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5.4 Data Quality

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. The objective of this section is to ascertain the different types of error inherent in
geospatial datasets.

Not all geospatial data are created equally. Data quality refers to the ability of a given dataset to
satisfy the objective for which it was created. With the voluminous amounts of geospatial data being
created and served to the cartographic community, care must be taken by individual geographic
information system (GIS) users to ensure that the data employed for their project is suitable for the
task at hand.

Two primary attributes characterize data quality. Accuracy describes how close a measurement is to
its actual value and is often expressed as a probability (e.g., 80 percent of all points are within +/− 5
meters of their true locations). Precision refers to the variance of a value when repeated
measurements are taken. A watch may be correct to 1/1000th of a second (precise) but may be 30
minutes slow (not accurate). As you can see in Figure 5.12 "Accuracy and Precision", the blue darts
are both precise and accurate, while the red darts are precise but inaccurate.

Figure 5.12 Accuracy and Precision

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Several types of error can arise when accuracy and/or precision requirements are not met during data
capture and creation. Positional accuracy is the probability of a feature being within +/− units of
either its true location on earth (absolute positional accuracy) or its location in relation to other
mapped features (relative positional accuracy). For example, it could be said that a particular
mapping effort may result in 95 percent of trees being mapped to within +/− 5 feet for their true
location (absolute), or 95 percent of trees are mapped to within +/− 5 feet of their location as
observed on a digital ortho quarter quadrangle (relative).

Speaking about absolute positional error does beg the question, however, of what exactly is the true
location of an object? As discussed in Chapter 2 "Map Anatomy", differing conceptions of the earth’s
shape has led to a plethora of projections, data points, and spheroids, each attempting to clarify
positional errors for particular locations on the earth. To begin addressing this unanswerable
question, the US National Map Accuracy Standard (or NMAS) suggests that to meet horizontal
accuracy requirements, a paper map is expected to have no more than 10 percent of measurable
points fall outside the accuracy values range shown in Figure 5.13 "Relation between Positional Error
and Scale". Similarly, the vertical accuracy of no more than 10 percent of elevations on a contour map
shall be in error of more than one-half the contour interval. Any map that does not meet these
horizontal and vertical accuracy standards will be deemed unacceptable for publication.
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 Figure 5.13 Relation between Positional Error and Scale

Positional errors arise via multiple sources. The process of digitizing paper maps commonly
introduces such inaccuracies. Errors can arise while registering the map on the digitizing board. A
paper map can shrink, stretch, or tear over time, changing the dimensions of the scene. Input errors
created from hastily digitized points are common. Finally, converting between coordinate systems
and transforming between data points may also introduce errors to the dataset.

The root-mean square (RMS) error is frequently used to evaluate the degree of inaccuracy in a
digitized map. This statistic measures the deviation between the actual (true) and estimated
(digitized) locations of the control points. Figure 5.14 "Potential Digitization Error" illustrates the
inaccuracies of lines representing soil types that result from input control point location errors. By
applying an RMS error calculation to the dataset, one could determine the accuracy of the digitized
map and thus determine its suitability for inclusion in a given study.

Figure 5.14 Potential Digitization Error

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Positional errors can also arise when features to be mapped are inherently vague. Take the example of
a wetland (Figure 5.15 "Defining a Wetland Boundary"). What defines a wetland boundary? Wetlands
are determined by a combination of hydrologic, vegetative, and edaphic factors. Although the US
Army Corps of Engineers is currently responsible for defining the boundary of wetlands throughout
the country, this task is not as simple as it may seem. In particular, regional differences in the
characteristics of a wetland make delineating these features particularly troublesome. For example,
the definition of a wetland boundary for the riverine wetlands in the eastern United States, where
water is abundant, is often useless when delineating similar types of wetlands in the desert southwest
United States. Indeed, the complexity and confusion associated with the conception of what a
“wetland” is may result in difficulties defining the feature in the field, which subsequently leads to
positional accuracy errors in the GIS database.

Figure 5.15 Defining a Wetland Boundary

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In addition to positional accuracy, attribute accuracy is a common source of error in a GIS.
Attribute errors can occur when an incorrect value is recorded within the attribute field or when a
field is missing a value. Misspelled words and other typographical errors are common as well.
Similarly, a common inaccuracy occurs when developers enter “0” in an attribute field when the value
is actually “null.” This is common in count data where “0” would represent zero findings, while a
“null” would represent a locale where no data collection effort was undertaken. In the case of
categorical values, inaccuracies occasionally occur when attributes are mislabeled. For example, a
land-use/land-cover map may list a polygon as “agricultural” when it is, in fact, “residential.” This is
particularly true if the dataset is out of date, which leads us to our next source of error.

Temporal accuracy addresses the age or timeliness of a dataset. No dataset is ever completely
current. In the time it takes to create the dataset, it has already become outdated. Regardless, there
are several dates to be aware of while using a dataset. These dates should be found within the
metadata. The publication date will tell you when the dataset was created and/or released. The field
date relates the date and time the data was collected. If the dataset contains any future prediction,
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there should also be a forecast period and/or date. To address temporal accuracy, many datasets
undergo a regular data update regimen. For example, the California Department of Fish and Game
updates its sensitive species databases on a near monthly basis as new findings are continually being
made. It is important to ensure that, as an end-user, you are constantly using the most up-to-date
data for your GIS application.

The fourth type of accuracy in a GIS is logical consistency. Logical consistency requires that the
data are topologically correct. For example, does a stream segment of a line shapefile fall within the
floodplain of the corresponding polygon shapefile? Do roadways connect at nodes? Do all the
connections and flows point in the correct direction in a network? In regards to the last question, the
author was recently using an unnamed smartphone application to navigate a busy city roadway and
was twice told to turn the wrong direction down one-way streets. So beware, errors in logical
consistency may lead to traffic violations, or worse!

The final type of accuracy is data completeness. Comprehensive inclusion of all features within the
GIS database is required to ensure accurate mapping results. Simply put, all the data must be present
for a dataset to be accurate. Are all of the counties in the state represented? Are all of the stream
segments included in the river network? Is every convenience store listed in the database? Are only
certain types of convenience stores listed within the database? Indeed, incomplete data will inevitably
lead to incomplete or insufficient analysis.

K E Y TA K E AWAY S

All geospatial data contains error.

Accuracy represents how close a measurement is to its actual value, while precision refers
to the variance of a value when repeated measurements are taken.
The five types of error in a geospatial dataset are related to positional accuracy, attribute
accuracy, temporal accuracy, logical consistency, and data completeness.

EXERCISES
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 1. What are the five types of accuracy/precision errors associated geographic information?
Provide an example of each type of error.
2. Per the description of the positional accuracy of wetland boundaries, discuss a map
feature whose boundaries are inherently vague and difficult to map.

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