LAB MANUAL

ME-216 Mechanics of Materials Lab

Student’s Name: ____________________________

Registration No: ____________________________

Degree & Syndicate: _________________________

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NUST College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

 Breakdown of the Semester
Experiment
Week Description
Number
1 1 Compression and Extension of Spring
2 2 Hooke’s Law and Strain in Compound Wires
3 3 Rubber in Torsional Shear
4 4 Tensile Test
5 5 Charpy Impact Test
6 6 Hardness Test (Rockwell, Vicker and Brinell)
7 7 Fatigue Test
8 8 Creep Test
9 Mid Semester Exam
10 9 Determining modulus of elasticity of beam
Deflection of Cantilever beam and simply supported beam at the
11 10
point load
12 11 Combined shear force and bending moment of given beam
13 12 Buckling of column under loading
Strain at various angles in the open end and close end condition
14 13
of thin cylinder
Torsional strain gauges to measure strains in object that twist, and
15 14
in two dimensions
16 Project Submission and Performance
17 End Semester Exam

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 Course Objectives
To improve students' cognitive and psychomotor skills. To understand the basic principles of
Mechanics of Materials and Laws of Mechanics. Mechanics of Materials Laboratory gives the
student basic tools for stress, strain, deformation analysis, methods for determining the stresses,
strains and deformations produced by applied loads.

Course Targets

Level of
S/N Topics PLO
Learning
Recall the fundamental knowledge of various material
1 C1 4
properties to interpret experimental data.
Demonstrate practical knowledge about key mechanics of
2 P2 4
materials concepts by performing experiments

Recommended Books
1. Mechanics of Materials by R.C. Hibbler
2. Material Science and Engineering by Willian Callister and David G. Rethwisch

Software
1. SM1007 for thin cylinder
2. Buckling of Column

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 Grading Criteria
Evaluation Type Evaluation Percentage (%)
Lab Reports/Manual 10
Quiz 10
Lab Work Lab Mid Exam 15
Open Ended Lab 15
Lab Performance and Viva 20
Lab Final Exam 15
Lab Final
End Semester Project 15
Total 100 %

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Experiment: 1
Compression and Extension of Spring
Objective:
To find out stiffness of spring both theoretically and experimentally and verify Hook’s law under
compression and tension.
Apparatus:
1. Compression of spring apparatus
2. Extension of spring apparatus
3. Hangers
4. Weights.
Introduction:
Consisting of a coiled piece of metal, springs are used in many industrial and consumer
applications. They are designed to stretch while storing mechanical energy. When a spring is
stretched, it will uncoil. Even when just partially uncoiled, a spring will store this mechanical
energy. There are many different types of springs, however, two of the most common being
compression and extension.
Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of that material. When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules
deform until stress is applied, and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.
Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier caliper.
2. Fit the compression spring in the spring support. To fit compression spring, remove the
load hanger base by unscrewing the grip knob and base from the rod thread. Loosen or
remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until the top can be
swung out from the slop by the 50 mm scale.
3. Withdraw the rod upward, insert the new spring and reverse the above procedure to return
the apparatus to full working condition.

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 4. Load the spring by 2 kg increments recording the change in length of the spring up to the
greatest readable deflection.
5. Record the spring dimensions.
6. Repeat the same process for extension spring and record the readings.
7. Plot force (N) versus deflection (mm).
8. From graph slope gives the value of spring stiffness k (N/mm).
Verify experimental stiffness value with the value obtained from theoretical expression of
stiffness.
Observations & Calculations:
• For Compression
Wire diameter = ____________ (mm)
Spring O/D = ____________ (mm)
Spring Length = ____________ (mm)
Number of active turns = ____________
Modulus of rigidity = ____________ (N/ mm2)
• For Extension
Wire diameter = ____________ (mm)
Spring O/D = ____________ (mm)
Spring Length = ____________ (mm)
Number of active turns = ____________
Modulus of rigidity = ____________ (N/ mm2)
Result processing:
The stiffness of the spring can be calculated as,
Stiffness = W / Δ
Stiffness = d4 G / 8N D3
Where,
d = Wire diameter
N = Number of turns
D = Outer diameter of spring coil
G = Modulus of rigidity

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 Slope Theoretical
Load Deflection from Value Difference
No. of
(W) (∆) Graph d4G/ 8N D3
Obs.
N mm (N/mm) (N/mm) (B-A)

Loading Unloading Mean

For Compression

For Extension

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Graph (Load V/S Deflection):

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Discussion and Conclusion:

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What are the factors that effect stiffness of the spring?

Write down the relation for combined stiffness when two springs are in (a) series (b)
parallel?

For the shock absorber application, either springs are connected in series or parallel, and
why?

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Experiment: 2
Hooke’s Law and Strain in Compound Wires
Objectives:
To investigate Hook’s law and determine modulus of elasticity for steel brass and compound
wires
Apparatus:
• Wires
• Hanger
• Weight
• Vernier Caliper
Introduction:
Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of that material. When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules
deform until stress is applied, and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.
The Young's Modulus (or Elastic Modulus) is in essence the stiffness of a material. In other words,
it is how easily it is bended or stretched.
To be more exact, the physics and numerical values are worked out like this:
Young's Modulus = Stress / Strain
where:
Stress = force / cross sectional area
Strain = change in length / original length
Procedure:
• Note the length (L), diameter (d) and the material of the wire under test.
• Add sufficient initial load to the hanger to remove the flexure of the specimen.
• Let the scale measurement now showing be the zero position.

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 • Add load to the hanger in equal increments of 5 kg and note the corresponding total
extension (x).
• Care should be taken to ensure that the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded.
• Tabulate the results and draw a graph of stress (σ) against strain (ε).
• Calculate the Modulus of Elasticity of the wire from the slope of stress-strain graph.
o Repeat the above processes for second wire.
• For compound wires connect the both wires with the help of bar.
• Adjust the hook of bar, used to attach hanger for weight, so both wires extend evenly.
• Increase weight with the increments of 5 kg, and note deflection.
• Calculate stress strain and combined modulus of elasticity and draw relation between
stress and strain.
Observation and Calculation:
For Steel Wire:
Length of the wire = L = _______________________________
Diameter of the wire = d = ________________________________
𝜋
Cross sectional area of wire A = 4 𝑑 2 = _________________________

Modulus of elasticity:
𝑊.𝐿
𝐸𝑒 = 𝑥.𝐴
=

Load (W) Deflection (x) Modulus of

S/N Strain Stress
N mm Elasticity

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For Brass Wire:
Length of the wire = L = _______________________________
Diameter of the wire = d = ________________________________
𝜋
Cross sectional area of wire A = 4 𝑑 2 = _________________________

Modulus of elasticity:
𝑊.𝐿
𝐸𝑒 = 𝑥.𝐴
=

Load (W) Deflection (x) Modulus of

S/N Strain Stress
N mm Elasticity

For Compound wire:

Length of the wire = L = _______________________________
Diameter of the steel wire = ds = ________________________________
Diameter of the brass wire = db = ________________________________
𝜋
Cross sectional area of steel wire As = 4 𝑑𝑠 2 = _________________________
𝜋
Cross sectional area of brass wire Ab = 4 𝑑𝑏 2 = _________________________

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Theoretical value for modulus of compound wire is calculated as follows:
𝐴𝑏 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠 𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑡 =
𝐴𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠
Experimental value for modulus of compound wire is calculated as follows:
𝑊. 𝐿
𝐸𝑒 =
𝑥. (𝐴𝑏 + 𝐴𝑠 )

S/ No. Load (W) Extension(x) Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of Elasticity

N mm (GPa) (GPa)
Theoretical value Experimental value

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Graphs:

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Discussion and Conclusion:

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What is practical significance of modulus of elasticity?

Drive relation for the modulus of elasticity when two wires are connected in parallel.

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Where the load can be applied in case of compound wire, and why?

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Experiment: 3
Rubber in Torsional Shear
Objectives:
1. To determine the variation of deflection of rubber under torsional shear with applied load.
2. To investigate shear strain varies with shear stress and determine modulus of rigidity for
the rubber under torsional shear.
Apparatus:
1. Rubber Shearing Force (Radial) Apparatus
2. Measuring Tape
3. Vernier caliper
4. Weight hanger and weights
Introduction:
Shear force is a force acting in a direction that’s parallel to (over the top of) a surface or cross
section of a body, like the pressure of air flow over an airplane wing. Shear force is an internal
force in any material which is usually caused by any external force acting perpendicular to the
material, or a force which has a component acting tangent to the material. Shearing forces are
unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction, and another part of the body in the
opposite direction. When the forces are aligned into each other, they are called compression forces.
The torque when applied on an object creates torsional moment. Torque is a moment that tends to
twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of primary concern in the design of axles
or drive shafts used in vehicles and machinery. If a torsion is large enough it will cause the material
to undergo a twisting motion during the elastic and plastic deformation.
The rubber in shear apparatus essentially consists of two circular steel bars connected to a rubber
block with the block acting as shear element. One of the circular steel bar is attached to the circular
dial, whereas a force can be applied to the other by fitting weights.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus securely to the wall at convenient height.
2. Measure the dimensions of the rubber cylinder.
3. Attach the load hanger on the 360-degree circle with cord.
4. Load the spring by 2 N increments.
5. Record the deflection with each load increment.

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 6. Calculate shear stress and shear strain.
7. Plot load (N) versus deflection (mm).
8. Plot shear stress (x-axis) versus shear strain (y-axis).
9. Calculate modulus of rigidity (G) from slope of graph.
10. Verify experimental rigidity value with the theoretical value.
Observations:
Length of load arm = a = ___________________
Diameter of sample (Rubber Cylinder) = d = _________________
Length of specimen (Rubber Cylinder) = L = __________________
Results and Calculations:
The torsional moment,
T=F*a
Polar moment of inertia,
𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋𝑟 4
𝐽= =
32 2
Shear Modulus,
𝑇𝐿
𝐺=
𝐽𝜃
Results Processing:
Angle of Angle of Torsional Polar Shear
Load Load
Slip slip Moment Moment Modulus
(kg) (N)
(Degree) (rad) (Nmm) (mm3) (MPa/rad)

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Discussion and Conclusion:

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What are practical applications of Torsional Shear?

Why is Shear Modulus changing with the change in load?

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Experiment: 4
Tensile Test on UTM
Objective:
To see the behavior of material specimen under tensile loading and determine the value of yield
stress, ultimate tensile stress, fracture stress and young’s modulus for the given specimen.
Apparatus:
1. Universal testing machine
2. Dial gauge
3. Force transducer
4. Vernier caliper
5. Specimen.
Introduction:
The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue deformation or
failure. This property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment. One
of the most important tests to perform in this regard is the tension or compression test. Although
several important mechanical properties of a material can be determined from this test, it is used
primarily to determine the relationship between the average normal stress and average normal
strain in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
To perform a tension test a specimen of the material is made into a “standard” shape and size. It
has a constant circular cross section with enlarged ends, so that failure will not occur at the grips.
Before testing, two small punch marks are placed along the specimen’s uniform length.
Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial cross-sectional area, and the gauge-length
distance between the punch marks. The machine is designed to read the load required to maintain
uniform stretching. At frequent intervals during the test, data is recorded of the applied load P, as
read on the dial of the machine or taken from a digital readout.

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Also, the elongation between the punch marks on the specimen may be measured using either a
caliper or a mechanical or optical device called an extensometer. This value is then used to
calculate the average normal strain in the specimen.
The nominal or engineering stress can be obtained by dividing the applied load P by the
specimen’s original cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑜 . This calculation assumes that the stress is constant
over the cross section and throughout the gauge length.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴𝑜
The nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gauge reading, or by dividing
the change in the specimen’s gauge length, by the specimen’s original gauge length Here the strain
is assumed to be constant throughout the region between the gauge points.
∆𝑙
𝜖=
𝑙𝑜
The corresponding values of stress and strain are plotted so that the vertical axis is the stress and
the horizontal axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain
diagram.

Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the specimen are within the light orange
region. Here the curve is a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the stress is
proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic. The upper stress
limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit. If the stress slightly exceeds the

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proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress
reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still
return to its original shape. Normally for steel, however, the elastic limit is seldom determined
since it is very close to the proportional limit and therefore rather difficult to detect. A slight
increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular dark
orange region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point,
and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. Notice that once the yield point is
reached, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any increase in load. When the
material is in this state, it is often referred to as being perfectly plastic.
When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the specimen, resulting in a
curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as
the ultimate stress, The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening, and it is
identified as the region in light green.
Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease. This
decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the
ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen.
As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates further.
This region of the curve due to necking is indicated in dark green. Here the stress–strain diagram
tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress.
Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is called a ductile material.
Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these materials are capable of
absorbing shock or energy, and if they become overloaded, they will usually exhibit large
deformation before failing. The percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture strain expressed as
a percent.
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100 %
𝐿𝑜
The percent reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is defined within the region
of necking as follows,
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∗ 100 %
𝐴𝑜

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Procedure:
1. Screw the threaded ends of the sample specimen into the chucks.
2. Tighten the net of the upper check by hand. The elongation measuring dial gauge is placed
on the cross head.
3. Set the dial gauge or displacement transducer and force transducer to zero.
4. Slowly apply the load and record both the load and the elongation at every 0.1 mm as the
load increases on the data sheet provided until the specimen fractures.
5. Plot the load vs. elongation on a graph and identify the elastic limit, upper yield point,
lower yield point.
6. Calculate the yield strength, the tensile strength and percentage elongation.
Observations and Results:

Specimen diameter = do= _____________ (mm)

Cross sectional area = Ao = _____________ (mm2)

Gauge Length= lo = _____________ (mm)

𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎 =
𝐴𝑜
∆𝑙
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀 =
𝑙𝑜

Force Elongation Stress

S/N Strain
(kN) (mm) (N/m2)

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Final Length = Lf = _______________________
Final Area = Af = _________________________
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100 %
𝐿𝑜
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = __________________________
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∗ 100 %
𝐴𝑜
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ____________________
Tensile Stress = _______________________________
Ultimate Stress = ______________________________
Fracture Stress = _______________________________

Graphs (Stress v/s Strain):

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Discussion and Conclusion:

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What is difference between Engineering and True stress strain? Draw stress strain diagram
and mathematical relation.

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Why is dog bone shape specimen required for tensile testing?

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Experiment: 5
Charpy Impact Test of different Material
Objective:
To determine the impact strength (Toughness) of the different materials under different
temperature conditions.
Apparatus:
1. Impact tester
2. Material specimen
3. Vernier Caliper
Introduction:
Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of material. A material's toughness is a factor of
its ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Brittle materials have low toughness as a
result of the small amount of plastic deformation that they can endure. The impact value of a
material can also changes with temperature. Generally, at lower temperatures, the impact energy
of a material is decreased. The size of the specimen may also affect the value of the Izod impact
test because it may allow a different number of imperfections in the material, which can act as
stress risers and lower the impact energy.
There are two main types of impact test, Charpy and Izot impact test, the major difference between
these are listed below,

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Procedure:
• Setup the securely on the table at a convenient height.
• Raise the pendulum to a position corresponding to 15J potential energy.
• Set the pointer to 15J.
• Set the distance between test piece supports to 30mm, so that the midpoint between the
supports coincides with the midline of the pendulum.
• Make a blow with the pendulum, without test piece in position to check the zeroing. Adjust
if necessary.
• Place the test on supports so that the midline of the notch coincides with the midline of the
pendulum.
• Raise the pendulum to its starting position and set the pointer to 15J.
• Release the pendulum to break the test piece and read the impact energy directly on the
scale.
• Now reduce the temperature of the specimen and repeat the steps to calculate the impact
energy again.
• Compare the results with the formulas in the theory section.
• Note that toughness is the material property and it depends on its ductility and ultimate
strength.

Observations & Calculations:

Test data

Mass of pendulum = ____________ (mm)

Length of the pendulum = ____________ (mm)

Area of fracture = ____________ (mm)

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Angle of pendulum before impact = ____________ (degrees)

Result Processing:

The pendulum is raised to a position corresponding to 15J potential energy. The energy ‘K’ can be
written as:
𝐾 = 𝐹. 𝐿𝑅 (1 + sin(𝛼1 − 90°))
When the test piece is broken, the energy ‘T’ contained in the pendulum is:
𝑇 = 𝐹. 𝐿𝑅 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 )
The energy ‘E’ needed to break the test piece is:
𝐸 =𝐾−𝑇 (𝐽)
The impact strength or modulus of toughness can be calculated as follows:
𝐸
𝐾𝐶𝑈 =
𝐴
Where,
E= Impact energy
A= Area of fracture
𝛼1 = Angle of pendulum before impact
𝛼2 = Angle of pendulum after impact
F= Force applied on the test specimen which is equal to the weight of the pendulum
LR= Length of the pendulum

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Calculations:
At room temperature:

At low temperature:

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Results:

At Room Temperature At Low Temperature

𝛼1 (Angle before impact)
𝛼2 (Angle after impact)
K (Initial energy stored in
pendulum)
T (Energy in pendulum after impact)
E (Energy absorbed)
A (Area of fracture)
KCU (Impact toughness)

Discussion and Conclusion:

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What is fracture toughness?

What are the factors that influence the impact test?

What is ductile to brittle transition, and how it influences the impact test?

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Draw stress strain diagram of ductile and brittle material.

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Experiment: 6
Hardness test of material
Objective:
To determine the hardness number of the test specimen on standard hardness tester.

Apparatus:

• Standard hardness tester

• Indenter
• Eyepiece
• Test specimen.

Introduction:

Hardness is not a fundamental property of a material, but rather defined as "the resistance the
material exhibits to permanent deformation by penetration of another harder material." The
principal purpose of the hardness test is to determine the suitability of a material, or the particular
treatment to which the material has been subjected. The quantitative value of hardness should
always be evaluated in relation to:
• The type of indenter and its geometry
• The given load on the indenter
• A specific loading time profile and a specific load duration
Brinell Hardness Test:
The Brinell hardness test was the first standardized test to be widely used, especially on metals. It
is defined in ASTM E10. The testing process involves pressing a carbide ball indenter into the
surface of the test material over a set period of time with a constant applied force.
• The most frequently used forces range between 500 kgf (typically used for non-ferrous
metals) to 3000 kgf (typically used for steel).
• The result of the testing process is a round indentation that can be measured and used along
with the applied load to calculate a hardness value. The disadvantages of the Brinell test
are that it is slow compared to other methods and is destructive, leaving a large indentation
in the test sample.

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Rockwell hardness test:
The Rockwell test is probably the most commonly used hardness test today, mainly since it is the
fastest and most accurate form of testing. It is defined by the standard ASTM E18.
There are three stages to the Rockwell hardness test. A preliminary load is applied by a diamond
or ball indenter for a short period of time. The preliminary load is then removed and the indentation
is measured. The load is subsequently increased and applied, known as the major load. The major
load is then released, and the preliminary load re-applied for a short time. The indenter is removed
and the final indentation measured. The Rockwell hardness value of the material is calculated from
the difference between the final and preliminary indentation depth measurements.
Applied forces range between 15 kgf and 3000 kgf depending on the test material type.

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Vickers hardness test:
The Vickers hardness test is known as a ‘microhardness’ test, which means it is typically used for
small or thin material sections. Micro-indentation testing of materials is defined by ASTM E384.
The testing process involves using a diamond indenter to apply a light force to the surface of the
material and the depth is measured optically. Due to the small indentation, the surface of the
material must be smooth and highly-polished.
The typical loading values range between 10 g to 1 kgf, although ‘macro’ loads are infrequently
used that extend up to 30 kgf.

Procedure:

The correct operation procedure of Brinell hardness test by means of: 2.5x Objective, 2.5mm ball
indenter, 187.5kg test force is as follows:

• Assemble the slip testing table with up and down lead screw. Screw the fastening nut.
• Insert the seat of microscope into hole of the microscope right at the hardness tester. The
seat of microscope should keep vertically with the slipped testing table.
• Insert the eyepiece to the hole and push it to the end. Insert the 2.5x objective into the hole
under the seat of microscope.
• Take out the outside light, assembly it as the drawing and fix the screw. Insert the wire
plug of outside light to the socket at the right side of hardness tester.
• Rotate the load change hand wheel to place 1839N (187.5 kg).

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 • Place the specimen on the slipped testing table. Move it to place under the indenter, a bit
touch with the inside the blocking nail.
• Connect the instrument with power screw and turn the switch on.
• The dwell time for testing force for Brinell hardness should be 10-15 seconds for ferrous
materials, 30-35 seconds for nonferrous materials. If the Brinell hardness value is less than
35, the dwell time should be 60 seconds.
• After Brinell hardness testing, the slipped testing table should be lower down about 23mm.
Move stably the slipped testing table together with specimen under to the objective, a bit
touch with outside black nail.
• Rotate the slipped testing table slightly around the hole center of the up and down lead
screw to find indentation, at this point, slightly move the slipped testing table up and down
until the image of indentation observed from eyepiece becomes clear, then the focusing
process is completed, screw the fastening nut tightly.
• If the digit or graduated lines seem vague in the eyepiece, adjust the eye guard on eyepiece.
This is according to personal vision.
• Turn the drum wheel to enable the graduated line tangent to the left side of the indentation
and note the number of grid lines. Also do it to right side of the indentation.
• The testing indentation should be equally on the specimen. The distance between centers
of two neighborhood indentations should not be less than 3 times to the diameter of the
indentation. And the distance from center of indentation to the edge of specimen should
not be less than 2.5 times to the dimeter of indentation. If not tests like this, this indentation
will be dissymmetric, and cannot measure out correct hardness value.
• Measuring the diameters of each indentation should be in 2 mutually perpendicular
directions.
• Result should be calculated as follows:
Result Processing:

Diameter of indenter = _____________ (mm)

Diameter of impression = _____________ (mm)

Minimum graduation value of the micro eyepiece drum wheel when 2.5x objective is use =
______________________ (mm)

41 | P a g e
 𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑑 = 𝐿 = 𝐼 × 𝑛

Where,
L = Diameter of the impression
I = Minimum graduation value
n = Number of gridlines
2P
Theoretical value of Brinell hardness = BHN =
𝜋𝐷[𝐷−√(𝐷 2 −𝑑2 )]

Theoretical value of Brinell hardness = BHN = _____________

Experimental value of Brinell hardness = BHN = __________ (can be calculated from the table)
Conclusion and Discussion:

42 | P a g e
Which property will be determined by hardness testing?

What is the effect of increase of carbon content on Hardness testing?

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When to use Rockwell, Brinell and Vicker hardness test?

44 | P a g e
Experiment: 7
Fatigue Test of the given specimen
Objective:
To develop and understanding about fatigue and draw S-N curve for the given specimen.
Apparatus:
• Fatigue testing machine
• Cycle counter
• Test specimen
Theory:
When a metal is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes its structure to break
down, ultimately leading to fracture. This behavior is called fatigue, and it is usually responsible
for a large percentage of failures in connecting rods and crankshafts of engines; steam or gas
turbine blades; connections or supports for bridges, railroad wheels, and axles; and other parts
subjected to cyclic loading. In all these cases, fracture will occur at a stress that is less than the
material’s yield stress. The nature of this failure apparently results from the fact that there are
microscopic imperfections, usually on the surface of the member, where the localized stress
becomes much greater than the average stress acting over the cross section.
As this higher stress is cycled, it leads to the formation of minute cracks. Occurrence of these
cracks causes a further increase of stress at their tips or boundaries, which in turn causes a further
extension of the cracks into the material as the stress continues to be cycled. Eventually the cross-
sectional area of the member is reduced to the point where the load can no longer be sustained,
and as a result sudden fracture occurs. The material, even though known to be ductile, behaves as
if it were brittle.
In order to specify a safe strength for a metallic material under repeated loading, it is necessary to
determine a limit below which no evidence of failure can be detected after applying a load for a
specified number of cycles. This limiting stress is called the endurance or fatigue limit. Using a
testing machine for this purpose, a series of specimens are each subjected to a specified stress and
cycled to failure. The results are plotted as a graph representing the stress S on the vertical axis
and the number of cycles-to-failure N on the horizontal axis. This graph is called an S–N diagram

45 | P a g e
or stress–cycle diagram, and most often the values of N are plotted on a logarithmic scale since
they are generally quite large.
Factors Effecting Fatigue Failure:
• Points with high stress concentration points such as groove, key way, sudden change in
cross section etc. will result in low fatigue strength.
• Surface finish, smooth surface will result in high fatigue strength, while rough surface
will result in low fatigue strength.
• Surface hardness, hard surface such as those from carburizing or nitriding, surface
coating or cold rolling will result in high fatigue strength while annealing, loss of carbon
will result in low fatigue strength.
• Impurities in metals will result in stress concentration thus low fatigue strength.
• Low temperature will usually increase fatigue strength but high temperature does not
necessarily result in low fatigue strength as the material may undergo structural change.
• Corrosive environment will result in rough surface finish and high concentration, thus low
fatigue strength.
Procedure:
• Adjust the spring balance so that the load application assembly is hung freely on the spring
balance.
• Lift the load application bearing and insert the specimen into the bearing, then insert the
large end into the specimen grip and tighten the grip with wrench.
• Apply desired load by tightening the load adjusting screw.
• Set the revolution counter to read zero by pressing the reset button.
• There are two coil springs around the column to protect the spring balance when specimen
fails. Free the set screws above the coil springs on the columns.
• Reset the set screws on the column such that the coil springs are not compressed.
• Turn on the motor by pressing the green button.
• When the specimen fails, record the number of revolutions from the speed/counter
indicator.
• Test should begin at high a load such as 30 kg in order to know the specimen fatigue
strength then gradually reduce the load.

46 | P a g e
Observations & Calculations:
Diameter of the specimen (d) = ____________ (mm)
Length of specimen (l) = ____________ (mm)
Alternating stress can be calculated as follows:
𝐹𝑙 32𝐹𝑙
𝜎𝑎 = 3 =
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑3
32
Results:
Alternating
Load Load stress Revolution
S/N
(kg) (N) 𝝈𝒂 (rpm)
(N/mm2)

47 | P a g e
SN Curve:

48 | P a g e
Discussion and Conclusion:

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What is the effect of mean stress on fatigue strength and fatigue life?

Is fatigue failure related to ductile or brittle material? Explain why?

50 | P a g e
What is stress range and stress ratio and what does they indicate?

51 | P a g e
Experiment: 8
Creep Test of the given specimen
Objective:
To determine creep in different materials at different stresses and temperatures.
Apparatus:
• Creep Testing Machine
• Weights
• Hanger
Introduction:
A creep test measures the progressive rate of deformation of a given material at high temperatures.
It is performed by subjecting a tensile specimen to a constant load at a fixed temperature and
recording the corresponding amount of strain. Creep occurs over three main stages: primary,
secondary and tertiary. The primary stage occurs at the beginning of the testing period with
transient deformation at a varying rate.
The secondary stage is the point where deformation becomes more continuous and steady state.
The tertiary stage is the point where deformation accelerates and the specimen fractures, ultimately
ending the test. Creep tests help to document various material behaviors when materials are
subjected to forces. This ensures the materials are used in a safe and practical manner to prevent
material failure.

52 | P a g e
Procedure:
• Create a blank table of time v/s extension.
• You will need a timer, with an accuracy of one second.
• Accurately measure and record the width and thickness of the specimen.
• Put the weight hanger in position and fit it in lever arm at the hole.
• Fit the specimen into place between the black support block and the arm, and tighten the
bolts.
• Put the transparent cover into place around the specimen. Make sure that the thermometer
is in its hole in the top of the cover and its tip is near to the specimen. Wait for at least five
minutes for the temperature reading to stabilize, and then record the temperature around
the specimen.
• Fit a suitable weight to the Weight Hanger, to give stress that gives the longest test time
that you can allow.
• Carefully insert the Weight Hanger in the hole on the lever arm.
• Switch on the digital indicator and press its button to set its display to zero.
• Gently (and at the same time) - let go of the Weight Hanger and start your timer.
• Record the specimen extension every 30 seconds (0.5 minutes), until it fractures or stops
extending due to the limits of the machine.
• Repeat the test on new specimens at higher loads (stresses), so that you have a set of at
least two more stress results.
Results and Calculations:
Material of specimen: __________________________________
Temperature around specimen: ____________________________
Width of specimen: ___________________________________
Thickness of specimen: ________________________________
Total weight: ________________________________________

Time Extension
Minutes mm

53 | P a g e
54 | P a g e
55 | P a g e
Graph (Extension v/s Time):

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Discussion and Conclusion:

57 | P a g e
What is the effect of temperature on Creep?

Either creep test is the material property, if yes, then why?

58 | P a g e
What is the significance of using Dogbone shape in creep test?

59 | P a g e
Experiment: 9
Modulus of elasticity of beam
Objective:
To determine the modulus of elasticity of beam.
Apparatus:
• SM 1404 Deflection of Beam apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the modulus of elasticity of an aluminum beam by loading
the beam in cantilever bending. The modulus of elasticity, a fundamental constant for linear elastic
materials, is an index of the stiffness of the material. For many common structural materials including
aluminum alloys and steels, strain is an essentially linear function of the stress over the range of stresses
normally encountered by load-carrying members. The sketch below represents a typical stress-strain
diagram for a metal under uniaxial stress. By definition, the slope of the linear portion of the diagram
is the modulus of elasticity. Therefore,
E = /
Where,
E = Modulus of elasticity, (N/m 2)
 = Stress (N/m2)
 = Strain (m/m)





Stress is a defined concept, and is not directly measurable. Because of this, determination of the stress
in a complex structural member or mechanical part ordinarily requires measurement of the strains and
subsequent calculation of the stresses from Hook’s law. Experimental stress analysis is a popular
engineering tool used in the design of safe and reliable products and engineering structure.

60 | P a g e
Procedure:
• Fasten the support pillar to the frame at the distance of 700mm between them.
• Place the bar in the support.
• Adjust the riders at a distance of 900mm from center at both sides.
• Set the dial gauge at the center of beam and set it to zero.
• Suspend the equal weights at both riders and load the bar, the bar will show some
deflection.
• Note the deflection.
Results and Calculations:
Width of beam = b = __________________________
ℎ1 = thickness of beam = _______________________
h = thickness of beam = _______________________
𝑏ℎ13
𝐼=
12
𝑅 = (𝐶 2 + 4ℎ2 )/8ℎ
𝐿−𝐶
𝑀=𝐹∗
2
𝑅
𝐸=𝑀∗
𝐼
Distance between Distance
Load Deflection Young’s
supports between weight
N h Modulus
C L

61 | P a g e
Discussion and Conclusion:

62 | P a g e
Why Modulus of Elasticity is important in beam?

Whether we want to manufacture beam with brittle or ductile material, discuss with
proper reasoning.

63 | P a g e
Experiment: 10
Deflection of cantilever and simply supported beam at point load
Objective:
To determine the deflection of cantilever and simply supported beam at point load and draw elastic
lines.
Introduction:
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis (an
element designed to carry primarily axial load would be a strut or column). Its mode
of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the
beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear
forces and bending moments within the beams, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and
deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of
cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their material.
There are different types of beams,
• Cantilever beam
• Simply supported beam
• Overhang beam
• Continuous beam
• Fixed ended beam

Procedure:
• For cantilever beam:

64 | P a g e
 o Fasten the support pillar at right side to the frame and suppose that the support pillar
is A.
o Clamp the 6mm thick brass beam at 400mm in support.
o Place the rider with hanger on the beam and set dial gauge on that point.
o Load on the bar. The load should remain constant throughout the experiment.
o Place the load of 10N at 200mm from the support.
o Read the deflection value from the dial gauge (loaded) respectively.
o Move the load and dial gauge to the next position and set the dial gauge to zero,
and repeat the measurement with the increment of 100mm.
o Draw the graph between deflection (measured & calculated) on y-axis and distance
on the x-axis.
• For simply supported beam:
o Fasten the two support gauges at 800mm to the frame.
o Suppose A is left force gauge and B is right force gauge.
o Place the Aluminum beam on supports with rider and hanger, and adjust the height
of supports.
o Set the dial gauge at zero.
o Place the 10N load on beam 200mm and note the deflection from dial gauge.
o The deflection of the bar is measured at intervals of 100mm with dial gauge up to
600mm.
o The load should remain constant throughout the experiment.
o Read the deflection value from the dial gauge (loaded).
o Move the dial gauge to the next position, and repeat the measurement.
o Draw the graph between deflection (measured & calculated) on y-axis and distance
on the x-axis.
Results and calculations:
For Cantilever beam:
Beam 1:
Material of beam: ______________________________
Length of beam L : ___________________________
Width of beam b: ____________________________

65 | P a g e
Thickness of beam h: _________________________
Modulus of Elasticity E:_______________________
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑦 =
12
𝐹𝐿3
Deflection of Cantilever beam = 3𝐸𝐼
𝑦

Length L Load I Measured Calculated Percentage Error

mm N mm4 Deflection Deflection %
mm mm

Beam 2:
Material of beam: ______________________________
Length of beam L : ___________________________
Width of beam b: ____________________________
Thickness of beam h: _________________________
Modulus of Elasticity E:_______________________
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑦 =
12
𝐹𝐿3
Deflection of Cantilever beam = 3𝐸𝐼
𝑦

Length L Load I Measured Calculated Percentage Error

4
mm N mm Deflection Deflection %
mm mm

66 | P a g e
For Simply Supported beam:
Beam 1:
Material of Beam: ________________________
Length of beam L : ___________________________
Width of beam b: ____________________________
Thickness of beam h: _________________________

Modulus of Elasticity E: ______________________

𝐹𝐿3 3𝑥 4𝑥 3
Deflection of Simply Supported beam = 48𝐸𝐼 [( 𝐿 ) − ( 𝐿3 )]
𝑦

Length L Load I Measured Calculated Percentage Error

4
mm N mm Deflection Deflection %
mm mm

Beam 2:
Material of Beam: ________________________
Length of beam L: ___________________________
Width of beam b: ____________________________
Thickness of beam h: _________________________

Modulus of Elasticity E: ______________________

𝐹𝐿3 3𝑥 4𝑥 3
Deflection of Simply Supported beam = 48𝐸𝐼 [( 𝐿 ) − ( 𝐿3 )]
𝑦

67 | P a g e
 Length L Load I Measured Calculated Percentage Error
mm N mm4 Deflection Deflection %
mm mm

Discussion and Calculations:

68 | P a g e
Write down the practical applications of simply supported and cantilever beams.

What approach you will obtain to design the wing of aero plane, taking it as cantilever
beam?

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Why most of the beam sections are designed as H or I beam instead of Square or
Rectangular Beam?

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Experiment: 11
Combined Shear force and Bending Moment
Objective:
To determine combined shear force and bending moment of the given beam.
Apparatus:
• HST46 combined shear force and bending moment apparatus
• Weights
Introduction:
A rigid, aluminum beam is cut into two unequal lengths, creating a ‘cut’ section. Each beam is
then simply supported on vertical supports. Each support can be moved along the beam section
length creating varied beam spans. At the ‘cut’ section, a deep groove ball bearing in one beam
runs within a block in the other beam. This allows for both vertical movement (shear) and rotation
(bending) to occur.
The Shear Force is measured using a vertical load cell. A second underslung load cell measures
the bending moment force in the beam ‘cut’ section via it’s moment lever arm set. The output from
the load cells is fed into the essential extra HDA200 Interface (sold separately) for displaying of
the forces. Load cell connection leads are supplied as standard.
Special Load hangers are provided that fit over the beams. The Load hangers can be positioned
accurately along the beams length by using the graduated scales attached to the side of the beams.
The smooth design of the beam sections allows a wide variety of unrestricted load positions to be
used along the beam lengths.
Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in conjunction with structural
analysis to help perform structural design by determining the value of shear force and bending
moment at a given point of a structural element such as a beam. These diagrams can be used to
easily determine the type, size, and material of a member in a structure so that a given set
of loads can be supported without structural failure. Another application of shear and moment
diagrams is that the deflection of a beam can be easily determined using either the moment area
method or the conjugate beam method.

71 | P a g e
Procedure:
• The cantilever cables will be wired as shown below into four 3-way plug connectors. If
they are not fitted or have been removed for some reason then they should be wired.
• The wires are secured in position using the screw terminals inside the connectors.
• Plug the connectors into the HDA200 Interface unit.
• The connectors are pushed into the first block of sockets on the front face of the HDA200
Interface, near the left-hand bottom corner. Ensure the black and green connectors are
placed in the top row and the red and yellow connectors in the bottom row,
• A power supply unit is supplied with the HDA200 Interface.
• This has different plug terminals depending on the country in which the HDA200 is being
used. Connect the appropriate plug terminal into the main unit. NB Should the power
supply unit fail the HDA200 Interface can be connected directly to a POWERED USB port
on the host computer. This connection will power the HDA200 Interface, but the display
will not be backlit Connect the power supply jack socket into the side of the HDA200 unit.
• The screen of the HDA200 will now illuminate.
• The HDA200 Interface will have been factory set so press green button next to the word
NO.
• Press the green button next to the word Local.
• You will now see the following values appear in the window of the HDA200 Interface.
These are the values from the two strain gauged cantilevers on the hardware.
• These values will not zero the following experimental procedure it is important that you
zero the strain gauge readings before commencing Press and hold the top green button for
around 2-3 seconds.
• Upon completion of the taring, the reading should be zero, but another tare may be required
due to the sensitivity of the HDA200 Interface.
• The P4121 is now ready to operate with the apparatus.
• The load is applied and then the shear force and bending moment is determined.

Results and Calculations:

Width of beam = b = ____________________________
Height of cantilever member = d = ________________________

72 | P a g e
Distance from centerline of strain gauge = L = ________________________
Distance to neutral axis = y = ________________________
C.S.A ___________________________
I = __________________________
E = _____________________________

Load W1 Bending W2 Bending W3 Bending

N Force Force Force

Load Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental

N
Bending Moment

Discussion and Conclusion:

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Is there any relation of shear force and bending moment, if yes, kindly discuss.

74 | P a g e
At what point shear force will be zero and maximum?

Is there any relation of temperature with shear force and bending moment?

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Experiment: 12
Buckling of Column under loading
Objective:
To determine combined shear force and bending moment of the given beam.
Apparatus:
• Strut Buckling Apparatus
Introduction:
A column differs from a tension bar in that any non-uniform yielding in the cross section brings
about further yielding. This non-uniform yielding is not serious in short blocks, but is serious in
columns. Columns are divided for analysis into long columns and short columns, in both of which
initial inequalities introduce serious bending. Long columns fail by buckling at a load less than the
elastic limit of the material.
Buckling is the sudden collapse of a long column at or above the critical load at witch equilibrium
no longer obtains. The ratio of length to radius of gyration, or slenderness ratio, at which a long
column begins to fail by buckling, is between 100 and 120. Such columns are computed by Euler's
formula. Few structural columns fail as long columns.
Short columns with values of (1/k) less than 100 begin to fail when the combination of direct stress
and bending stress reaches the yield point of the material. The actual failure is dependent upon the
homogeneity of the material, the straightness of the column, and the eccentricity of loading, all of
which control bending stresses. Failure of built-up columns begins with a local crippling at some
part of the column. Such elements are not susceptible of calculation, and short columns of this
kind are to be computed by empirical formulas which are however, modeled on rationally derived
forms.
Procedure:
• Adjust the loading bar at a height slightly higher than the test specimen length and fasten
the bar to columns.
• Insert the V-notch support in the bottom socket.
• Insert the V-notch support and hold in top socket by hand.

76 | P a g e
 • Insert the specimen onto the support and adjust the loading screw such that no compression
is exerted on the specimen. The load indicator should now read zero. If not the tare load is
recorded.
• Install the dial gauge set to measure the deflection at the mid span and set dial gauge to
zero for the specimen.
• Install hanger and small weight (side loading) to hold at the mid span of the specimen to
direct the deflection of specimen to agree with dial gauge.
• Slowly apply the compression load by turning the loading screw and record both load and
deflection on the data sheet.
• Read and record the deflection every 0.25 mm up to 1 mm.
• Above 1 mm deflection, it suffices to record the deflection and force every 0.5 mm.
• Never deflect more than maximum 6 mm (depends upon specimen), since there is a risk or
plastic deformation and damage to the rod specimen.
• Plotted the graph of load and deflection in y-x axis.
• Determine the critical actual load (Per) for each specimen and calculate critical actual unit
load (Per/A)
• Verity the unit loads (Per/A) by Euler Theory.
• Plotted graph critical unit load (Per/A). (1/k) and comments,
Results and Calculations:
Test No. 1
Specimen’s Size: ___________________________
End Condition: _____________________________
Materials: _________________________________
Side Loading: ______________________________

Deflection
(mm)
Load (kg)

Test No. 2
Specimen’s Size: ___________________________

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End Condition: _____________________________
Materials: _________________________________
Side Loading: ______________________________

Deflection
(mm)
Load (kg)

Graph (Load V/S Deflection):

78 | P a g e
Discussion and Conclusion:

79 | P a g e
What is the effect of end condition on the buckling of column?

What is effect of side load on the column buckling?

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Experiment: 13
Strain at various angles in the open end and close end condition of thin cylinder
Objective:
To determine strain at various angles in Open End Condition and Close End Condition.
Apparatus:
• Thin wall cylinder apparatus
• Strain Gauges
Introduction:
In stress analysis problems, one is interested in finding the maximum and the minimum normal
stress and the maximum shearing stress at a point, which can be further used for analysis. Stresses
and strains on objects can be determined both analytically and experimentally. The thin cylinder
apparatus has been developed to enable and determine the principal strains and to verify analytical
formulae for stress and strain with actual measured results on a thin cylinder under pressure.
Theory: In relation to stress analysis, cylinders are divided into two groups: thick and thin. The
distinction between the two relates to the ratio of internal diameter to wall thickness of a particular
cylinder. A cylinder with a diameter to thickness ratio of more than 20 is considered to be thin. A
ratio of less than 20 is considered to be thick. This distinction is made as the analysis of a cylinder
can be simplified by assuming it is thin. The SMlOO7 cylinder has a ratio of approximately 27,
which is well above the ratio for being considered thin. Thin cylinders, or shells are commonplace
in engineering.
Examples of thin-walled cylinders are:
• Pressure pipes
• Aircraft fuselages
• Compressed gas containers
The longitudinal stress and hoop stresses are directly proportional to the pressure and the ratio of
diameter to thickness of the cylinder. However, the radial stress is related to the pressure alone.
Because of their relationship to the geometry, the Longitudinal and Hoop stresses are far greater
and more significant than the radial stress in a thin cylinder. It is reasonable and recognized to
assume that the radial stress is small enough for it to be ignored for basic calculations. The
individual direct stresses are given by:

81 | P a g e
Where,
p = Pressure in the cylinder
d = Diameter of the cylinder
t = Thickness of the cylinder

Open End Condition

The cylinder in this condition has no end constraint and therefore the longitudinal component of
stress will be zero, though there will be some strain in this direction due to Poisson’s effect. The
principal strains for this condition are,
𝜎𝐻
∈𝐻 =
𝐸
𝜃𝜎𝐻
∈𝐿 = −
𝐸
Where,
∈𝐻 = Hoop or Circumferential Strain
∈𝐿 = Longitudinal Strain
v = Poison’s Ratio
E = Young’s Modulus (GN/m2)

The poison ratio can be determined as,

∈𝐻
= −𝜃
∈𝐿

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Closed End Condition
By constraining the ends, a longitudinal as well as circumferential stress will be imposed upon
the cylinder. The principal strains for this condition are given by,
1
∈𝐻 =
𝐸(𝜎𝐻 − 𝜃𝜎𝐿 )
1
∈𝐿 =
𝐸(𝜎𝐿 − 𝜃𝜎𝐻 )
Procedure:
• Familiarized yourself with the equipment by following the instructions, open the pump
release valve and screw in the hand wheel to set up the open ends condition.
• Close the pump release valve and take the readings at desire pressure.
• Take the first set of readings (at zero) into the data table.
• Pump the handle slowly until a pressure of around 5 bar and record the readings into the
data table again. Wait a few seconds between pumps for the gauges to stabilize.
• Carefully increase the pressure in 5 bars increments, recording the readings into the data
table until you have reached a value of 30bar.
Note: Don’t exceed pressure above 30 bar.
Results and Conclusion:
𝑑𝑖 = ______________________________
𝑑𝑜 = ______________________________
Thickness t = __________________________
𝑃𝑑
𝜎𝐻 =
2𝑡
𝑃𝑑
𝜎𝐿 =
4𝑡
1
𝜀𝐿 (𝑐𝑎𝑙) = (𝜎𝐿 − 𝛾𝜎𝐻 )
𝐸
𝑣𝑜
4 ∗ 1000
𝜀𝐿 (𝑒𝑥𝑝) =
𝐺𝐹 ∗ 𝑣𝑖𝑛 ∗ 1
Open End Condition
Pressure
S/N 0o 30 o 45 o 60 o 90 o
(bar)

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 Close End Condition
Pressure
S/N 0o 30 o 45 o 60 o 90 o
(bar)

Discussion and Conclusion:

84 | P a g e
What is the relationship between principal axes and the positioning of the strain gauges
that indicates least and maximum strain? Also discuss why?

What is the difference between open end and closed end condition?

85 | P a g e
Experiment: 14
Strain gauges to measure strains in object that twist, extend and bend
Objective:
To determine strain in object that extend, bend and twist using strain gauge trainer.
Apparatus:
• Strain Gauge Trainer
• Weights
• Display
Introduction:
A strain gauge (also spelled strain gage) is a device used to measure strain on an object. Invented
by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, the most common type of strain gauge
consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is
attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as cyanoacrylate.[1] As the object is deformed,
the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually
measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge
factor.
The Torsion System is a solid, circular section torsion beam. A torsion beam is a bar or rod held
between two fixings. One or both fixings can rotate or twist independently of each other by small
amounts. Alternatively, one end is clamped and the other end is connected to a fixing that rotates
by a small amount. A secure clamp holds the specimen torsion beam at one end. A free-moving
bearing holds the other end of the beam. The bearing is also a second support that removes any
bending moment in the beam. This beam is similar to the torsion bar suspension used in cars.
A moment arm fits into the bearing so that the students can add weights to twist the beam. Two
sets of special torsion gauges measure the torsional (twisting) shear strain on the surface of the
beam at 45 degrees to the beam length. One set of gauge is underneath the beam and the other is
on top of the beam.
The Bending System is a solid, rectangular section cantilever beam. This is a specimen beam held
securely at one end. It simulates many different mechanical and constructional things such as:
Airplane wings
• Swimming pool diving boards

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 • Bridges
• Balcony supports on buildings
• Shelf supports
A secure clamp holds the specimen beam at one end. A cantilever can bend or "deflect upwards or
downwards, but in this guide, the experiments bend the beam downwards. Four standard strain
gauges measure the tensile and compressive strains directly in line with the beam. Two gauges
measure the tensile strain on the top of the beam. The other two gauges measure the compressive
strain underneath the beam.
Procedure:
• Apply 220 VAC to strain gauge display unit switch on power of the strain display unit.
• Connect the strain connection cable (with bending tag) to output socket of bending system.
• Connect the bending system strain gauges to strain display as a full bridge.
• Carefully slide cord onto the beam upto the desired position add hanger to cord.
• Leave the equipment to stabilize for approximately one minute then observe voltage on
signal display and concede it as initial voltage.
• Now apply load on the hanger with IN increment and observe the final voltage.
• Now compare theoretical and experimental strain values
• Repeat the experiment for extension and torsion.
Results and Calculations:
For bending system
z = l – x = __________________________
Vinitial = ________________________
Vfinal = __________________________
𝑉𝑜
𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (4 ∗ ) /(𝐺𝐹 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑁)
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝜎
𝜀𝑡ℎ =
𝐸
𝑀 =𝐹∗𝑍
𝑏𝑑3
𝐼=
12
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼

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For torsion system
Vinitial = ________________________
Vfinal = __________________________
𝑉𝑜
𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (4 ∗ ) /(𝐺𝐹 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑁)
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝛾
𝜀𝑡ℎ =
2
𝜏
𝛾=
𝐺
𝑇∗𝐷
𝜏=
2∗𝐽
𝜋𝑑 4
𝐽=
32
𝑇 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑚
For tension system
Vinitial = ________________________
Vfinal = __________________________
𝑉𝑜
𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 = (4 ∗ ) /(𝐺𝐹 ∗ 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑁)
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝜎
𝜀𝑡ℎ =
𝐸
𝐹
𝜎=
𝑥∗𝑧
Calculations:

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Calculations cont.:

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Discussion and Conclusion:

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What are the practical applications of strain gauge?

Discuss about the accuracy of strain gauge.

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Is strain gauge a better option in measuring change in length and diameter during tensile
testing?

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