the finger or a round bar.
If stiff oil it ,lay it flat and tap it
 Advantages
 Efficiency: High efficiency in power transmission.
 Durability: Long-lasting and capable of handling high loads.
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications
 Maintenance
 Inspection: Regular inspection for wear and tear.
 Lubrication: Proper lubrication to reduce friction and extend lifespan.
 Tension Adjustment: Ensuring proper tension to prevent slippage and
excessive wear
 Transmission belts are crucial in many mechanical systems, offering
unique benefits for power transmission and motion control.
 Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of
ratio, usually in a step-down situation, as well as a simple connection
between input and output shafts which are displaced by some distance.
The simple belt and pulley system, has a step-up or step-down facility,
depending on which pulley is driven. It will give a mechanical advantage
of 2:1 if the smaller pulley is driven, due to it being half the diameter of
the larger pulley. The larger pulley will rotate at half the speed of the
smaller one, and can be driven using half the torque.
Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation can include the driving of
propellers on micro-light aircraft, which use high revving engines. These
engines rotate about 6 000 rpm whilst propellers are most efficient at around 2
000-2 500 rpm. Therefore, the drive from the crankshaft pulley, via a strong
wide belt to the propeller pulley, gives a step-down ratio of about 2.5:1 on
most of this type of aircraft
FLAT BELT
 Design: Flat belts have a simple, flat surface and are typically made from
rubber, leather, or synthetic materials.
 Efficiency: High efficiency due to minimal bending losses and friction.
 Applications: Used in light-duty power transmission and high-
performance conveying systems
 .Advantages: Cost-effective, easy to install, and maintain. Suitable for
applications with smaller pulleys and large central distances
 .Disadvantages: Requires high tension to maintain frictional grip, which
can shorten bearing life. May not track properly and can slip off pulleys
V BELT

 Design: V-belts have a trapezoidal cross-section that fits into

corresponding grooves on pulleys.
 Efficiency: Good efficiency with higher torque transmission due to the
wedging action in the pulley grooves
 Applications: Commonly used in automotive engines, industrial
machinery, and agricultural equipment
  Advantages: Provides better grip and higher torque transmission.
Compact design and reduced slippage
 .Disadvantages: Can generate more heat and require more maintenance
compared to flat belts
SERRATED TOOTH BELTS
 Design: Serrated tooth belts, also known as synchronous or toothed
belts, have teeth that mesh with corresponding grooves on pulleys.
 Efficiency: High efficiency with precise power transmission and minimal
slippage
 Applications: Used in applications requiring accurate positioning and
high synchronization, such as in robotics, printers, and timing
mechanisms
 . Advantages: Provides precise and reliable power transmission, low
noise, and maintenance-free operation
 Disadvantages: More expensive and complex to install compared to flat
and V-belts
SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES
 Flat Belts: Simple design, high efficiency, cost-effective, but may slip and
require high tension.
 V-Belts: Trapezoidal design, good grip, higher torque transmission, but
can generate more heat.
 Serrated Tooth Belts: Toothed design, precise power transmission, low
noise, but more expensive and complex.
 Aircraft jacks often operate on the screw jack principle. A screw jack, or
jackscrew, works by converting rotational force (torque) into linear
motion. This is achieved through the use of a leadscrew, which is a
threaded rod that moves a load up or down when rotated
 In the context of aircraft jacks, this principle allows for precise lifting and
positioning of the aircraft. The screw jack's design ensures stability and
safety, as it is self-locking, meaning it will hold its position even when
the rotational force is removed
 A screw jack, also known as a jackscrew, is a mechanical device used to
lift heavy loads or apply a controlled linear force by converting rotary
motion into linear motion. It is widely used in various industries due to
its simplicity, reliability, and mechanical advantage.
 Working Principle
 Rotary to Linear Motion: When the handle or motor rotates the worm
gear, it engages with the threaded screw, causing it to move linearly.
 Load Lifting: The linear motion of the screw lifts or lowers the load
placed on the screw jack.
 Mechanical Advantage: The screw thread provides a mechanical
advantage, allowing heavy loads to be lifted with relatively little effort
 ADVANTAGES
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications.
 Precision: Provides precise control over lifting and positioning.
 Durability: Long-lasting and capable of handling heavy loads
 DISADVANTAGES
 Speed: Generally slower compared to hydraulic jacks.
 Manual Effort: Requires manual effort unless powered by a motor
 Screw jacks are essential tools in many industries, offering unique
benefits for lifting and positioning heavy loads.
 Push-pull rods are critical components in aircraft control systems, used
to transmit motion and force from the cockpit controls to various control
surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders. They ensure precise
and reliable control of the aircraft's flight dynamics.
 Design and Structure
 Rod: Typically made from lightweight, high-strength materials like
aluminum or composite materials to withstand the forces and reduce
weight.
 Ends: Equipped with rod-end bearings or clevises to connect to the
control surfaces and cockpit controls.
 Length: Can be adjusted to ensure proper alignment and tension in the
control system.
 Torque tubes are critical components in aircraft control systems, used to
transmit torque and rotational motion from the cockpit controls to
various control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators, and rudders. They
ensure precise and reliable control of the aircraft's flight dynamics.
 Design and Structure
 Tube: Typically made from lightweight, high-strength materials like
aluminum or composite materials to withstand the forces and reduce
weight.
 Ends: Equipped with fittings or couplings to connect to the control
surfaces and cockpit controls.
 Length: Can be adjusted or customized to fit specific aircraft designs and
control system requirements.
 FUNCTION
 Torque Transmission: Transmit rotational motion from the control
column or yoke to the control surfaces.
 Force Transmission: Capable of handling torsional forces, ensuring
smooth and precise control.
 Redundancy: Often part of redundant systems to enhance safety and
reliability.
 APPLICATIONS
 Ailerons: Control the roll of the aircraft by transmitting rotational
movements from the control yoke to the ailerons.
 Elevators: Control the pitch of the aircraft by transmitting rotational
movements from the control column to the elevators.
 Rudders: Control the yaw of the aircraft by transmitting pedal
movements from the cockpit to the rudder.
• ADVANTAGES
 Precision: Provides accurate and responsive control of the aircraft's
flight surfaces.
 Durability: Made from high-strength materials to withstand the stresses
of flight.
 Lightweight: Designed to be lightweight to minimize the impact on the
aircraft's overall weight.