sensors

Review
Advances in Group-10 Transition Metal Dichalcogenide
PdSe2-Based Photodetectors: Outlook and Perspectives
Tawsif Ibne Alam 1,2 , Kunxuan Liu 1,2 , Sumaiya Umme Hani 1,2 , Safayet Ahmed 3 and Yuen Hong Tsang 1,2, *

1 Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518057, China;
[email protected] (T.I.A.); [email protected] (K.L.);
[email protected] (S.U.H.)
2 Department of Applied Physics, Materials Research Center, Photonics Research Institute and Research
Institute for Advanced Manufacturing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon,
Hong Kong, China
3 Department of Physics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The recent advancements in low-dimensional material-based photodetectors have provided

valuable insights into the fundamental properties of these materials, the design of their device
architectures, and the strategic engineering approaches that have facilitated their remarkable progress.
This review work consolidates and provides a comprehensive review of the recent progress in group-
10 two-dimensional (2D) palladium diselenide (PdSe2 )-based photodetectors. This work first offers a
general overview of the various types of PdSe2 photodetectors, including their operating mechanisms
and key performance metrics. A detailed examination is then conducted on the physical properties
of 2D PdSe2 material and how these metrics, such as structural characteristics, optical anisotropy,
carrier mobility, and bandgap, influence photodetector device performance and potential avenues for
enhancement. Furthermore, the study delves into the current methods for synthesizing PdSe2 material
and constructing the corresponding photodetector devices. The documented device performances
and application prospects are thoroughly discussed. Finally, this review speculates on the existing
trends and future research opportunities in the field of 2D PdSe2 photodetectors. Potential directions
for continued advancement of these optoelectronic devices are proposed and forecasted.

Citation: Alam, T.I.; Liu, K.; Hani,

Keywords: PdSe2 ; palladium diselenide; TMDC photodetector; photothermoelectric; ambipolar;
S.U.; Ahmed, S.; Tsang, Y.H. Advances
in Group-10 Transition Metal
THz; ultrafast; ultrabroadband; photovoltaic
Dichalcogenide PdSe2 -Based
Photodetectors: Outlook and
Perspectives. Sensors 2024, 24, 6127.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s24186127 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Xiaoshuang Chen
The advent of mechanically cleaved graphene from graphite has sparked a surge
of research into layered low-dimensional materials [1]. Since then, a wide array of 2-
Received: 15 August 2024 dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) has been extensively studied, exhibiting a diverse
Revised: 11 September 2024 range of captivating physical and chemical properties—semiconducting [2,3], semi-metallic,
Accepted: 19 September 2024
insulating [4,5], superconducting [6,7], and magnetic [8,9], to name a few. Of particular
Published: 22 September 2024
interest to researchers is the semiconducting nature of 2DLMs, as they can be tuned by
adjusting the number of layers. This makes them a promising candidate for pioneer-
ing atomically thin electronics and optoelectronics. Moreover, the recent advancements
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
in conventional bottom-up synthesis and patterning of large-area van der Waals (vdW)
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
2DLMs [10] have demonstrated their potential to be utilized as standalone semiconductors,
This article is an open access article
as well as integrated with existing silicon technology [11–14]. Among the most widely
distributed under the terms and studied semiconductor materials are the transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs)—a
conditions of the Creative Commons family of compounds with the generic formula MX2 , where M is a transition metal element
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and X is a chalcogen. The air-stable semiconducting TMDCs from group 6 of the periodic
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ table, such as MoS2 , WSe2 , MoSe2 , and WS2 , have been extensively explored [15], as a single
4.0/). sheet of MoS2 has been predicted to absorb 5–10% of incident illumination in the visible

Sensors 2024, 24, 6127. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24186127 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24

Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 2 of 23

as MoS2, WSe2, MoSe2, and WS2, have been extensively explored [15], as a single sheet of
MoS2 has been predicted to absorb 5–10% of incident illumination in the visible wave-
length [16]. These materials exhibit a fascinating layer-dependent behavior, where the
wavelength [16]. These materials exhibit a fascinating layer-dependent behavior, where
bandgap increases and transitions from indirect to direct as the 2D layer approaches the
the bandgap increases and transitions from indirect to direct as the 2D layer approaches
monolayer limit [15,17]. This property is particularly important for optoelectronics, as the
the monolayer limit [15,17]. This property is particularly important for optoelectronics,
bandgap of the absorber layer directly determines the spectral sensitivity of the optoelec-
as the bandgap of the absorber layer directly determines the spectral sensitivity of the
tronic device. As illustrated in Figure 1, the vast library of 2DLMs offers a wide range of
optoelectronic device. As illustrated in Figure 1, the vast library of 2DLMs offers a wide
spectral response possibilities, simply by selecting the appropriate absorber material.
range of spectral response possibilities, simply by selecting the appropriate absorber mate-
More recently, group-10 TMDCs (M = Pd, Pt; X = Te, Se, S) have garnered significant at-
rial. More recently, group-10 TMDCs (M = Pd, Pt; X = Te, Se, S) have garnered significant
tention in electronics and optoelectronics due to their promising traits, including broad-
attention in electronics and optoelectronics due to their promising traits, including broad-
band absorption, high carrier mobility [18], ambipolar transport properties [19,20], and
band absorption, high carrier mobility [18], ambipolar transport properties [19,20], and
long-term air stability [21]. PdSe2 stands out among the group-10 TMDCs due to its unique
long-term air stability [21]. PdSe2 stands out among the group-10 TMDCs due to its unique
layer-dependent properties. As the number of layers is tuned, the material’s bandgap
layer-dependent properties. As the number of layers is tuned, the material’s bandgap
evolves
evolves fromfrom narrow
narrow to to moderate,
moderate, while while maintaining
maintaining appreciable
appreciable ambipolar
ambipolar transport
transport
characteristics. This makes PdSe 2 an ideal candidate for highly sensitive photodetectors
characteristics. This makes PdSe2 an ideal candidate for highly sensitive photodetectors
and
and electronics.
electronics. Furthermore,
Furthermore, PdSe PdSe2 exhibits in-plane optical anisotropy, providing an ad-
2 exhibits in-plane optical anisotropy, providing an addi-
ditional degree
tional degree of of freedom
freedom thatthat
can can be leveraged
be leveraged in devices
in devices with nonlinear
with nonlinear opticaloptical
phenomena phe-
nomena and polarized photo-sensing applications. Fascinatingly,
and polarized photo-sensing applications. Fascinatingly, PdSe2 also exhibits optical re- PdSe 2 also exhibits op-

tical
sponseresponse
beyond beyond its bandgap
its bandgap range,range, a behavior
a behavior linkedlinked
to its to its thermal
thermal properties
properties [22]. [22].
This
This opens up the possibility of utilizing PdSe 2 in miniaturized thermal sensing applica-
opens up the possibility of utilizing PdSe2 in miniaturized thermal sensing applications,
tions,
further further expanding
expanding its potential
its potential for optoelectronic
for optoelectronic and sensing
and sensing technologies.
technologies. PdSe2PdSe -based 2-

based optoelectronics,
optoelectronics, particularly
particularly photodetectors,
photodetectors, havehavethe the potential
potential to be
to be a game-chang-
a game-changing
ing technology
technology for for low-dimensional
low-dimensional material-based
material-based detector
detector applications.
applications. Other
Other compet-
competing
ing technologies for optoelectronics from group-10 TMDCs
technologies for optoelectronics from group-10 TMDCs include PtSe2 , PtTe2 , PdTe include PtSe 2 , PtTe 2 , PdTe 2,
2 , and
and PdS . Among them, PtSe and its heterojunctions have been
PdS2 . Among them, PtSe2 and its heterojunctions have been rigorously investigated show-
2 2 rigorously investigated
showing broadband
ing broadband response response
(MIR(MIR photodetection),
photodetection), ultrafast
ultrafast response
response speedspeed (in with
(in µs), µs), withhigh
high responsivity,
responsivity, detectivity,
detectivity, and ambipolar
and ambipolar carrier carrier
mobilitymobility comparable
comparable to PdSeto 2PdSe
-based 2-based
opto-
optoelectronic
electronic devices devices and their
and their heterostructures
heterostructures [23,24].
[23,24]. However,
However, to provide
to provide a compre-
a comprehensive
hensive understanding
understanding of PdSe2ofand PdSe 2 and
their their heterostructures
heterostructures for photodetection
for photodetection mechanism, mechanism,
we only
we only
focus onfocus
PdSeon2 PdSe
-based -based photodetectors
photodetectors
2 in this in this
article. article.
This This
review review
aims to aims to
highlight highlight
the key
the key material
material features, features,
properties,properties,
synthesis, synthesis, and characterization
and characterization of PdSeof PdSe2 devices
2 devices relevant rel-
to
evant to photodetection.
photodetection. Additionally,
Additionally, it provides it aprovides a perspective
perspective on future
on future research researchtoward
directions direc-
PdSetoward
tions 2 -based PdSe
photosensors for real-life applications.
2-based photosensors for real-life applications.

Figure 1. Spectral Response of some 2-D materials used in photodetection. Spectral response range
data have been adopted from [23,25–30].
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 3 of 23

2. Figure of Merits and Types of PdSe2 Photodetectors

2.1. Figure of Merits (FoM) of PdSe2 Photodetectors
Photodetector performance is commonly evaluated using several key figures of merit
(FoMs). These standardized FoMs allow for the evaluation and comparison of one pho-
todetector to another, as well as assessing their suitability for specific applications. Table 1
outlines the most widely used FoMs for 2D-layered-material (2DLM)-based photodetectors,
which are useful for assessing PdSe2 -based photosensors. It provides a brief description,
the mathematical expression, and the reporting units for each FoM.

Table 1. Figure of merits (FoMs) for characterizing PdSe2 -based photodetectors.

FoM Parameter Definition Expression Unit

Ratio of Photocurrent (Iphoto ) to the incident I photo Ilight − Idark
Responsivity R= = A/W
light power (Pin ). Pin Pin

Ratio of number of photogenerated electrons

per unit time to the number of incident
photons. Also referred to as the product of
charge transfer efficiency and light NI h ·c· I photo
External Quantum Efficiency EQE = = -
absorption efficiency. NP e·λ· Pin
[h is the Planck constant, e is the electronic
charge, c is the light speed, and λ is the
incident wavelength of light source]
Current persistent in the photodetector under
Dark Current Idark A
dark/no light conditions.
Ratio of number of photogenerated e-h pairs
collected by the contacts to the number of τ µ· τ
photoexcited e-h pairs. G = τ li f e = L2li f e Vbias
Gain h transit i -
[µ is the carrier mobility, Vbias is the applied τtransit = µ·VL
2

bias, L is the channel length, τ life is the carrier bias

lifetime, and τ transit is the carrier transit time.]

It is the range of illumination log power
density for which the log range of
Linear Dynamic Range LDR = 20log PPsat dB
photocurrent shows linearity, before low
reaching saturation.
The rise (decay) time is defined as the time for
the photocurrent to reach 10–90% (90–10%),

Response time τrise τdecay s
after introduction (removal) of incident
photon flux.
The cut-off frequency f3dB , of modulated
incident light when the responsivity of the
photodetector decreases by 3dB (0.707 of the
3dB bandwidth @ stable value). At a much lower frequency, the Imax − Imin
f 3dB @ % Hz
Relative balance responsivity is independent of the light Imax
modulation frequency.
[Imax and Imin are the maximum and
minimum photocurrent]
Noise Current iN AHz−1/2
The minimum light power that is detectable by
a detector is defined as the light power when √
Noise Equivalent Power NEP = iN
= A WHz−1/2
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is 1. [A is the R D*
effective device area.]
It is a measure of a detector’s ability to resolve √ √
Measured Specific Detectivity D* = A
= A
iN R
cmHz1/2 W−1 (Jones)
the weakest of the incident light signal NEP

Specific detectivity is calculated, assuming q

Calculated Specific Detectivity that the major contribution of noise is from D* = A
2·q · Idark R cmHz1/2 W−1 (Jones)
dark current shot noise.

2.2. Types of PdSe2 Photodetectors

PdSe2 photodetectors can be broadly categorized into four types based on the literature:
photovoltaic, photoconductive, photothermoelectric, and photobolometric, as illustrated
in Figure 2. The specific photodetection mechanism in a low-dimensional material-based
 Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 4 of 23

detector can be a standalone phenomenon or a combination of these effects, depending

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW on the internal potential developed or external applied potential, the internal light-matter
4 of 24
interaction mechanism within the 2D layered material, and the distribution of the input
light flux density.

Figure
Figure 2. 2. Broadclassification
Broad classification ofofPdSe
PdSe2 -based photodetectors
2-based and their
photodetectors andoutlying internal mechanisms.
their outlying internal mecha-
nisms.
2.2.1. Photovoltaic Type Photodetectors
In a photovoltaic-type photodetector, the built-in electric field that enables the photo-
2.2.1. Photovoltaic Type Photodetectors
voltaic effect (PVE), originates from a p-n junction [31] or a Schottky junction [32] at the
In a photovoltaic-type
semiconductor-metal photodetector,
interface. This internalthe built-in
field electric
separates field that enables
the photogenerated the pho-
electron-
tovoltaic effect (PVE),
hole (e-h) pairs. originates from a p-n junction [31] or a Schottky junction [32] at the
semiconductor-metal interface.
Strategies to develop This internal
the necessary fieldelectric
built-in separates
field the photogenerated
in 2DLM-based electron-
detectors
include
hole the following:
(e-h) pairs.
• Strategies
Creatingto develop
vertical the necessary
or lateral built-in
heterojunctions electric field in 2DLM-based detectors in-
[33,34];
• Chemical doping
clude the following: [35,36];
• Carefully selecting metals with different work functions [37,38].
• Creating vertical or lateral heterojunctions [33,34];
• Chemical doping [35,36];
• Carefully selecting metals with different work functions [37,38].
When the 2DLM active channel is illuminated with photons exceeding the bandgap
energy, the absorbed photons excite e-h pairs that are then separated by the internal elec-
tric field due to the band bending at the p-n or Schottky junction (Figure 3a,b). This gen-
 Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 5 of 23

When the 2DLM active channel is illuminated with photons exceeding the bandgap
energy, the absorbed photons excite e-h pairs that are then separated by the internal electric
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEWfield due to the band bending at the p-n or Schottky junction (Figure 3a,b). This generates5 of a
24
short-circuit current (Isc ) in the device (Figure 3c). The photocurrent direction is determined
by the built-in potential. If the circuit is left open, the separated e-h pairs will instead
create an open-circuit voltage (Voc ) (Figure 3c). These photovoltaic photodetectors typically
typically exhibit rectifying Id-Vd characteristics and can operate without any bias or under
exhibit rectifying Id -Vd characteristics and can operate without any bias or under reverse
reverse bias, enabling low dark currents and high quantum efficiencies.
bias, enabling low dark currents and high quantum efficiencies.

Figure 3. Energy band alignment in a typical (a) p-n junction (b) Schottky junction. (c) Typical Id-Vd
Figure 3. Energy band alignment in a typical (a) p-n junction (b) Schottky junction. (c) Typical Id -Vd
characteristics of a photovoltaic-type photodetector.
characteristics of a photovoltaic-type photodetector.

2.2.2.
2.2.2.Photoconductive
Photoconductiveand andPhoto-Gated
Photo-Gated Photodetectors
Photodetectors
Photodetectorsexhibiting
exhibiting the the photoconductive
photoconductive effect effect (PCE) show show an an increase
increasein infree
free
charge
chargecarriers
carriers when illuminated, typically
when illuminated, typicallyininaasemiconductor
semiconductorchannel channel oror photoconduc-
photoconductor
(PC)
tor material.
(PC) material.ThisThis
rise rise
in free
in carrier concentration
free carrier lowerslowers
concentration the channel’s resistance.
the channel’s Under
resistance.
an applied
Under bias voltage
an applied bias voltage(Vds ), (V
these excessexcess
ds), these charge carriers
charge are swept
carriers are swept apart,apart,
generating
generat-a
photocurrent
ing (Iphoto )(I(Figure
a photocurrent 4a). The
photo) (Figure 4a).photocurrent
The photocurrentis defined as the difference
is defined between the
as the difference be-
current
tween under
the illumination
current (Ilight ) and (I
under illumination the
lightdark
) andcurrent
the dark (Idark ). When
current (Idarkthe channel
). When thematerial
channel
is illuminated with photons exceeding its bandgap energy,
material is illuminated with photons exceeding its bandgap energy, the absorbed photonsthe absorbed photons create
electron–hole (e-h) pairs. These carriers are then
create electron–hole (e-h) pairs. These carriers are then driven driven by V ds , causing the current to
by Vds, causing the current exceed
tothe dark current
exceed the dark due to the increased
current due to thechargeincreasedcarrier concentration.
charge Unlike photovoltaic-type
carrier concentration. Unlike pho-
detectors, the photocurrent in photoconductive
tovoltaic-type detectors, the photocurrent in photoconductive device device requires an applied bias an
requires voltage to
applied
be generated. As a result, these detectors do
bias voltage to be generated. As a result, these detectors do not not exhibit a V or I
oc exhibit
sc , as illustrated in their
a Voc or Isc, as illus-
typical Id -Vd characteristics (Figure 4b).
trated in their typical Id-Vd characteristics (Figure 4b).
Photo-gated photodetectors are a class of photoconductive devices, often considered
phototransistors, which utilize the photogating effect. Under illumination, the typical
photoconductive generation of electron–hole pairs occurs. However, the application of a
gate bias causes charge-trapping states to function as a localized floating gate, significantly
modulating the channel conductance [39,40]. When photogenerated holes are trapped
in positively charged hole-trapping sites, the remaining free electrons can roam for a
longer time before recombining. This provides high gain and n-type doping characteristics
(Figure 4c). The opposite occurs when electrons are trapped, resulting in p-type behavior
(Figure 4d). This photogating mechanism allows for tuning the channel conductivity. By
carefully designing the device, such as tuning the metal work function, photo-gated detec-
tors can exhibit ambipolar transport characteristics (Figure 4e) or be optimized for unipolar
operation [41,42] (Figure 4f,g). However, the charge trapping and detrapping processes
leads to a sluggish photoresponse, which is a trade-off for enhanced photoresponsivity and
gain [43,44].

Figure 4. (a) Typical photoconductive effect in a 2DLM-based photodetector. The band bending and
charge carrier extraction process requires an applied external bias voltage. (b) Id-Vd characteristics
of a typical photoconductive photodetector. (c) Typical photogated photodetector showing n-type
 tween the current under illumination (Ilight) and the dark current (Idark). When the channel
material is illuminated with photons exceeding its bandgap energy, the absorbed photons
create electron–hole (e-h) pairs. These carriers are then driven by Vds, causing the current
to exceed the dark current due to the increased charge carrier concentration. Unlike pho-
tovoltaic-type detectors, the photocurrent in photoconductive device requires an applied
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 6 of 23
bias voltage to be generated. As a result, these detectors do not exhibit a Voc or Isc, as illus-
trated in their typical Id-Vd characteristics (Figure 4b).

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 24

photoconductive photodetector. (f) Transfer characteristics of a typical n-type carrier dominant pho-
todetector. (g) Transfer characteristics of a typical p-type carrier dominant photodetector.

Photo-gated photodetectors are a class of photoconductive devices, often considered

phototransistors, which utilize the photogating effect. Under illumination, the typical
photoconductive generation of electron–hole pairs occurs. However, the application of a
Figuregate4. bias
Figure causes
(a)4.Typical
(a) Typicalcharge-trapping
photoconductive states
photoconductive effectinto
effect function
a 2DLM-based
in as photodetector.
a 2DLM-based a localized floating
The band
photodetector. gate, signifi-
bending
The band and
bending and
charge carrier
cantly extraction
modulating theprocess
channel requires an applied
conductance externalWhen
[39,40]. bias voltage. (b) Id-Vd characteristics
photogenerated holes are
charge carrier
of a typical extraction process requires an applied external bias voltage. (b) Id -V d characteristics
trapped in photoconductive
positively charged photodetector.
hole-trapping (c) Typical photogated
sites, the remainingphotodetector
free electronsshowing
can n-type
roam
of a typical
for photoconductive
characteristics
a longer due before
time to p-type photodetector.
charge trapping.
recombining. This(d)(c) Typical
Typical
provides photogated
photogated
high photodetector
gain photodetector
and n-type showing
doping showing
p-type
charac- n-type
characteristics
characteristics due due
to to n-type
p-type chargetrapping.
charge trapping. (d)(e) Transfer
Typical characteristicsphotodetector
photogated of a typical ambipolar
showing p-type
teristics (Figure 4c). The opposite occurs when electrons are trapped, resulting in p-type
characteristics due to4d).
behavior (Figure n-type charge trapping.
This photogating mechanism (e) Transfer
allows forcharacteristics
tuning the channel of a typical
conduc-ambipolar
tivity. By carefully
photoconductive designing the
photodetector. (f)device,
Transfer such as tuning the of
characteristics metal work function,
a typical photo- dominant
n-type carrier
gated detectors can exhibit ambipolar transport characteristics (Figure
photodetector. (g) Transfer characteristics of a typical p-type carrier dominant photodetector. 4e) or be optimized
for unipolar operation [41,42] (Figure 4f,g). However, the charge trapping and detrapping
2.2.3.processes leads to a sluggish
Photothermoelectric photoresponse,
(PTE) Photodetectors which is a trade-off for enhanced photore-
sponsivity and gain [43,44].
Localized light irradiation of a 2DLM can create a thermal effect known as the pho-
tothermoelectric (PTE) effect.
2.2.3. Photothermoelectric The
(PTE) localized illumination generates a temperature gradient
Photodetectors
(∆T) across the semiconductor channel,
Localized light irradiation of a 2DLM can as the spot
create size iseffect
a thermal smaller
known than the
as the channel di-
pho-
mensions [37]. This(PTE)
tothermoelectric temperature
effect. The differential (∆T) induces
localized illumination a photothermoelectric
generates a temperature gradient potential
difference (VPTE
(ΔT) across ) across
the the channel
semiconductor ends,
channel, based
as the spot on
sizethe difference
is smaller in Seebeck
than the coefficients (S1
channel dimen-
and sions
S2 ) of[37].
theThis temperature
material: VPTE differential )·∆T.
= (S2 − S1(ΔT) induces a photothermoelectric
The units of VPTE are V/K. potential dif-
The development
ference (V PTE) across the channel ends, based on the difference in Seebeck coefficients (S1
of this photo-induced thermoelectric potential, as shown in the typical Id -Vd character-
and S2) of the material: VPTE = (S2 − S1)·ΔT. The units of VPTE are V/K. The development of
istics in Figure 5b, allows PTE-based photodetectors to operate in a self-powered mode,
this photo-induced thermoelectric potential, as shown in the typical Id-Vd characteristics
without requiring
in Figure 5b, allowsany external
PTE-based bias voltage.
photodetectors The electrical
to operate conductivity
in a self-powered of the channel
mode, without
material is closely related to the Seebeck coefficients S and S through
requiring any external bias voltage. The electrical conductivity of the channel material
1 2 the Mottis formula:
2 2
k B Te 1related
S = πclosely
3q
∂σ to the Seebeck coefficients S1 and S2 through the Mott formula: S =
σ ∂ε F where Te is electron temperature, and the derivative of the conductivity σ
with respect towhere energy Te is
εFelectron
must betemperature,
evaluatedand at the derivative
fermi energyof[45,46].
the conductivity σ with to note
It is important
respect to energy ε must be evaluated at fermi energy [45,46].
that global illumination can also cause the PTE effect in 2DLM, provided there
F It is important to note that
is a strong
absorption gradient within the channel to generate the necessary temperatureab-
global illumination can also cause the PTE effect in 2DLM, provided there is a strong differential
and sorption
form VPTE gradient within the channel to generate the necessary temperature differential
, typically in the range of a few microvolts to millivolts. The sign of the
and form VPTE, typically in the range of a few microvolts to millivolts. The sign of the pho-
photogenerated current depends on the difference in Seebeck coefficients of the channel
togenerated current depends on the difference in Seebeck coefficients of the channel ma-
material localities and
terial localities and thethe carrier
carrier polarity
polarity in thein the channel.
channel.

Figure 5. (a)
Figure Typical
5. (a) TypicalPdSe -basedPTE
PdSe22-based PTE photodetector.
photodetector. Localized
Localized light
light spot spot
(green (green
color) color)a generates
generates
temperaturegradient
a temperature gradient across
across the
theentire
entirePdSe 2 channel
PdSe 2
material,
channel from
material, the drain
from theto source
drain electrodes,
to source electrodes,
developing a photothermoelectric potential (VPTE). (b) Id-Vd characteristics of a photo thermoelectric
type photodetector. (c) Typical PdSe2-based PB photodetector. Uniform light illumination results in
a temperature-induced resistance change (ΔR) of the channel material. (d) Typical Id-Vd characteris-
tics of a PB-type detector.
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 7 of 23

developing a photothermoelectric potential (VPTE ). (b) Id -Vd characteristics of a photo thermoelectric

type photodetector. (c) Typical PdSe2 -based PB photodetector. Uniform light illumination results in a
temperature-induced resistance change (∆R) of the channel material. (d) Typical Id -Vd characteristics
of a PB-type detector.

2.2.4. Photobolometric Photodetectors

Thermal effect-induced carriers can also be generated by uniform light-induced heat-
ing of a channel material due to the Photobolometric Effect (PBE). During the PBE effect,
the heat-sensitive channel material will undergo a change in its resistivity. The thermal
resistance (Rtr ) is associated with the rate of change in the temperature
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 24 with respect to
the incident power (Rtr = dT/dP). Bolometric photodetectors are not self-powered like
photo thermoelectric detectors and hence require an external bias voltage. The exter-
2.2.4. Photobolometric Photodetectors
nal bias voltage linearly scales the heat-induced photocurrent generated by a bolometric
Thermal effect-induced carriers can also be generated by uniform light-induced heat-
photodetector (Figure
ing of a channel material due5d).
to the Photobolometric Effect (PBE). During the PBE effect,
the heat-sensitive channel material will undergo a change in its resistivity. The thermal
3. Properties
resistance of Group-10
(Rtr) is associated TMDC
with the PdSein2 the temperature with respect to the
rate of change
incident power (Rtr = dT/dP). Bolometric photodetectors are not self-powered like photo
3.1. Structural Characteristics
thermoelectric detectors and hence require an external bias voltage. The external bias volt-
The most
age linearly widely
scales the studied
heat-induced PdSe2 phase
photocurrent is in
generated by athe 2DLMphotodetec-
bolometric form that exhibits pentagonal
tor (Figure 5d).
rings with a puckered structure, analogous to black phosphorus (BP). This unique puckered
configuration is responsible
3. Properties of Group-10 TMDC PdSe for
2 the material’s exotic, polarization-dependent anisotropic

optoelectronic characteristics.
3.1. Structural Characteristics While other reported polymorphs of PdSe2 [18,47], have
alsoThe been investigated,
most this2discussion
widely studied PdSe phase is in thewill2DLM focus specifically
form that on the phase possessing the
exhibits pentagonal
rings with a pentagonal
puckered puckered structure,
ringanalogous
structure to black
in the phosphorus
2DLM form. (BP). This
In unique puck-
this puckered phase, each palla-
ered configuration is responsible for the material’s exotic, polarization-dependent aniso-
dium (Pd) atom is bonded to four selenium (Se) atoms within
tropic optoelectronic characteristics. While other reported polymorphs of PdSe2 [18,47],
the same atomic layer, while
neighboring Se-Se bonds
have also been investigated, are formed
this discussion through
will focus covalent
specifically interactions.
on the phase possessing The bulk crystalline
the puckered
structure ofpentagonal
this PdSering structure in the
2 polymorph 2DLM form.
displays PbcaIn this puckered [48],
symmetry phase,belonging
each to the D2h point
palladium (Pd) atom is bonded to four selenium (Se) atoms within the same atomic layer,
group family, with an orthorhombic lattice. The unit cell of this PdSe2 phase comprises
while neighboring Se-Se bonds are formed through covalent interactions. The bulk crys-
four
tallinePd and eight
structure of this Se
PdSeatoms, withdisplays
2 polymorph latticePbcaparameters of abelonging
symmetry [48], = 5.7 Å,tobthe = 5.87 Å, and c = 7.69 Å,
as reported in [21]. The individual layers of PdSe2 are held together along the c-axis via
D 2h point group family, with an orthorhombic lattice. The unit cell of this PdSe 2 phase
comprises four Pd and eight Se atoms, with lattice parameters of a = 5.7 Å, b = 5.87 Å, and
van der Waals interactions, with a van der Waals gap spacing of 0.40 nm between adjacent
c = 7.69 Å, as reported in [21]. The individual layers of PdSe2 are held together along the
layers.
c-axis viaThe puckered
van der thickness
Waals interactions, withof a single
a van der Waals PdSe layerofis0.40
gap 2spacing approximately
nm between 1.6 Å. Figure 6a–d
provides a visual
adjacent layers. illustration
The puckered of of
thickness the z-contrast
a single HRTEM
PdSe2 layer image of1.6
is approximately a few
Å. layers of PdSe2 and
Figure
its 6a–d provides
simulated a visual illustration
counterparts whileofthe the z-contrast
vdW phase HRTEM image along
PdSe of a fewwith
layers its crystal structure is
2
of PdSe2 and its simulated counterparts while the vdW phase PdSe2 along with its crystal
illustrated in Figure
structure is illustrated 6e. 6e.
in Figure

Figure 6. (a–d) Z-contrast STEM pictures of few-layer PdSe2 crystals (top row) and comparable sim-
Figure 6. (a–d) Z-contrast STEM pictures of few-layer PdSe2 crystals
ulated images of PdSe2 (bottom row) illustrate the atomic resolution structure of the material.
(top row) and compara-
There
ble simulated
are even images
(a,c) and odd of PdSeof2 layers,
(b,d) numbers (bottom illustrate
row) Atomic
respectively. theof atomic
models resolution
the relevant STEM structure of the ma-
pictures are shown in the insets in (c,d). Reprinted with permission from ref. [21] © 2017 American
terial. There are even (a,c) and odd (b,d) numbers of layers, respectively.
Chemical Society (e) crystal structure of 2D PdSe2 monolayer and few-layer systems. Reprinted with
Atomic models of
the relevant
permission from STEM
ref. [49] ©pictures are shown
2018 WILEY-VCH in the
Verlag GmbH insets
& Co. inWeinheim,
KGaA, (c,d). Reprinted
Germany. with permission from
ref. [21] © 2017 American Chemical Society (e) crystal structure of 2D PdSe2 monolayer and few-layer
systems. Reprinted with permission from ref. [49] © 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim, Germany.
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24
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3.2. Raman Spectroscopic Characterization

3.2. Raman Spectroscopic Characterization
Raman spectroscopy studies have revealed strong interlayer interactions within
Raman spectroscopy studies have revealed strong interlayer interactions within PdSe2
PdSe2 crystals, with distinct Raman peak shifts observed under variable layer thickness
crystals, with distinct Raman peak shifts observed under variable layer thickness [21].
[21].
Raman Raman analysis
analysis of exfoliated
of exfoliated PdSe PdSe 2 nanosheets, typically consisting of around 5 lay-
2 nanosheets, typically consisting of around 5 layers,
ers,
have been reported with the presence of sixof
have been reported with the presence six Raman
Raman peaks.peaks.
These These
peaks can peaks be can be at-
attributed
tributed to three A modes
1 (A
2 g1, A
3 g2, Ag3) and three B1g modes1(B1g1,2B1g2, B
to three A modes (Ag , Ag , Ag ) and three B1g modes (B1g , B1g , B1g ), corresponding to 3 1g3), corresponding

to in-plane
in-plane and and out-of-plane
out-of-plane vibrational
vibrational modes,
modes, respectively
respectively [21,50]
[21,50] illustrated
illustrated in Figure
in Figure 7a.
7a. In contrast, Raman measurements on wafer-scale PdSe 2 sheets have been reported with
In contrast, Raman measurements on wafer-scale PdSe2 sheets have been reported with
the
the observation
observationofofonly onlyfour
fourdistinct
distinct Raman
Raman modes,
modes,located
locatedat approximately
at approximately 144144 cm−1cm
, 205
−1 ,
cm −1 , 222
− 1 cm −1, and − 255
1 cm −1 (Figure− 1 7b). These modes can
205 cm , 222 cm , and 255 cm (Figure 7b). These modes can be assigned to Ag (with be assigned to A g (with 1a con-
1

tribution
a contribution from B 1g1), Ag2, 1B1g, and
from B1g ), Ag 2 , BAg vibrations,
1 , 3and
g
respectively
Ag3 vibrations, [49,51]. The
respectively slightThe
[49,51]. discrep-
slight
ancy between the Raman spectra of exfoliated and wafer-scale
discrepancy between the Raman spectra of exfoliated and wafer-scale PdSe2 samples PdSe 2 samples can be can
at-
tributed to the merging of certain Raman modes, such as A
be attributed to the merging of certain Raman modes, such as Ag with B1g , and Ag withg 1 with
1 B 1g 1, and 1 A g 3 with3 B 1g3,

in
B1gthe, in
3 wafer-scale
the wafer-scale samples [50,52].
samples These These
[50,52]. observations highlight
observations the sensitivity
highlight of the PdSe
the sensitivity of the2
Raman
PdSe2 Ramanmodes modes to the material’s layer thickness
to the material’s and overall
layer thickness structural
and overall characteristics,
structural based
characteristics,
on the on
based process in which
the process the 2DLM
in which the 2DLMis synthesized.
is synthesized.

Figure 7.
Figure (a) Exfoliated
7. (a) Exfoliated PdSe
PdSe22 nanosheets’
nanosheets’ layer-dependent
layer-dependentRaman
Ramanspectra
spectra (monolayer
(monolayertoto bulk)
bulk) at
at
532 nm excitation laser wavelength. Reprinted with permission from ref. [21] ©
532 nm excitation laser wavelength. Reprinted with permission from ref. [21] © 2017 American2017 American
Chemical Society
Chemical Society (b)
(b) Raman
Raman spectra
spectra ofof PdSe
PdSe22 films
films synthesized
synthesizedvia
via CVD
CVD with
with varying
varying thickness.
thickness.
Reprinted permissionfrom
Reprinted with permission fromref.
ref.[49]
[49]©©2018
2018 WILEY-VCH
WILEY-VCH Verlag
Verlag GmbH
GmbH & Co.& Co. KGaA,
KGaA, Wein-
Weinheim.
heim.
3.3. Anisotropic Response to Optical Stimulus
The distinct
3.3. Anisotropic pentagonal
Response structure
to Optical of PdSe2 crystal is projected to impart pronounced
Stimulus
in-plane anisotropy in their electrical, mechanical,
The distinct pentagonal structure of PdSe2 crystal and isoptical properties.
projected Angle-resolved
to impart pronounced
polarized Raman spectroscopy has emerged as a powerful technique to probe and
in-plane anisotropy in their electrical, mechanical, and optical properties. Angle-resolved character-
ize the optical anisotropy of these two-dimensional materials. Polarized
polarized Raman spectroscopy has emerged as a powerful technique to probe and char- Raman studies on
PdSe 2 have revealed a notable
acterize the optical anisotropy angular dependence of the Raman-active modes. Specifically,
of these two-dimensional materials. Polarized Raman stud-
theon
ies intensities
PdSe of the Ag 1 and Ag 3 modes are observed to gradually decrease from 0◦ to
2 have revealed a notable angular dependence of the Raman-active modes.
90◦ with respect to the polarization angle, followed by a subsequent increase from 90◦ to
Specifically,
◦ the intensities of the Ag1 and Ag3 modes are observed to gradually decrease
180 . This angular modulation of the Ag and Ag 3 peak intensities provides direct evidence
1
from 0° to 90° with respect to the polarization angle, followed by a subsequent increase
of the structural anisotropy inherent to the PdSe2 crystal lattice obtained by CVD [53,54]
from 90° to 180°. This angular modulation of the Ag1 and Ag3 peak intensities provides
(Figure 8a,b). This anisotropy can be attributed to the unique pentagonal coordination of
direct evidence of the structural anisotropy inherent to the PdSe2 crystal lattice obtained
the atoms within the layered PdSe structure, with potential implications for the material’s
by CVD [53,54] (Figure 8a,b). This2anisotropy can be attributed to the unique pentagonal
electrical, mechanical, and optoelectronic performance.
coordination of the atoms within the layered PdSe2 structure, with potential implications
for the material’s electrical, mechanical, and optoelectronic performance.
Sensors 2024,
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24, 6127
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24
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Figure 8.
Figure (a) Angle-resolved
8. (a) Angle-resolved polarized
polarized Raman
Raman spectra
spectra of
of 2D
2D PdSe
PdSe2.. Reprinted
Reprinted with
with permission
permission fromfrom
ref. [54]. © 2019 The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by by WILEY-VCH
WILEY-VCH VerlagVerlag GmbH
GmbH & & Co. KGaA,
KGaA, Weinheim.
Weinheim.
Polar plots
(b,c) Polar plotsfor
forthe
the4L
4LPdSe
PdSe assessedunder
2 2assessed under the
the copolarization
copolarization configuration
configuration as aasfunction
a function of
of the
the azimuthal angle φ, showing Raman intensity of the A1 1 mode intensity (b) and second harmonic
azimuthal angle φ, showing Raman intensity of the Ag mode intensity (b) and second harmonic
g

intensity
intensity (c)
(c) (a
(a [red
[red arrow] and b
arrow] and b [blue
[blue arrow]
arrow] are
are crystallographic
crystallographic axis
axis of
of the
the flake).
flake). Reprinted
Reprinted with
with
permission from ref. [53] © 2020 American Chemical
permission from ref. [53] © 2020 American Chemical Society. Society.

Complementing
Complementing these these polarized
polarized Raman Raman studies,
studies, polarization-resolved
polarization-resolved second second har-har-
monic
monic generation (SHG) measurements have provided additional insights into the
generation (SHG) measurements have provided additional insights into the crys-
crys-
tallographic anisotropy
anisotropyofofPdSe PdSe 2. It
2 . isItwell established
is well establishedthat the
thateven-numbered
the even-numbered layer PdSe
layer2
belongs to the C
PdSe2 belongs point
to2vthe C2vgroup
point symmetry,
group symmetry, while odd-numbered
while odd-numbered layers layers
correspond to the
correspond
C symmetry
to2hthe [55]. As[55].
C2h symmetry a result,
As a even-layered
result, even-layeredPdSe2 crystals exhibit aexhibit
PdSe2 crystals second-order nonlin-
a second-order
ear opticaloptical
nonlinear response, which can
response, which be canprobed throughthrough
be probed polarization-dependent
polarization-dependent SHG experi-
SHG
ments. More precisely,
experiments. for even-layered
More precisely, for even-layered PdSe2PdSe
, the 2co-polarized
, the co-polarized SHG SHGresponse (the (the
response sec-
ond-order
second-order nonlinear
nonlinear susceptibility
susceptibilityχ(2) χ(2)
ofofeven-layered
even-layeredPdSe PdSe2)2 )
isisfound
foundtotobe
be maximized
maximized
when thethe incident
incidentelectric
electricfield
fieldis is aligned
aligned with
with thethe b-axis
b-axis of the
of the crystalcrystal
[53] [53] (Figure
(Figure 8c).
8c). This
This
directdirect correlation
correlation betweenbetween
the SHG theresponse
SHG response
and the and the crystallographic
crystallographic orientationorientation
provides
additionaladditional
provides evidence evidence
of the strongof the optical
stronganisotropy in these layered
optical anisotropy in thesePdSe 2 materials.
layered PdSe2 ma- To-
gether, the
terials. angle-resolved
Together, polarized Raman
the angle-resolved polarized andRaman
SHG studies
and SHG offer complementary
studies insights
offer complemen-
into insights
tary the anisotropic
into theoptical properties
anisotropic optical ofproperties
PdSe2 , stemming
of PdSe2from its unique
, stemming frompentagonal
its unique
layered structure. These techniques pave the way for a comprehensive
pentagonal layered structure. These techniques pave the way for a comprehensive under- understanding of
the “structure to characteristic” relationships in this promising
standing of the “structure to characteristic” relationships in this promising 2DLM. 2DLM.

3.4. Layer
3.4. Layer Dependent
Dependent Optical
Optical Absorption
Absorption and
and Bandgap
Bandgap Evolution
Evolution
The unique
The uniquelayered
layeredstructure
structureofofPdSe
PdSe2 confers not only pronounced in-plane anisotropy
2 confers not only pronounced in-plane anisot-
in their optical properties, as evidenced by polarized
ropy in their optical properties, as evidenced by polarized Raman and SHG
Raman studies,
and SHG but also
studies, but
a remarkable thickness-dependent evolution of the optical bandgap. Optical
also a remarkable thickness-dependent evolution of the optical bandgap. Optical absorp- absorption
measurements
tion measurementson large-area, centimeter-scale
on large-area, PdSe2PdSe
centimeter-scale films with thicknesses ranging from
2 films with thicknesses ranging
3 to 15 layers have revealed two distinct excitonic peaks, labeled α and β, in the absorp-
from 3 to 15 layers have revealed two distinct excitonic peaks, labeled α and β, in the
tion spectra (Figure 9a). Notably, the corresponding optical bandgap, as determined by
absorption spectra (Figure 9a). Notably, the corresponding optical bandgap, as deter-
Tauc plot extrapolations, exhibits a systematic decrease with increasing layer number
mined by Tauc plot extrapolations, exhibits a systematic decrease with increasing layer
(Figure 9b) [56]. This experimentally observed bandgap reduction, is also consistent from
number (Figure 9b) [56]. This experimentally observed bandgap reduction, is also con-
separate investigations with bandgap evolution from 1.08 eV for 3-layer PdSe2 to 0.29 eV
sistent from separate investigations with bandgap evolution from 1.08 eV for 3-layer PdSe2
for 40-layer PdSe2 (Figure 9c), in line with density functional theory (DFT) calculations
to 0.29 eV for 40-layer PdSe2 (Figure 9c), in line with density functional theory (DFT) cal-
and highlights the semiconducting nature of these layered materials. Interestingly, as
culations and highlights the semiconducting nature of these layered materials. Interest-
the layer number reaches 50, the bandgap closes completely, transitioning the 2DLM to
ingly, as the layer number reaches 50, the bandgap closes completely, transitioning the
a quasi-metallic phase [49]. More in-depth electronic and optoelectronic investigations
2DLM to a quasi-metallic phase [49]. More in-depth electronic and optoelectronic investi-
in recent reports reveal that the bandgap may exist for bulk PdSe2 within the vicinity of
gations in recent reports reveal that the bandgap may exist for bulk PdSe2 within the vi-
0.3 eV–0.5 eV [57–59]. This dramatic evolution of the electronic structure with thickness
cinity of 0.3eV–0.5eV
underscores the unique[57–59]. This dramatic evolution
dimensionality-dependent of the electronic
properties structure
of PdSe2 thin films. with
The
thickness underscores the unique dimensionality-dependent properties of
thickness-dependent bandgap tunability has also been observed in chemical vapor 2depo- PdSe thin
films. The thickness-dependent
sition (CVD)-grown PdSe2 flakes,bandgap
using atunability has also been
microscope-based observedspectroscopy
transmission in chemical
vapor deposition (CVD)-grown PdSe2 flakes, using a microscope-based transmission
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
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spectroscopy
approach [53].approach
In this case,[53].the
In bandgap
this case, was
the bandgap
found to was
varyfound to vary
from 1.43 from
eV for 1.43 eV
2-layer for
flakes
2-layer flakes to 0.8 eV for 10-layer flakes (Figure 9d), in good agreement
to 0.8 eV for 10-layer flakes (Figure 9d), in good agreement with DFT estimates. Notably, with DFT esti-
mates. Notably,
the observed the observed
bandgaps in these bandgaps
CVD-grown in these
PdSeCVD-grown PdSe2 flakes are indirect in
2 flakes are indirect in nature, providing
nature, providing further insights into the electronic structure
further insights into the electronic structure of this 2DLM. The ability of thisto2DLM. The ability
continuously tune
to
thecontinuously tuneofthe
optical bandgap PdSeoptical
2
bandgap
through of PdSe
thickness 2 through
control thickness
presents control
exciting presents
opportunities ex-
for
citing opportunities
the development for the development
of atomically of atomically
thin, layer-engineered thin, layer-engineered
optoelectronic devices. Theoptoelec-
combi-
tronic
nationdevices. The combination
of anisotropic of anisotropic
optical properties optical tunability
and bandgap propertiesinand
PdSebandgap tunability
2 underscores its
in PdSe underscores its promise as a versatile channel material for exploring
promise as a versatile channel material for exploring the interplay between dimensionality,
2 the interplay
between dimensionality, structure, and electronic
structure, and electronic behavior in the 2D limit. behavior in the 2D limit.

Figure
Figure 9.9.(a)(a)absorption
absorption spectra and
spectra (b)(b)
and Bandgap
Bandgapevolution of PdSe
evolution 2 filmsfilms
of PdSe 2
with layer
with numbers rang-
layer numbers
ing from 3L to 15L. The two major absorption peaks of PdSe 2 films are represented by α and β, with
ranging from 3L to 15L. The two major absorption peaks of PdSe2 films are represented by α and β,
corresponding tauc plots displayed in the inset. Experimental data of nanosheets was adopted from
with corresponding tauc plots displayed in the inset. Experimental data of nanosheets was adopted
[53]. Adapted with permission from ref [56]. Creative Commons Attribution CC BY license. (c) The
from [53]. Adapted with permission from ref [56]. Creative Commons Attribution CC BY license.
optical bandgaps extracted from Tauc plots for PdSe2 with different layer numbers. Reprinted with
(c) The optical
permission frombandgaps
ref. [49]extracted from Tauc plots
© 2018 WILEY-VCH for PdSe
Verlag GmbH2 with different
& Co. KGaA, layer numbers.(d)
Weinheim. Reprinted
Optical
with permission from ref. [49] © 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
band gap as a function of layer number determined by Tauc plot, along with representations of (d) Optical
DFT-
band gap
based as a function
assumptions. of layer
Reprinted number
with determined
permission by[53]
from ref. Tauc © plot, along withChemical
2020 American representations
Society. of
DFT-based assumptions. Reprinted with permission from ref. [53] © 2020 American Chemical Society.
3.5. Carrier Transport Characteristics and Carrier Mobility
3.5. Carrier Transport Characteristics and Carrier Mobility
As discussed earlier, PdSe2 has demonstrated structural anisotropy, suggesting the
As discussed earlier, PdSe2 has demonstrated structural anisotropy, suggesting the po-
potential
tential forfor anisotropic
anisotropic electronic
electronic behavior.
behavior. TheThe 2DLMs
2DLMs withwith
highhigh charge
charge carrier
carrier mobility
mobility are
are favorably desirable for photodetector applications, as this enables more efficient
favorably desirable for photodetector applications, as this enables more efficient collection col-
lection
of chargeof carriers
charge carriers and improved
and improved device
device speed. speed.reports
Existing Existingonreports on thecharacteris-
the transport transport
characteristics of PdSe 2 have revealed ambipolar conduction, whereby the material can
tics of PdSe2 have revealed ambipolar conduction, whereby the material can exhibit both
exhibit bothp-type
n-type and n-typebehavior,
and p-type behavior,
which can bewhich
tunedcan be tuned
through through
vacuum vacuum
annealing or annealing
annealing
or annealing in an inert environment [60]. Multiple PdSe 2 field-effect transistors (FETs)
in an inert environment [60]. Multiple PdSe2 field-effect transistors (FETs) fabricated with
fabricated with gold
gold (Au) contacts, (Au) contacts,
without without
any annealing any annealing
treatment, treatment,
have exhibited have exhibited
maximum (average)
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 11 of 23

maximum (average) electron field-effect mobilities (µe) of 54 cm2V−1s−1 (17 cm2V−1s−1) and
hole mobilities (µh) ofmobilities
14 cm2V−1(µ s−1e )(7ofcm −1s2−1)− 1 s−1These 2 V−1 s−1values
electron field-effect 542V cm V [19]. (17 cmmobility are notable
) and hole in
mobilities
comparison to2 the− 1 − 1
diverse 2
range − 1
of − 1
mobility (1–50 cm 2V−1s−1) reported for the widely stud-
(µh ) of 14 cm V s (7 cm V s ) [19]. These mobility values are notable in compar-
ied
isonMoS 2 material.
to the diverseVacuumrange ofannealing
mobility of (1–50 cm2 V2 −
the PdSe 1 s−1at
FETs 450 K resulted
) reported for theinwidely
an increase in
studied
electron mobility,Vacuum
MoS2 material. reaching 216 cm Vofsthe[61],
annealing 2 −1 −1
PdSe and
2 a
FETs transition
at 450 Ktowards
resulted n-type
in an dominant
increase in
behavior (Figure 10a).
electron mobility, Further
reaching cm2 V−1 s−1 [61],
216 improvements inand
room-temperature electron
a transition towards mobility,
n-type up
dominant
to 383 cm2(Figure
behavior V−1s−1, have10a).been reported
Further for PdSe2 devices
improvements with van der Waals
in room-temperature (vdW)
electron contacted
mobility, up to
antimony 2 − 1
(Sb) − 1
source-drain electrodes [19]. The vdW gap
383 cm V s , have been reported for PdSe2 devices with van der Waals (vdW) contacted between the Sb contacts and the
PdSe 2 channel
antimony (Sb)led to Fermi level
source-drain depinning
electrodes [19].andThe effective
vdW gap work function
between thealignment,
Sb contacts mini-
and
mizing
the PdSe the Schottkyled
2 channel barrier height
to Fermi level(Figure 10b–d)and
depinning andeffective
reducingwork
the contact
functionresistance
alignment,to
minimizing
as low as 0.55the kΩ. Schottky barrier height (Figure 10b–d) and reducing the contact resistance
to as low as 0.55 kΩ.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. (a)
(a) IIdd-V
-Vggcharacteristics
characteristicsdemonstrating
demonstrating the gradual transition
transitionfollowing
followingannealing
annealingatat400
400K
K(red
(red curve)
curve) andand 450450 K (blue
K (blue curve)
curve) fromfrom an ambipolar
an ambipolar transport
transport (black to
(black curve) curve) to an electron–
an electron–transport
transport
dominated dominated system. with
system. Adapted Adapted with permission
permission from
from ref. [61]. © ref.
2017[61]. © 2017 WILEY-VCH
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH Verlag
& Co.
GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Ti–PdSe 2 and Sb–PdSe2 contacted FETs (b) PdSe2 few-layer pre-
KGaA, Weinheim. Ti–PdSe2 and Sb–PdSe2 contacted FETs (b) PdSe2 few-layer pre-contact energy
contact energy band diagrams with Ti and Sb. (c) Ti–PdSe2 and (d) Sb–PdSe2 contacts’ schematic
band diagrams with Ti and Sb. (c) Ti–PdSe2 and (d) Sb–PdSe2 contacts’ schematic cross-sectional
cross-sectional views of the interface interaction with band diagrams post-contact. Adapted with
views of the interface interaction with band diagrams post-contact. Adapted with permission from
permission from ref. [19] © 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
ref. [19] © 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
4.4.PdSe
PdSe22Photodetectors:
Photodetectors:Fabrication
FabricationMethods
MethodsandandTheir
TheirPerformance
Performance
2D PdSe 2 can be utilized as the channel material for high-performance photodetec-
2D PdSe2 can be utilized as the channel material for high-performance photodetectors,
tors,
which which
can becan be fabricated
fabricated using using a variety
a variety of synthesis
of synthesis techniques.
techniques. The
The most mostreported
widely widely
methods for the preparation of high-quality 2D PdSe2 include chemical vapor deposition
 Sensors
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reported
(CVD) andmethods for theexfoliation
mechanical preparation of of high-quality
crystals 2D PdSe
obtained from2 include
chemical chemical vapor
vapor transport
deposition (CVD) and mechanical exfoliation of crystals obtained from chemical
(CVT) [62] or self-flux growth processes [63]. The CVD technique has enabled large-area vapor
transport (CVT) [62] or self-flux growth processes [63]. The CVD technique
growth of continuous PdSe2 films as well as discrete flakes, which have been subsequently has enabled
large-area in
employed growth of continuous
the fabrication PdSe2 films
of pristine as well as discrete flakes,
and heterostructure-based which
PdSe have been
2 photodetectors.
subsequently employed in the fabrication of pristine and heterostructure-based
Heterostructure photodetectors, wherein the PdSe2 channel is sandwiched between PdSeother
2

photodetectors. Heterostructure photodetectors, wherein the PdSe 2 channel is sand-

2D materials, offer a means of enhancing the intrinsic capabilities of the PdSe2 layer.
wiched
Such between otherconfigurations
heterostructure 2D materials, have
offer abeen
means of enhancing
shown to providethebenefits
intrinsicsuch
capabilities
as lowered
of the PdSe2 layer. Such heterostructure configurations have been shown to provide ben-
dark and suppressed noise currents [64], broadened spectral response [22], improved
efits such as lowered dark and suppressed noise currents [64], broadened spectral re-
photogenerated charge separation [31], and enhanced switching speeds [38], among other
sponse [22], improved photogenerated charge separation [31], and enhanced switching
performance enhancements.
speeds [38], among other performance enhancements.
In the following sections, a categorical exploration of the various PdSe2 -based photode-
In the following sections, a categorical exploration of the various PdSe2-based photo-
tector structures will be presented, classified based on the employed fabrication method-
detector structures will be presented, classified based on the employed fabrication meth-
ologies with a discussion on how their performance is affected.
odologies with a discussion on how their performance is affected.
4.1. CVD Grown PdSe2 for Photodetectors
4.1. CVD Grown PdSe2 for Photodetectors
4.1.1. Standalone CVD Grown PdSe2 Photodetectors
4.1.1. Standalone CVD Grown PdSe2 Photodetectors
Photothermoelectric (PTE)-based PdSe2 was investigated by Li et al. [20], which was
Photothermoelectric (PTE)-based PdSe2 was investigated by Li et al. [20], which was
grown via chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Rather than relying on electron–hole sep-
grown via chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Rather than relying on electron–hole sepa-
aration, the observed distinctive photoresponse was attributed to the generation of an
ration, the observed distinctive photoresponse was attributed to the generation of an elec-
electron temperature gradient. The presence of a nonlocal photoresponse with zero bias
tron temperature gradient. The presence of a nonlocal photoresponse with zero bias pro-
provided direct evidence of the PTE effect. The synthesis method employed by the re-
vided direct evidence of the PTE effect. The synthesis method employed by the research-
searchers involved placing a mixture of PdCl2 and NaCl powders in a crucible, with the
ers involved placing a mixture of PdCl2 and NaCl powders in a crucible, with the SiO₂
SiO2 substrate positioned face-down atop the crucible at a temperature of 750 ◦ C. Sepa-
substrate positioned face-down atop the crucible at a temperature of 750 °C. Separately,
rately, selenium powder wasasused
selenium powder was used
as the source material and placed outside the hot zone
the source material and placed outside the hot zone at a
attemperature
a temperature of 350 ◦ C (Figure 11a). The fabricated devices exhibited ohmic contacts
of 350 °C (Figure 11a). The fabricated devices exhibited ohmic contacts (Fig-
(Figure
ure 11b)11b)andand scanning
scanning photocurrent
photocurrent microscopy
microscopy (SPCM) (SPCM)
mapping mapping
revealedrevealed that the
that the pho-
photocurrent generation
tocurrent generation waswas confined
confined solely
solely to thetocontact
the contact regions
regions (Figure
(Figure 11c).observa-
11c). This This obser-
vation ruled out the involvement of photovoltaic and photo-Dember
tion ruled out the involvement of photovoltaic and photo-Dember effects, suggesting that effects, suggesting
that the PTE
the PTE effecteffect was solely
was solely responsible
responsible for the for the observed
observed broadband broadband photoresponse,
photoresponse, which
which was not limited by the material’s bandgap. The PTE device
was not limited by the material’s bandgap. The PTE device recorded an astounding recorded an astounding
ultra-
ultrafast response
fast response of 4ofµs,4 µs, making
making it oneit one of the
of the fastest-recorded
fastest-recorded PdSe
PdSe 2 -based
2-based photodetectors.
photodetectors.
Zhang
Zhanget etal.
al. [65] fabricatedPdSe
[65] fabricated PdSe2-based
2 -based bolometric
bolometric photodetectors
photodetectors using
using low-temperature
low-temperature
(200 ◦ C) plasma-enhanced selenization of Pd films. The devices recorded a broadband
(200 °C) plasma-enhanced selenization of Pd films. The devices recorded a broadband re-
response
sponse (365 (365nm–2200
nm–2200 nm)nm) with
with a response
a response timetime
of <of < 1.2s.
1.2s.

Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the CVD configuration for synthesizing PdSe2 nanosheets on
Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the CVD configuration for synthesizing PdSe2 nanosheets on
Si/SiO2 with the precursors of PdCl2 and Se. (b) Id-Vd characteristics of the device [dark (red solid
Si/SiO 2 with
line) and the precursors
illumination (black of
andPdCl 2 and
cyan solid (b) I(c)
Se.line]. d -VSPCM
d characteristics of the
images of the device
PdSe [dark (red solid
2 photodetector at
line)
zero bias with 532 nm excitation. Adapted with permission from ref. [20]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH. at
and illumination (black and cyan solid line]. (c) SPCM images of the PdSe 2 photodetector
zero bias with 532 nm excitation. Adapted with permission from ref. [20]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Sensors
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2024, 24,
24, x6127
FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24
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4.1.2.
4.1.2. CVD-PdSe
CVD-PdSe22Hybrid HybridHeterostructure-Based
Heterostructure-Based Photodetectors
Photodetectors
Large-area, centimeter-scale PdSe -based
Large-area, centimeter-scale PdSe2 -based hybrid
2 hybrid photodetectors
photodetectors cancanbe fabricated
be fabricated us-
ing
usinga two-step
a two-step selenization
selenization method
method[49,51].
[49,51].InInthe thefirst
firststep,
step,palladium
palladium(Pd) (Pd)isis deposited
deposited
onto
onto a substrate using using magnetron
magnetronsputtering.
sputtering.The Theas-deposited
as-depositedPd Pdfilm
filmis is then
then annealed
annealed in
a tube
in a tube furnace
furnaceunder
undera aflow
flowofofvaporized
vaporizedselenium
seleniumand andargon
argongas.
gas. This process convertsconverts
the Pd
the Pd film
film into
into aa polycrystalline
polycrystalline PdSe
PdSe22 layer,
layer, which
which can can bebe grown
grown toto the
the desired
desired thickness
thickness
on a variety of substrate materials. A
on A layer-dependent
layer-dependent evolution evolution of of large area PdSe22 thin thin
film on quartz substrate with corresponding atomic force microscopy
film on quartz substrate with corresponding atomic force microscopy (AFM) micrograph (AFM) micrograph
is illustrated
is illustrated in in Figure 12a. These
These PdSe22 filmsfilms cancan be
be utilized
utilized to fabricate
fabricate vertical
vertical hybrid
hybrid
photodetector structures,
photodetector structures,where
wherethe thePdSe
PdSe 2 layer
2 layer is combined
is combined withwith
other other conventional
conventional ma-
materials
terials or perovskites.
or perovskites. OneOne such
such exampleisisthe
example thePdSe
PdSe2-Silicon
2 -SiliconNanowire
NanowireArray Array (PdSe
(PdSe22--
SiNWA) device,
SiNWA) device, where
where thethePdSe
PdSe22layer
layerisistransferred
transferredonto onto a silicon nanowire
a silicon nanowire array structure.
array struc-
These PdSe -SiNWA photodetectors have demonstrated
ture. These 2PdSe2-SiNWA photodetectors have demonstrated impressive performance,impressive performance, with a
high aresponsivity
with of 726 of
high responsivity mA/W, a higha specific
726 mA/W, detectivity
high specific of 3.19
detectivity × 10×1410
of 3.19 Jones, andand
14 Jones, an
ultra-broadband spectral response ranging from 0.2 to 4.6 µm,
an ultra-broadband spectral response ranging from 0.2 to 4.6 µm, along with a dichroic along with a dichroic ratio
(polarization
ratio sensitivity)
(polarization of 75. Similar
sensitivity) fabrication
of 75. Similar approaches
fabrication using the
approaches two-step
using seleniza-
the two-step
tion method have also been employed to create other types of PdSe
selenization method have also been employed to create other types of PdSe2-based hetero- 2 -based heterojunction
photodetectors,
junction PdSe2 -Perovskite
photodetectors, (with broadband
PdSe2-Perovskite polarization
(with broadband sensitivity sensitivity
polarization of ~6.04) [54], of
PdSe 2 -Si or Black Phosphorous Quantum Dot-PdSe 2 -Si
~6.04) [54], PdSe2-Si or Black Phosphorous Quantum Dot-PdSe2-Si (BPQD-PdSe (BPQD-PdSe 2 -Si) (for near-infrared
2-Si) (for
to mid-infrared
near-infrared detection) [49]
to mid-infrared and PdSe
detection) 2 -GaN
[49] and (for
PdSepolarized UV light detection) [66].
2-GaN (for polarized UV light de-
Amongst them, the hybrid PdSe -Perovskite heterojunction
tection) [66]. Amongst them, the2hybrid PdSe2-Perovskite heterojunction detector exhibited
detector detection
exhib-
between 200 and 1550 nm with appreciable external quantum
ited detection between 200 and 1550 nm with appreciable external quantum efficiency due efficiency due to charge
trapping in the perovskite layer, despite having photovoltaic characteristics, while the
to charge trapping in the perovskite layer, despite having photovoltaic characteristics,
BPQD-PdSe2 -Si hybrid junction exhibited self-powered detection with an ultra-broadband
while the BPQD-PdSe 2-Si hybrid junction exhibited self-powered detection with an ultra-
range of 200 nm–3044 nm with response speeds of less than 45 µs.
broadband range of 200 nm–3044 nm with response speeds of less than 45 µs.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. (a) Digital camera
(a) Digital cameraphoto
photoofofPdSe
PdSe2films
filmswith
withdifferent
different thicknesses
thicknesses grown
grown on on
thethe quartz;
quartz; the
2
the bottom pictures show the corresponding AFM images. The blue line represents the direction of
bottom pictures show the corresponding AFM images. The blue line represents the direction of height
height measurement and red line denotes the height profile (b) TEM image of BPQDs with an aver-
age diameter of 3.5 ± 0.5 nm. Statistical analysis of the lateral sizes of 160 BPQDs (inset) (c) Schematic
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 14 of 23

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

measurement and red line denotes the height profile (b) TEM image of BPQDs with an average
diameter of 3.5 ± 0.5 nm. Statistical analysis of the lateral sizes of 160 BPQDs (inset) (c) Schematic
illustrationof
illustration ofaa BP-QD-PdSe
BP-QD-PdSe22/Si
/Sidetector,
detector,(d)
(d)The
Thespectral
spectralresponse
response of
of PdSe
PdSe22/Si
/Siwith
withand
andwithout
without
BPQDs
BPQDsdecoration.
decoration.Adapted
Adapted with permission
with permission from
fromref.ref.
[49][49]
© 2018 WILEY-VCH
© 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH
Verlag GmbH &
Co. KGaA,
& Co. Weinheim.
KGaA, (e) Schematic
Weinheim. illustration
(e) Schematic of PdSe
illustration 2/perovskite
of PdSe 2 hybrid
/perovskite junction
hybrid detector.
junction (f)
detector.
The wavelength-dependent
(f) The wavelength-dependentexternal quantum
external quantum efficiency (EQE)
efficiency of PdSe
(EQE) 2/perovskite device at zero
of PdSe 2 /perovskite device at
bias. (g) The evolution of photocurrent as a function of different polarized angle.
zero bias. (g) The evolution of photocurrent as a function of different polarized angle. Reprinted with
Reprinted
permission from ref. [54] © 2019 The Authors. Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
with permission from ref. [54] © 2019 The Authors. Published by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA, Weinheim.
KGaA, Weinheim.
4.1.3.
4.1.3.CVD
CVDGrown
GrownPdSe
PdSe2-2D
2 -2DHeterostructure-Based
Heterostructure-BasedPhotodetectors
Photodetectors
Reports
Reportshave
havedescribed
describedthe thefabrication
fabricationof PdSe2-based
ofPdSe 2 -based2DLM
2DLMheterostructures
heterostructuresgrowngrown
via
via chemical
chemicalvapor
vapordeposition
deposition(CVD)(CVD)methods.
methods. For Forinstance,
instance,one onestudy
study[67]
[67]details
detailsthe the
growthof
growth ofPdSe
PdSe22ononaasapphire
sapphiresubstrate
substrateusing
usingPdCl
PdCl2 2and
andSe Seprecursors
precursorsin inaathree-zone
three-zone
furnacesystem.
system.Utilizing
Utilizing ◦ C (zone-1) and
furnace anan Ar/H
Ar/H₂ 2 carrier
carrier gas, gas, the
the Se Se source
source at 250at°C250
(zone-1) and PdCl₂
PdCl2 atsource ◦
source 500 °Cat(zone-2)
500 C were (zone-2) were vaporized,
vaporized, and PdSe2 and PdSe2 was subsequently
was subsequently synthesized synthe-
on the
sized on the sapphire substrate at 600 ◦ C (zone-3). Using a similar approach, MoS was
sapphire substrate at 600 °C (zone-3). Using a similar approach, MoS₂ was grown 2on a
grown on
separate a separate
substrate andsubstrate and then onto
then transferred transferred
the PdSeonto the using
2 film PdSe2 afilm using a PMMA-
PMMA-based wet
based wet transfer technique to form large-area PdSe
transfer technique to form large-area PdSe2-MoS2 heterostructures.2 -MoS 2 heterostructures.
Figure 13aFigure
shows13a a
shows a schematic
schematic illustration
illustration of the fabricated
of the fabricated device while device while
Figure 13bFigure
shows13btheshows
setup the setup
of the 3-
of the
zone 3-zone
CVD CVD system
synthesis synthesis system employed.
employed. Despite havingDespite
a typehaving
II banda type II band
alignment, thealign-
de-
ment, the device did not show self-powered characteristics as illustrated
vice did not show self-powered characteristics as illustrated in the Id-Vd characteristics in the I d -Vd
characteristics
(Figure 13c). (Figure 13c).

Figure 13. (a) The schematic image of the MoS2/PdSe2 photodetector, and the inset is an optical im-
Figure 13. (a) The schematic image of the MoS2 /PdSe2 photodetector, and the inset is an optical
age of the device (b) The schematic diagram of the CVD system and the inset is the optical image of
image of the device (b) The schematic diagram of the CVD system and the inset is the optical
the grown uniform PdSe2 film. (c) Ids-Vds characteristics of MoS2/PdSe2 photodetector at 830 nm with
image
zero of bias
gate the grown
underuniform
variablePdSe 2 film.
incident (c) Ipower.
light ds -Vds characteristics
Reproduced with of MoS 2 /PdSe2 from
permission photodetector
ref. [67] ©at
830 nm
2022 with zeroGmbH.
Wiley-VCH gate bias under variable incident light power. Reproduced with permission from
ref. [67] © 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Conversely, a different method was employed to fabricate PdSe2-WS₂ heterostruc-
Conversely, a different method was employed to fabricate PdSe2 -WS2 heterostruc-
tures [68], which eliminated the need for wet transfer of the synthesized 2DLM. In this
tures [68], which eliminated the need for wet transfer of the synthesized 2DLM. In this case,
case, a WS₂ film was first grown on a sapphire substrate, followed by the deposition of Pd
a WS2 film was first grown on a sapphire substrate, followed by the deposition of Pd and
and subsequent selenization to complete the PdSe2-WS₂ heterostructure (Figure 14a). Ra-
subsequent selenization to complete the PdSe2 -WS2 heterostructure (Figure 14a). Raman
man spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization before
spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterization before and after
and after the selenization process confirmed the pristine quality of the WS₂ layer even
the selenization process confirmed the pristine quality of the WS2 layer even after the
after the formation of the PdSe2-WS2 heterostructure (Figure 14b–e). The device developed
formation of the PdSe2 -WS2 heterostructure (Figure 14b–e). The device developed a type-I
a type-I band alignment, and no photovoltaic effect was observed with only photoconduc-
band alignment, and no photovoltaic effect was observed with only photoconductive effect
tive effect dominating the device performance with an appreciable response time of 49
dominating the device performance with an appreciable response time of 49 ms/90 ms
ms/90 ms at a bias of 2 V. On the contrary, Shi et al. [69] reported the fabrication of a
at a bias of 2 V. On the contrary, Shi et al. [69] reported the fabrication of a PdSe2 /MoS2
PdSe2/MoS2 p-n heterojunction photodetector by transferring mechanically exfoliated
p-n heterojunction photodetector by transferring mechanically exfoliated MoS2 onto CVD-
MoS₂
grown onto
PdSeCVD-grown PdSe2 films. This device exhibited a high responsivity of 2.7 A/W
2 films. This device exhibited a high responsivity of 2.7 A/W under zero-bias
under zero-bias conditions, which
conditions, which was attributed to was attributed
the built-in to theatbuilt-in
potential potential atAdditionally,
the heterojunction. the hetero-
junction.
the device demonstrated fast switching speeds of 193 µs (rise) and 96 µs (fall). (rise) and
Additionally, the device demonstrated fast switching speeds of 193 µs
96 µs (fall).
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 15 of 23

Figure
Figure 14.
14. (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic ofof the
the device
device fabrication
fabrication process.
process. (b)
(b) Raman
Raman spectra
spectra of
of the
the stacked
stacked film
film
extracted from the regions corresponding to WS , PdSe , and PdSe /WS respectively. (c)
extracted from the regions corresponding to WS2 , PdSe2 , and PdSe2 /WS2 respectively. (c) XPS spectra
2 2 2 2 XPS spectra
of
of W
W 4f
4f peak.
peak. (d)
(d) XPS
XPS spectra
spectra of
of SS 2p
2p peak.
peak. (e)
(e) XPS
XPS spectra
spectra of
of Se
Se 3d
3d peak.
peak. Adapted
Adapted with
with permission
permission
from ref. [68]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
from ref. [68]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

4.2.
4.2. Mechanically
Mechanically Exfoliated
Exfoliated PdSe
PdSe22Photodetectors
Photodetectors
Mechanically exfoliated(M.E.)
Mechanically exfoliated (M.E.)layers
layersof of
PdSePdSe 2 have
2 have beenbeen extensively
extensively utilized
utilized in
in proof-
proof-of-concept photodetector
of-concept photodetector devices.devices.
In thisInapproach,
this approach,a bulka PdSe
bulk 2PdSe 2 crystal
crystal is loaded
is loaded onto
an adhesive
onto tape tape
an adhesive and mechanically
and mechanically cleaved multiple
cleaved times.
multiple The exfoliated
times. layers
The exfoliated are then
layers are
transferred
then ontoonto
transferred a SiO /Si2/Si
a 2SiO substrate
substrate bybypressing
pressingthe thesticky
stickytape
tapeonto
onto the
the substrate and and
slowly removing
slowly removing itit after
after aa few minutes. A A common
common subsequent
subsequent stepstep involves
involves thethe use
use of
of
electron beam lithography to define the source
electron source and and drain
drain regions,
regions,followed
followedby bythe
thedeposi-
depo-
tion ofofmetallic
sition metalliccontacts
contacts viavia
techniques
techniques such
suchas as
electron
electronbeam evaporation
beam evaporation to complete
to complete the
fabrication
the of pristine
fabrication PdSe2 -based
of pristine photodetectors.
PdSe2-based An alternative,
photodetectors. more mature
An alternative, moremethod
maturein-
volves theinvolves
method deterministic
the transfer of PdSe2transfer
deterministic layers onto of pre-patterned
PdSe2 layersdrain/source electrodes
onto pre-patterned
on SiO2 /Si substrates
drain/source electrodestoon formSiOpristine photodetectors.
2/Si substrates to form Furthermore, 2D heterostructures
pristine photodetectors. Further-
can be created by deterministically transferring mechanically
more, 2D heterostructures can be created by deterministically transferring cleaved PdSemechanically
2 layers onto
a previously
cleaved PdSe2exfoliated
layers onto 2Damaterial
previously on aexfoliated
typical SiO 2D2 /Si substrate,
material on ausing
typicalPDMS
SiO2/Sistamps.
sub-
This deterministic
strate, using PDMStransfer
stamps.approach has been further
This deterministic transferrefined
approachand has
expanded to include
been further the
refined
transfer
and of 2D materials
expanded to includefrom one substrate
the transfer of 2D to anotherfrom
materials usingonepolymers
substratesuch as polymethyl
to another using
methacrylate
polymers such(PMMA), as wellmethacrylate
as polymethyl as thermoplastic(PMMA),materials like
as well aspolyvinyl alcohol
thermoplastic (PVA),
materials
polycarbonate (PC), and polypropylene carbonate (PPC).
like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polycarbonate (PC), and polypropylene carbonate (PPC).
4.2.1. Standalone M.E. PdSe Photodetectors
4.2.1. Standalone M.E. PdSe22Photodetectors
One of the first reports of using PdSe as a sole channel material can be reported back
One of the first reports of using PdSe22 as a sole channel material can be reported back
to [70]. The device was constructed out of a PdSe flake connected with Ti/Au electrodes.
to [70]. The device was constructed out of a PdSe22 flake connected with Ti/Au electrodes.
The device responsivity could be modulated using the back gate to achieve very high
The device responsivity could be modulated using the back gate to achieve very high pho-
photogains of 708 A/W at 1064 nm. The device, however, suffered from poor mobility
togains of 708 A/W at 1064 nm. The device, however, suffered from poor mobility and low
and low linear dynamic range. Reports of THz detection with PdSe2 were also conveyed
linear dynamic range. Reports of THz detection with PdSe2 were also conveyed for a pho-
for a photovoltaic-type device using a hot carrier injection mechanism and asymmetric
tovoltaic-type device engineered
antenna type contact using a hotphotodetector
carrier injection mechanism
[22]. The deviceand asymmetric
portrayed antenna
a responsivity
type contact engineered photodetector [22]. The device portrayed a responsivity
of 5 mA/W at 0.24 THz and a response speed of 7.5 µs with application in THz imaging. of 5
mA/W at 0.24 THz and a response speed of 7.5 µs with application in THz imaging.
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 16 of 23

PdSe
PdSe22nanosheets
nanosheetsexfoliated
exfoliatedonto
ontosilicon-on-insulator
silicon-on-insulator(SOI)
(SOI) ridge
ridge waveguides
waveguides werewere
investigated
investigated for the development of integrated photodetectors operatingininthe
for the development of integrated photodetectors operating thetelecom-
telecom-
munications
municationswavelength
wavelengthband band(1260
(1260nm nmtoto1565
1565nm)nm)[71].
[71].The waveguide
The waveguide architecture is
architecture
an attractive
is an approach
attractive for designing
approach photodetectors
for designing with with
photodetectors both high
both responsivity and large
high responsivity and
bandwidth (Figure(Figure
large bandwidth 15a,b). 15a,b).
The fabricated devicesdevices
The fabricated exhibited excellentexcellent
exhibited performance charac-
performance
teristics, with a with
characteristics, high aresponsivity of 1758.7
high responsivity mA/WmA/W
of 1758.7 and a 3anddB abandwidth of 1.5 GHz
3 dB bandwidth of 1.5(Fig-
GHz
ure
(Figure 15c). Furthermore, the devices demonstrated a data rate capability in the range2.5
15c). Furthermore, the devices demonstrated a data rate capability in the range of of
Gbit/s, as evidenced
2.5 Gbit/s, by the
as evidenced byclear eye-opening
the clear in the
eye-opening ineye
the diagram (Figure
eye diagram 15d).15d).
(Figure

Figure
Figure15.
15.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematic(b)
(b)Optical
Opticalmicrograph
micrographillustration
illustrationofof
waveguide integrated
waveguide integratedPdSe2 photo-
PdSe 2 pho-
detector. (c) Measured frequency response of three PdSe2 photodetectors at 3 V. (d) Receiver eye
todetector. (c) Measured frequency response of three PdSe 2 photodetectors at 3 V. (d) Receiver eye
diagram at a data rate of 2.0 and 2.5 Gbits−−11 measured with PdSe2 photodetector. Reprinted with
diagram at a data rate of 2.0 and 2.5 Gbits measured with PdSe2 photodetector. Reprinted with
permission from ref. [71]. Copyright © 2022 American Chemical Society.
permission from ref. [71]. Copyright © 2022 American Chemical Society.
Zhong et al. [50] performed electronic and optoelectronic characterization of mechan-
Zhong et al. [50] performed electronic and optoelectronic characterization of mechan-
ically exfoliated 5-layer PdSe2 nanosheets in a field-effect transistor (FET) configuration.
ically exfoliated 5-layer PdSe2 nanosheets in a field-effect transistor (FET) configuration.
The researchers obtained a decent field-effect mobility of 1.8 cm2/Vs,2indicating hole-dom-
The researchers obtained a decent field-effect mobility of 1.8 cm /Vs, indicating hole-
inant transport
dominant characteristics,
transport and and
characteristics, a fast response
a fast time
response of of
time 11 11
msms
(rise) and
(rise) and6 6ms
ms(fall).
(fall).
Polarization-dependent photocurrent mapping of the PdSe 2 nanosheet devices revealed a
Polarization-dependent photocurrent mapping of the PdSe2 nanosheet devices revealed
dichroic ratio
a dichroic of of
ratio 1.9,1.9,
demonstrating
demonstrating a polarization-dependent
a polarization-dependent photoresponse.
photoresponse.As the
Aspo-
the
larization angle
polarization waswas
angle increased, the photocurrent
increased, and responsivity
the photocurrent decreased,
and responsivity with awith
decreased, max-a
imum
maximumresponsivity of 3.5ofmA/W.
responsivity 3.5 mA/W.

4.2.2.
4.2.2.M.E.
M.E.PdSe
PdSe22-2D
-2DHeterostructure-Based
Heterostructure-BasedPhotodetectors
Photodetectors
Long-wavelength infrared operation
Long-wavelength infrared operationofofPdSe
PdSe 2-MoS-based
2 -MoS 2 2-basedheterostructure
heterostructure field-ef-
field-effect
fect transistors
transistors (FETs)
(FETs) hashas beenreported
been reported by
by [72] (Figure
(Figure16a). 16a).TheTheresponse
responsetimes werewere
times 74.5
ms (rise) and 91.3 ms (fall) in the 10.6 µm wavelength range (Figure
74.5 ms (rise) and 91.3 ms (fall) in the 10.6 µm wavelength range (Figure 16b), and 16b), and the devices
showed a broad
the devices spectral
showed response
a broad from
spectral 450 nm to
response from10.6450µmnm with
to exceptional
10.6 µm with performance,
exceptional
with regard to with
performance, responsivity
regard to ofresponsivity
42.1 A/W (Figure 16c)
of 42.1 A/Wand(Figure
a detectivity of 1.10
16c) and × 109 Jones
a detectivity of
at
1.10 9
× 10 Jonesofat10.6
a wavelength µm. The authors
a wavelength of 10.6noted
µm. that
The the use of
authors Pd/Au
noted contacts
that the usecould facil-
of Pd/Au
contacts
itate could facilitate
a reduction in darka currents
reduction(Figure
in dark16b),
currents
thereby(Figure 16b), thereby
improving the on/offimproving the
ratio and
on/off device
overall ratio and overall device performance.
performance.
Broadband photodetection has been reported for PdSe2 -InSe heterostructures [73],
spanning the visible to near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range (Figure 17a). These devices
exhibited response speeds in the millisecond range and a high responsivity of 161 A/W in
the NIR region (1250 nm). The device performance was further enhanced by gate-tunable
photocurrent, indicating electron-dominated transport characteristics. Additionally, the
PdSe2 -InSe heterostructures demonstrated appreciable switching speeds and extended
detection capabilities up to 1650 nm (Figure 17b,c), which exceeds the individual responses
of the PdSe2 and InSe devices. On the other hand, a robust p-n junction based on BP-PdSe2
heterojunctions has been reported [74]. In this device, asymmetric contact engineering
was employed, where the BP side was deposited with Cr/Au contacts and the PdSe2
side was deposited with Sc/Au contacts. This approach provided a robust rectification
behavior, with further tunability achieved by varying the back-gate voltage. The BP-PdSe2
heterojunction device exhibited a broadband response from 532 nm to 1310 nm, with a
Figure 16. (a) Top panel:
high responsivity 5 A/W) and
(>10Schematic image, Bottom
external panel: optical
quantum efficiency (>106 %).
photograph of oThe
PdSe 2−MoS2also
device in-
frared photodetector. (b) Log scale Id−Vd characteristic under dark (black) and illuminated (red)
 Long-wavelength infrared operation of PdSe2-MoS2-based heterostructure field-ef-
fect transistors (FETs) has been reported by [72] (Figure 16a). The response times were 74.5
ms (rise) and 91.3 ms (fall) in the 10.6 µm wavelength range (Figure 16b), and the devices
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 showed a broad spectral response from 450 nm to 10.6 µm with exceptional performance, 17 of 23
with regard to responsivity of 42.1 A/W (Figure 16c) and a detectivity of 1.10 × 109 Jones
at a wavelength of 10.6 µm. The authors noted that the use of Pd/Au contacts could facil-
conditions.
itate Inset: Time-resolved
a reduction in dark photoresponse
currents curves.
(Figure 10
16b), (c) Biased
thereby (Vd = 1 V) wavelength-dependent
improving
demonstrated a high
photoresponsivity R detectivity
(red) and noisereaching
equivalent
13 Jones,
power indicating
(blue) of the its the on/offfor
potential
photodetector
ratio and
highly
under ambient
overall device performance.
sensitive photodetection applications.
air. Adapted with permission from ref. [72]. Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society.

Broadband photodetection has been reported for PdSe2-InSe heterostructures [73],

spanning the visible to near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range (Figure 17a). These devices
exhibited response speeds in the millisecond range and a high responsivity of 161 A/W in
the NIR region (1250 nm). The device performance was further enhanced by gate-tunable
photocurrent, indicating electron-dominated transport characteristics. Additionally, the
PdSe2-InSe heterostructures demonstrated appreciable switching speeds and extended
detection capabilities up to 1650 nm (Figure 17b,c), which exceeds the individual re-
sponses of the PdSe2 and InSe devices. On the other hand, a robust p-n junction based on
BP-PdSe2 heterojunctions has been reported [74]. In this device, asymmetric contact engi-
neering was employed, where the BP side was deposited with Cr/Au contacts and the
PdSe2 side was deposited with Sc/Au contacts. This approach provided a robust rectifica-
tion behavior,
Figure
Figure 16.
16. (a)
(a) Topwith
Top further
panel:
panel: tunability
Schematic
Schematic image, achieved
image,Bottom by varying
Bottompanel:
panel:optical the back-gate
photograph
optical photograph voltage.
ofof
o PdSe
o 2The
2−MoS
PdSe 2 BP-
−MoS in-2
frared
PdSe photodetector.
heterojunction (b) Log
device scale Id−Vd characteristic
exhibited a broadband under dark
response (black)
from and
532 illuminated
nm to
infrared photodetector. (b) Log scale Id −Vd characteristic under dark (black) and illuminated (red)
2 1310(red)
nm,
with a high
conditions. responsivity
Inset: Time-resolved(>10photoresponse
5 A/W) and external quantum efficiency (>106%). The device
curves. (c) Biased (Vd = 1 V) wavelength-dependent
also demonstrated
photoresponsivity a high
R (red) anddetectivity reaching
noise equivalent power 13 Jones, indicating its potential for highly
10(blue) of the photodetector under ambient air.
sensitivewith
Adapted photodetection
permission from applications.
ref. [72]. Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society.

Figure17.
Figure 17.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematic illustration
illustration of
of InSe/PdSe
InSe/PdSe22vdWs
vdWsphotodetector.
photodetector.(b)
(b)log
logI-V
I-Vcharacteristics
characteristicsof
the device under various illumination wavelengths a fixed light power density of 3
of the device under various illumination wavelengths a fixed light power density of 3 mW/cm .mW/cm 2. (c)
2
Temporal response of the device under various illumination wavelengths with mentioned light
(c) Temporal response of the device under various illumination wavelengths with mentioned light
on/off ratio. Reproduced with permission from ref. [73]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
on/off ratio. Reproduced with permission from ref. [73]. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

4.2.3.Graphene-Sandwiched
4.2.3. Graphene-SandwichedPdSe PdSe22-2D
-2D Heterostructure-Based
Heterostructure-BasedPhotodetectors
Photodetectors
While the
While theuseuseofoflithographically
lithographicallypatterned
patterned contacts
contacts has
has been
been the
thenorm
normfor forlateral
lateral
heterojunction-based photodetectors, utilizing van der Waals contacts
heterojunction-based photodetectors, utilizing van der Waals contacts like graphene for like graphene for
vertical heterojunction-based
vertical heterojunction-based photodetectors
photodetectors can can be
beananefficient
efficientapproach.
approach. The The shorter
shorter
channellength
channel lengthin invertical
verticaldevices,
devices,ononthetheorder
orderof ofnanoscales,
nanoscales,enables
enablesfaster
fastercharge
chargecarrier
carrier
extractionand
extraction andseparation,
separation,increasing
increasingthe thedevice
deviceresponse
responsespeed
speedand andresponsivity.
responsivity.
Zhongetetal.al.
Zhong [52][52] reported
reported the fabrication
the fabrication of self-powered,
of self-powered, graphene-sandwiched
graphene-sandwiched PdSe2 -
MoSe vertical
PdSe22-MoSe photodetectors.
2 vertical These devices
photodetectors. These exhibited a rectification
devices exhibited ratio greater
a rectification ratiothan 103
greater
under
than 10dark conditions,
3 under and fast response
dark conditions, and fasttimes of 41.7
response µs (rise)
times and
of 41.7 µs62.5 (fall)62.5
µsand
(rise) dueµsto(fall)
the
short
due totransit channel
the short of approximately
transit 57 nm for the57photogenerated
channel of approximately carriers. The devices
nm for the photogenerated carriers.
demonstrated a remarkablearesponsivity
The devices demonstrated remarkable of 651 mA/Wofunder
responsivity self-bias
651 mA/W conditions,
under self-biaswith a
condi-
broad
tions, spectral response
with a broad covering
spectral the visible
response to near-infrared
covering the visible to (NIR) regime. (NIR)
near-infrared Furthermore,
regime.
the responsivity
Furthermore, thecould be enhanced
responsivity couldto be1.16 A/W under
enhanced to 1.16aA/Wreverse
underbiasa of −1 V,bias
reverse andofthe−1
rectification ratio could be tuned by adjusting the back-gate voltage,
V, and the rectification ratio could be tuned by adjusting the back-gate voltage, which which modifies the
Schottky
modifiesbarrier height.barrier
the Schottky Building on a similar
height. Building strategy, Chen et
on a similar al. [75] Chen
strategy, fabricated
et al.graphene-
[75] fabri-
sandwiched PdSe2 -MoS2 andPdSe
cated graphene-sandwiched PdSe 2 -WS22and
2-MoS vertical
PdSeheterojunction photodetectors.
2-WS2 vertical heterojunction These
photode-
devices
tectors. exhibited a largeexhibited
These devices open-circuit voltage
a large of 0.6 V under
open-circuit voltage650ofnm 0.6illumination.
V under 650Both nm
 Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 18 of 23

illumination. Both devices showed enhanced performance, including higher rectification

devices showed
ratios and fasterenhanced performance,
response times, including
by tuning higher
the back-gate rectification
voltage. ratios
(Figure and faster
18a–c).
response times, by tuning the back-gate voltage. (Figure 18a–c).

Figure18.
18.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematicofofthe
thegraphene-sandwiched
graphene-sandwichedPdSe
PdSe/MoS
2/MoS2 vdWH photodetector. (b) Output
Figure 2 2 vdWH photodetector. (b) Output
curves at various gate voltages from −80 to 80 V. (c) Photoresponse characteristics of the device at
curves at various gate voltages from −80 to 80 V. (c) Photoresponse characteristics of the device
various gate voltages with notable Voc and Isc. Adapted with permission from ref. [75] © 2023 Wiley-
at various gate voltages with notable Voc and Isc . Adapted with permission from ref. [75] © 2023
VCH GmbH.
Wiley-VCH GmbH.
These studies
These studies highlight
highlight the
the advantages
advantagesofofusing
usingvanvanderder
Waals contacts,
Waals such
contacts, as gra-
such as
phene, in vertical heterojunction-based photodetectors. The short carrier transit channels
graphene, in vertical heterojunction-based photodetectors. The short carrier transit channels
andefficient
and efficientcharge
chargeseparation
separationfacilitated
facilitatedby
bythe
thevertical
verticaldevice
devicearchitecture
architectureenable
enablethethe
realizationof
realization ofhigh-performance,
high-performance,broadband
broadbandphotodetectors
photodetectorswithwithfast
fastresponse
responsetimes
timesand
and
tunablecharacteristics.
tunable characteristics.
AAsummary
summaryofofsomesomeof of
thethe best-performing
best-performing PdSePdSe 2-based photodetectors and their
2 -based photodetectors and their key
key performance parameters has been presented in Table
performance parameters has been presented in Table 2, as found 2, as found
from from the literature.
the literature.

Table2.2.Key
Table Keyperformance
performancemetrics
metricsinfluencing
influencingthe
theperformance
performanceofofPdSe
PdSe 2-basedphotodetectors.
2 -based photodetectors.

Mobility Mobility Response

Channel MaterialBandwidth
Channel Material
On/Off
Response Time (ms) Responsivity
Responsivity (AW−1 ) Detectivity
Detectivity (Jones)
[Fabrication Method]
[Operation] (cm2 V−1 s−1 ) (cm2VContact
Bandwidth −1s−1)Types
Ratio On/OffRise/FallTime (ms)[Wavelength] −1 [Wavelength]
Ref
[Fabrication Method]
{Structure} Electron {Hole} Contact Types [Wavelength] (AW ) (Jones) Ref
[Operation] Electron Ratio Rise/Fall
{Structure} 1260 nm–1565 nm
PdSe2 [M.E.-Flake]
216 Ti/Au (B.C.) - -
[Wavelength] [Wavelength]
1.758 [1550 nm] - [71]
{Waveguide} [P.C.] {Hole} [Wavelength]
PdSePdSe 2 [M.E.-Flake]
2 [M.E.-Flake] 405 nm–1.2491260
mm nm–1565121 nm Ni/Au (T.C.) 1.84 × 1012
{FET} [P.C./P.V.] 216Cr/Au (T.C.) Ti/Au (B.C.) - - 7.5 × 10−3 - 5 × 10−3 [1.249 mm]
1.758 [1550 nm] [1850 nm] - [22] [71]
{Waveguide} [P.C.]
PdSe2 [M.E.-Flake] 532 nm–4.05 µm Cr/Au 1.31 × 109
PdSe
{FET}2 [M.E.-Flake][P.C./P.G.]405 nm–1.249 mm
4 Ni/Au (T.C.) - - 5 × 10 [1.249
708 [1064 nm] −3 1.84 × 1012 [70]
121 (T.C.) - 7.5 × 10−3 [1064 nm]
[22]
PdSe2 [M.E.-Flake]{FET} 1064 nm [P.C./P.V.] Ti/Au Cr/Au (T.C.) mm] [1850 nm]
{FET} [P.T.E.]
92
(T.C.) 104 0.156/0.163 - - [76]
PdSe 2 [M.E.-Flake] 532 nm–4.05 µm Cr/Au 1.31 × 109
PdSe2 [M.E.-Flake] 9.3 µm
4 Cr/Au
- - 708 [1064 nm]
245 × 10−3
[70]
{FET}
{FET} [P.B.]
[P.C./P.G.] - (T.C.)
(T.C.) - 210/230 [1064
- nm] [77]
[9.3 µm]
PdSe2 [M.E.-Flake] 1064 nm Ti/Au
PdSe2 -MoS2 450 nm–10.6 µm 138.9 92Pd/Au (T.C.) 3 104 0.156/0.16342.1 [10.6 µm] -
74.5/91.3 1.10 × 109 - [72] [76]
[M.E.-Flake] {L.H. {FET}
FET} [P.C./P.G.] [P.T.E.] {57.7} (T.C.) 10 [10.6 µm] [10.6 µm]

PdSe
PdSe 2 [M.E.-Flake]
2 -InSe 532 nm–1650 nm 9.3 µm - Cr/Au3.8 × 104
245 × 10−3 1 × 1010
[M.E.-Flake] {L.H. FET} [P.C.] - Ti/Au (T.C.) - 53/72 [532 nm] 210/230 161 [1250 nm]
[1650 nm] - [73] [77]
{FET} [P.B.] (T.C.) [9.3 µm]
BP-PdSe2 532 nm–1310 nm Cr/Au and Sc/Au 1.6/4.7 5.8 × 1013
[M.E.-Flake]PdSe 2-MoS2
{L.H. FET} [P.V./P.G.] 450 nm–10.6 µm
- 138.9 (T.C.) 9.5 × 105 [1310 nm] 74.5/91.39.6 × 105 [532 nm] 1.10 × 109 [74]
[532 nm]
Pd/Au (T.C.) 103 42.1 [10.6 µm] [72]
[M.E.-Flake] {L.H. FET}
Gr-PdSe2 -MoS2 -Gr 650 nm
[P.C./P.G.] {57.7} [10.6 µm] [10.6
6.7 × 1011
µm]
[M.E.-Flake] {V.H.} [P.V.]
- Au-vdW (T.C.) 107 0.129/ 0.146 0.173 [650 nm] [75]
PdSe2-InSe 532 nm–1650 nm 1
[650 nm] × 10 10
- Ti/Au (T.C.) 3.8 × 104 53/72 [532 nm] 161 [1250 nm] [73]
[M.E.-Flake]
Gr-PdSe 2 -MoSe2 -Gr {L.H. FET} 405 nm–1060 nm [P.C.] - 41.7 × 10−3 / 5.29 × 1011
[1650 nm]
Cr/Au (B.C.) 5.6 × 103 0.651 [532 nm] [52]
[M.E.-Flake] {V.H.} [P.V.] 62.5 × 10−3 [532 nm]
BP-PdSe2 532 nm–1310 nm Cr/Au and Sc/Au 1.6/4.7 9.6 × 105 [532 5.8 × 1013
PdSe2 405 nm–940 nm -Au-vdW (T.C.) 2 9.5 × 104 × 10 /
5 − 3
−3 107 nm]
[74]
[M.E.-Flake]
[CVD-Flake] {FET} {L.H. FET} [P.T.E.] [P.V./P.G.] - (T.C.)2.8 × 10 14 × 10−3[1310 nm]
1.4 × 10 nm] 2.55 ×[532 [20]

Gr-PdSe
PdSe2 2-MoS2-Gr 365 nm–2200 nm 650 nm - 37.6 × 10−3 6.7 × 1011
[CVD-Flake] {FET} [P.B.] - In/Au (T.C.) Au-vdW (T.C.) - 107 1000/12000.129/0.146 [1550 0.173
nm] [650 nm]
- [65] [75]
[M.E.-Flake] {V.H.} [P.V.] [650 nm]
PdSe2 -MoS2 405 nm–1000 nm 378/708 6.9 6.3 × 1010
Gr-PdSe2-MoSe2-Gr [P.C.] 405 nm–1060 nm
[CVD-M.E. Flake] {V.H.}
- Au (T.C.) 102 41.7 × 10 −3/ 5.29 × 1011 [67]
- Cr/Au (B.C.) 5.6 × 103[830 nm] [830 nm]
0.651 [532 nm] [830 nm] [52]
[M.E.-Flake]
PdSe2 -WS2
{V.H.}
532 nm–1550 nm
[P.V.] − 2 62.5 × 10−3 [532 nm]
3.5 × 10 Ti/Au (B.C.) - 49/90 [635 nm] 0.019 × 10−3 - [68]
[CVD] {V.H. FET}PdSe2 [P.C./P.G.] 405 nm–940 nm
{2.7 × 10−4 } 4 × 10−3/
- Au-vdW (T.C.) 2.8 × 102 1.4 × 10−3 2.55 × 107 [20]
[CVD-Flake]
BPQD-PdSe 2 -Si {FET}
200 nm–3044 nm [P.T.E.] Au (T.C.) 38 × 10−3 / 14 × 10 −3
[CVD-Spin coating]
[P.V.]
- 105 − 3 300.2 × 10−3 1.18 × 1013 [49]
{0D-2D-3D Hybrid PdSe
V.H.} 2 365 nm–2200 nm - In-Ga (B.C.) In/Au (T.C.) - 44 × 10 1000/1200 37.6 × 10−3 - [65]
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 19 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

PdSe2 -GaN [CVD] 200 nm–370 nm 28.5 × 10−3 / 249.9 × 10−3

- Au and Ni/Au (T.C.) 1.4 × 103 7.9 × 1012 [66]
{2D-3D Hybrid L.H.} [P.V.] 122.6 × 10−3 [360 nm]

PdSe2 -Cs-doped
FAPbI3
200 nm–1550 nm 3.5 × 10−3 /
[CVD-Spin coating] {4.75} Au (T.C.) 104 313 × 10−3 1013 [54]
{2D-Perovskite Hybrid
[P.V.] 4 × 10−3
L.H.}

PdSe2 -SiNW [CVD] 200 nm–4.6 µm Au (T.C.) 25.1 × 10−3 /

- 102 726 × 10−3 3.19 × 1014 [51]
{2D-3D Hybrid V.H.} [P.V.] In-Ga (B.C.) 34 × 10−3

PdSe2 -Si Pyramid

980 nm–1650 nm Au (T.C.) 456 × 10−3 9.97 × 1013
[CVD]
[P.V.]
-
In-Ga (B.C.) 1.6 × 105 N.A. [78]
{2D-3D Hybrid V.H.} [980 nm] [980 nm]

PdSe2 -GeNCs 25.4 × 10−3 /

980 nm–1650 nm Gr-Ag (T.C.) 1.45 × 1011
CVD
[P.V.]
-
In-Ga (B.C.)
5 38.5 × 10−3 530.2 × 10−3 [1550 nm] [79]
2D-3D Hybrid V.H. [1550 nm]
[1550 nm]

M.E.—Mechanical Exfoliation, L.H.—Lateral Heterostructure, V.H.—Vertical Heterostructure, T.C.—Top Contact,

B.C.—Bottom Contact, P.C.—Photoconductive, P.V.—Photovoltaic, P.G.—Photogating, P.B.—Photobolometric,
P.T.E.—Photothermoelectric.

5. Outlook and Perspective

Van der Waals Two-dimensional (2D) palladium diselenide (PdSe2 ) exhibits unique
properties that present significant opportunities for future optoelectronic applications.
The layer-dependent modulation of its bandgap, coupled with high ambipolar mobility
and pronounced anisotropic broadband light absorption, positions PdSe2 as an ideal can-
didate for next-generation transistor and photodetector technologies. Furthermore, its
exceptional thermal stability at room temperature enhances its suitability for thermoelec-
tric and bolometric applications, thereby facilitating ultra-broadband sensing capabilities.
The latest advancements in photodetectors based on PdSe2 have showcased its signifi-
cant promise for optoelectronic applications. PdSe2 possesses distinctive characteristics,
including a wide range of spectral sensitivity up to THz, exceptional responsivity, and
rapid response times, making it a highly promising 2DLM for the forthcoming era of high-
performance photodetectors.
The versatility of the two-step selenization method for large-area PdSe2 film growth,
coupled with the ability to integrate PdSe2 into hybrid photodetector structures, has
enabled the development of high-performance, multifunctional photodetector devices with
tailored spectral and polarization-sensitive responses. Additionally, the implementation
of standard metal deposition techniques allow fabrication of an array of photodetectors,
showing potential for future commercial applications. Research is still open on this stem
of the tree as reported cases for the large area PdSe2 are polycrystalline and the highly
crystalline phase is the desired industry need for commercial application of large area
in-plane integrated optoelectronic devices. With continued research effort in this stem,
acceptable device-to-device/area-area variance along with stability and good repeatability
will make PdSe2 a strong candidate for back-end-of-line (BEOL) applications, like all
other 2DLM.
Prospects of PdSe2 nanosheets onto SOI ridge waveguides provide a promising plat-
form for the development of high-performance, integrated photodetectors operating in the
important telecommunications wavelength range. The combination of high responsivity
and large bandwidth makes these devices attractive for a variety of applications in commu-
nication and signal processing systems. The incorporation of mechanically exfoliated PdSe2
into heterojunction device topologies, such as PdSe2 -InSe and PdSe2 -(TMDC) structures,
have resulted in improved performance of photodetectors. These heterostructures have
demonstrated the ability to detect a wide range of wavelengths, can be controlled by gate
voltage, exhibit outstanding performance metrics, including high responsivity and detectiv-
ity, and can be suitable candidates for future miniaturized spectrometers. Noteworthy, the
exceptionally high ambipolar mobility of PdSe2 as a channel material plays a crucial role
in determining the ultrafast response speed in these lateral heterojunction-based photode-
tectors. Furthermore, the utilization of van der Waals contacted/graphene-sandwiched,
vertical PdSe2 -based heterojunctions has displayed significant potential as well. The com-
pact nanoscale carrier transit channels present in these vertical devices facilitate effective
Sensors 2024, 24, 6127 20 of 23

charge separation and rapid response times, appealing for photodetection applications that
need high speed and high sensitivity.
Continued research on PdSe2 -based photodetector is expected to result in significant
performance enhancements through the optimization of device design, material engineer-
ing, and integration strategies. The key focus area of research should include in-depth
investigations in the field of metal contact-2DLM interface as high contact resistance is
still the major bottleneck for 2DLM-based photodetectors and their inferior mobility and
charge carrier extraction efficiency. The adaptability of PdSe2 and its ability to work well
with different heterostructure setups indicate that these photodetectors will have a signif-
icant impact on upcoming optoelectronic technologies, including imaging, sensing, and
communication systems.

Author Contributions: T.I.A.: conceptualization, literature collection, writing—original draft, re-

vision, K.L.: literature collection, writing—original draft, revision, S.U.H.: literature collection,
writing—original draft, S.A.: literature collection, revision, Y.H.T.: conceptualization, supervi-
sion, funding acquisition, revision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Science and Technology Innovation Commission of
Shenzhen (JCYJ20210324141206017), Photonic Research Institute (PRI), (Project number: 1-CD6V),
Research Institute for Advanced Manufacturing (RIAM) (Project number: 1-CD8V, 1-CDK6), The
Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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