 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Density
 mass per unit volume, often measured in kg/m³
 the low densities of aluminium and magnesium and of their alloys make them particularly valuable in
aeronautic and transportation fields.
 can be determined using the formula
𝜌=

where: 𝜌 = density m=mass (kg) V=volume (m³)

2. Hardness
 resistance of material to penetration
 hard materials resist scratches or being worn out by friction with another body
 to measure the hardness, an indentor is pressed into the surface of the material by slowly applied
known load, and the extent of the resulting impression is measured mechanically or optically. A large
impression for a given load and indentor indicates soft material, and the opposite is true for small
impression.
3. Elasticity
 ability of a material to return to its original shape after deformation
 a material is said to be "perfectly elastic if the whole stress produced by a load disappears
completely on the removal of the load
 the modulus of elasticity of Young's modulus (E) is the proportionally constant between stress and
strain for elastic materials.
 small values of E indicate flexible materials and large value of E reflect sti ness and rigidity

Modulus of Elasticity of Some Important Metals

S. No. Metals Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, E
(GN/m² or GPa)
1 Cast Iron 98
2 Wrought Iron 197
3 Mild Steel 210
4 Aluminum 72
5 Copper 120
6 Zinc 100
7 Tungsten 430
8 Molybdenum 350
9 Tin 42
10 Lead 18

4. Flexibility
 ability of a material to bend or deform without breaking
5. Porosity
 the amount of empty space in a material, expressed as a percentage or decimal
 is a key factor in determining a material's physical and mechanical properties, such as its electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity, and tensile strength
 it is calculated by dividing the volume of the empty spaces by the total volume of the material
Formula:
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 (%) = 𝑥 100 void – empty space within a material

6. Transparency/Opacity
 ability of a material to allow light to pass through
 glass, polycarbonate, acrylic

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
1. Strength
 ability to withstand various forces to which it is subjected during a test or in service
 usually defined as tensile strength, compressive strength, proof stress, shear strength, etc
 tungsten is a material with high strength, making it as a strongest natural metal (1,510 MPa tensile
strength) and also has a very high melting point (over 3400˚C)
 2. Ductility
 ability of material to be stretched into wire; ability of a metal to withstand elongation or bending
 materials with high ductility are copper, aluminum, gold, silver, mild steel
3. Brittleness
 lack of ductility
 when a body breaks easily when subjected to shocks it is said to be brittle
 materials with high brittleness are glass, ceramics, cast iron, concrete and silicon
4. Plasticity
 property that enables the formation of permanent deformation in a material
 it is reverse of elasticity; a plastic material will retain exactly the shape it takes under load, even after
the load is removed
 gold and lead are the highly plastic materials; clay, polyethylene and copper
 used in stamping images on coins and ornamental
5. Toughness (or Tenacity)
 is the strength with which the material opposes rupture. It is due to the attraction which the
molecules have for each other, giving them power to resist tearing apart.
 the area under the stress-strain curve indicates the 'toughness'
 expressed as energy absored (Nm) per unit volume of material participating in absorption (m³) or
Nm/m³
 steel, titanium alloys, rubber, kevlar and polycarbonate are examples of materials with high
toughness
6. Malleability
 it is the property by virtue of which a material may be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without
rupture
 this property generally increases with the increase of temperature

Common Metals in order of their Ductility and Malleability (at room temperature)
Ductility Malleability
Gold Gold
Silver Silver
Platinum Copper
Iron Aluminum
Nickel Tin
Copper Platinum
Aluminum Lead
Zinc Zinc
Lead Nickel

7. Fatigue
 phenomenon that leads to fracture under such conditions. Fracture takes place under repeated or
fluctuating stresses whose maximum value is less than the tensile strength of the material
 fatigue fracture is progressive, beginning as minute cracks that grow under the action of the
fluctuating stress.
 fatigue fracture starts at the point of highest stress. This point may be determined by the shape of the
part; for instant, by stress concentration in a groove.
8. Creep
 slow plastic deformation of metals under constant stress or under prolonged loading usually at high
temperature.
 specially taken care of while designing I.C. engines, boilers and turbines.
 the creep at a room temperature is known as low temperature creep and occurs in load pipes,
roofings, glass as well as in white metal bearings
 the creep at high temperatures is known as high temperature creep. It mainly depends upon metal,
service temperature to be encountered and the stress involved

 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
It describes on how materials reacts with other substances and how its chemical composition changes under
various conditions
1. Corrosion Resistance
 ability of a material to resist deterioration caused by environmental factots like moisture, oxygen, or
chemicals
 examples of materials with high corrosion resistance are stainless steel, titanium and titanium
alloys, nickel-based alloys, aluminum and alloys, polymers ceramics, composite
 2. Chemical Composition
 refers to the types and proportions of elements and compounds that make up a material
 study of chemical composition can help engineers select the right materials to suit the specific
applications. For example, the presence of elements like carbon in steel a ects its hardness,
strength and the ability to resist deformation, the persentage of chromium present in stainless steel
determines its corrosion resistance, and the ration of silicon to aluminum in an alloy can impact its
thermal and electrical conductivity.
3. Acidity and Alkalinity
 refers to how the materials interact with acidic or basic environment. These intercations may a ect
the performance, durability, and corrosion resistance of materials used in egineering applications.
 metals like iron, steel, and aluminum tend to corrode in acidic environment, but they are more
corrosion resistant (like steel) in aklaline solution
 the alkalinity of concrete helps protect steel reinforment from corrosion because it forms a
protective passive film on the surface of the steel
 stainless steel, especially those containing chromium are high resistant to acidic environment
 titanium and titanium alloys have high corrosion resistance in both acidic and alkaline environments
 nickel-based alloys are designed to withstand highly acidic and high temperatre environments
commonly used in chemical processing industries.

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Refers to the response of a material to the application of heat.
1. Heat Capacity (C)
 material’s ability to absorb heat from the external surroundings
 it represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise
 in mathematical terms, the heat capacity C is expressed as follows:

𝐶=

where: 𝑑𝑄 – energy required

𝑑𝑡 – temperature change
 heat capacity is specified per mole of material (J/mol.K or cal/mol.K)
Specific heat (c)
 heat capacity per unit mass (J/kg·K, cal/g·K, Btu/lbm·°F)
2. Thermal Expansion
 increase in a material’s dimension when heating and contracts maerial’s dimension when cooled
 example, steel expands when heated (expansion bolts for bridges)
 the change in length with temperature for solid material may be expressed as follows:

∆
= 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) or = 𝛼 ∆𝑇

where: 𝑙 and 𝑙 – represent initial and final length respectively

𝑇 and 𝑇 - represent initial and final temperature respectively
𝛼 – linear coe icient of thermal expansion (material property that is indicative of the
extent to which the materials expands upon heating and has units of reciprocal temperature
[(°C)−1 or (°F)−1
 heating or cooling a ects all the dimensions of a body, with a resultant change in volume. Volume
changes with temperature may be computed from
∆
= 𝛼 ∆𝑇

where: ∆𝑉– change in volume (𝑉 − 𝑉 )

𝛼 – volume coe icient of thermal expansion
3. Thermal Conductivity (𝒒)
 ability of materials to conduct or transfer heat
 it may be defined in terms of the expression

𝑞 = −𝑘

where: 𝑞 – heat flux or heat flow (heat energy flow in a given area; W/m2 (Btu/ft2·h)
𝑘 – thermal conductivity; W/m·K (Btu/ft·h·°F)
- temperature gradient through the conducting medium
 minus sign in the expression indicates that the direction of heat flow is from hot to cold, or down the
temperature gradient.
 metals like copper and aluminum have high thermal conductivity; insulators like wood, plastic and
fiberglass have low thermal conductivity
4. Thermal Stress (𝝈)
 stress developed in a material due to change in temperature. When a material is heated or cooled, it
tends to expand or contract. If this thermal expansion or contraction is restricted, internal stress
develop. These stress can lead to deformation or even failure if they exceed the material’s strength
limit.
 the magnitude of the stress 𝜎 resulting from a temperature change 𝑇 to 𝑇 is

𝜎 = 𝐸𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇 ) = 𝐸𝛼 𝛥𝑇

where: 𝐸 – modulus of elasticity

𝛼 - linear coe icient of thermal expansion

 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
It is the ability of the material to permit or resist the flow of electricity.

1. Resistivity
 electrical property of a material to which it impedes or resists the flow of electricity through it
 high resistivity means the material resists current flow (rubber, wood, glass)
 measured in ohm-meter (Ω.m)
.
𝜌=

where: 𝜌 – resistivity (Ω.m)

𝑅 – resistance (Ω) of a conductor
𝑙 – length of the conductor (m)
2. Conductivity (𝝈)
 reciprocal of resistivity
 ability of a material to allow the flow of electric current.
 materials with high conductivity have free electrons that can move easily (copper, silver,
aluminum)
 measured in siemens per meter (S/m); siemens – reciprocal of ohm

𝜎= =
.

3. Temperature coe icient of resistance

 variation of resistivity, 𝜌 with temperature
 temperature coe icient of resistance or resistivity,
𝜌−𝜌
𝛼 = .
𝜌 𝑇−𝑇
4. Dielectric strength
 it is insulating capacity of a material against high voltages
 material having high dielectric strength can withstand su iciently high voltage field across it
before it will break down and conduct
 dielectric is an insulation
5. Thermoelectricity
 If two dissimilar metals are joined and this junction is then heated, a small voltage in the
millivolt range is produced, this is known as 'thermoelectric e ect'
 thermoelectric e ect forms the basis of the thermocouple operation
6. Superconductivity
 a phenomenon where a material has zero electrical resistance below a certain temperature,
allowing current to flow without energy loss
 occurs at very low temperatures, close to absolute zero
 examples are niobium-titanium and yttrium barium copper oxide

 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
How material respond to magnetic field and their ability to produce or sustain magnetism. These properties
depend on the materials atomic structure and electron configuration.
 Classification of materials based on their magnetic behavior
Classification of materials Magnetic behavior Example
Diamagnetic Materials  Weakly repelled by a magnetic Copper, gold, water, bismuth
field
 Magnetic dipoles are aligned
oppositely to the applied field
 No permanent magnetism
Paramagnetic Materials  Weakly attracted to a magnetic Aluminum, platinum, magnesium
field
 Magnetic dipoles align with the
applied field but lose
magnetism when the field is
removed
Ferromagnetic Materials  Strongly attracted to magnetic Iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys
field and can be permanently
magnetized
 Magnetic domains align in the
direction of the field
Antiferromagnetic Materials  No net magnetism Magnesium oxide (MnO),
 Magnetic dipoles align in chromium
opposite direction, cancelling
each other out
Ferrimagnetic Materials  Magnetic dipoles align in Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), ferrites
opposite direction but do not
cancel completely, resulting in
net magnetism
 Common in ceramic-based
magnets

1. Permeability
 ability of a material to support the formation of magnetic field within itself
2. Coercivity
 resistance of material to demagnetization
3. Magnetic hysteresis
 lagging of magnetisation or induction flux density (B) behind the magnetising force (H)
 quality of a magnetic substance due to which energy is dissipated in it on reversal of its magnetism

 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
1. Transparency
 ability of a materials to allow light to pass through without significant scattering
 applied in optical lenses, windows, and protective covers
 examples are glass, polycarbonate and acrylic
2. Translucency
 ability of a materials to allow partial light to pass through, but light is scattered making objects
appear blurry
 used in frosted glasses and lighting di users
 examples are frosted glasses, and some ceramics
3. Opacity
 inability of a materials to allow light to pass through
 applied in coatings, paints, and shielding materials
 examples are metal and wood
4. Refraction
 bending of light (or other electromagnetic waves) as it passes from one material to another with a
di erent refractive index.
 material with high refractive indices slow light down more and bend it to greater degree
 essentail in designing lenses, optical fibers and prisms
 examples are diamond (𝑛 = 2.42), water (𝑛 = 1.33), glass 𝑛 = 1.5)
 Refractive index (𝑛) – ratio of speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in material

𝑛=

where: 𝑛 – refractive index

𝑐 – speed of light in a vacuum
𝑣 – speed of light in material

5. Absorption
 ability of a material to absorb certain wavelengths of light, converting them to heat or other forms of
energy
 used in solar panels, sunglasses, and coatings
 examples are tinted glasses that absorbs UV rays