Port-Said University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Dep

Semiconductors

Presented To: Dr. Ahmed Sobhy

By/Zyad Sabry Salem

Ahmed Adel Eltrabily
Moomen Mohamed Ahmed Elsayed
Belal khaled Ibrahim Mohamed awed
Eslam Mohamed Amin Dawood
Ahmed Samir El-Far
INTRODUCTION

Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the basic
building blocks of all the electronic circuits. Before the discovery of
transistor in 1948, such devices were mostly vacuum tubes (also called
valves) like the vacuum diode which has two electrodes, viz., anode (often
called plate) and cathode; triode which has three electrodes – cathode, plate
and grid; tetrode and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electrodes). In a
vacuum tube, the electrons are supplied by a heated cathode and the
controlled flow of these electrons in vacuum is obtained by varying the
voltage between its different electrodes. Vacuum is required in the inter-
electrode space; otherwise, the moving electrons may lose their energy on
collision with the air molecules in their path. In these devices the electrons
can flow only from the cathode to the anode (i.e., only in one direction).
Therefore, such devices are generally referred to as valves.
What are Semiconductors?

Semiconductors are materials whose

conductivity lies between that of
conductors and insulators
Conductors (has the ability to conduct
electricity) → Ex: copper
Insulators (doesn't allow electrical
charges to flow through) → Ex: glass
Semiconductors can be found in thousands of products such as
computers, smartphones, appliances, gaming hardware, and medical
equipment.
What is so special about semiconductors?
-The electrical conductivity can be
dramatically changed by introducing
extrinsic dopant atoms
We have two types of carriers: electrons
and holes
Semiconductors are the compounds such
as gallium arsenide, germanium, and
silicon – they are mostly used in it-
-When a small amount of impurity is added to the pure element, it can create
a region of the material with different electrical properties.
-This is useful for creating p-type and n-type semiconductors, which are
necessary for creating electronic devices such as transistors and integrated
circuits.
-Pure semiconductors, such as intrinsic silicon or germanium, are
semiconductors that have not been intentionally doped with impurities. These
materials have a partially filled valence band and an empty conduction band,
which allows them to conduct electricity but not as efficiently as doped
semiconductors.
Semiconductors are used in

1) Diodes: These allow current to flow in one direction only, used in

rectification, signal demodulation, and voltage regulation

2) Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Semiconductors in LED form convert

electrical energy into light, used in displays, indicators, and lighting
applications.

3) Computers and Smartphones: Semiconductors are essential

components in the microchips that power computers, smartphones,
tablets, and other digital devices. They form the basis of the processors,
memory chips, and other integrated circuits that enable these devices to
function.

4) Communication: Semiconductors play a crucial role in

telecommunications equipment such as routers, modems, and
communication satellites. They are also used in the transmission and
reception of signals in wireless communication technologies like Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

5) Consumer Electronics: Many consumer electronics products rely on

semiconductors, including televisions, digital cameras, MP3 players,
and gaming consoles. These devices use semiconductors for
processing, memory storage, display control, and other functions.

6) Automotive: Semiconductors are increasingly important in automotive

technology, powering features such as engine control units, navigation
systems, entertainment systems, and advanced driver assistance
systems (ADAS).
7) Industrial Applications: Semiconductors are used in various
industrial applications, including manufacturing automation, robotics,
control systems, and power electronics for machinery and equipment.

8) Renewable Energy: Semiconductors are essential components in solar

photovoltaic (PV) panels, which convert sunlight into electricity. They
are also used in wind turbines and other renewable energy systems for
power conversion and control.

9) Healthcare: Semiconductors are used in medical devices and

equipment such as MRI machines, X-ray detectors, ultrasound systems,
and patient monitoring devices.

10) Military and Aerospace: Semiconductors are critical in military

and aerospace applications, including radar systems, navigation
equipment, communication systems, and missile guidance systems.
Types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can be classified as:

➢ Intrinsic Semiconductor (pure)
➢ Extrinsic Semiconductor (Impurity)

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material
is made to be very pure chemically. It is
made up of only a single type of element.
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the
most common type of intrinsic
semiconductor elements. They have four
valence electrons (tetravalent). They are
bound to the atom by covalent bond at
absolute zero temperature.

When the temperature rises, due to

collisions, few electrons are unbounded
and become free to move through the
lattice, thus creating an absence in its
original position (hole). These free
electrons and holes contribute to the
conduction of electricity in the
semiconductor. The negative and
positive charge carriers are equal in
number.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing
a small number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The
process of adding impurity atoms to
the pure semiconductor is called
DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in
107 is replaced by a dopant atom in
the doped semiconductor. An
extrinsic semiconductor can be
further classified into:
➢ N-type Semiconductor
➢ P-type Semiconductor
Doping in Semiconductors

Doping means the introduction

of impurities into a
semiconductor crystal to the
defined modification of
conductivity. Two of the most
important materials silicon can
be doped with, are boron (3
valence electrons = 3-valent)
and phosphorus (5 valence
electrons = 5-valent). Other materials are aluminum, indium (3-valent) and
arsenic, antimony (5-valent).

The dopant is integrated into the

lattice structure of the
semiconductor crystal, the
number of outer electrons define
the type of doping. Elements
with 3 valence electrons are used
for p-type doping, 5-valued
elements for n-doping. The
conductivity of a deliberately
contaminated silicon crystal can
be increased by a factor of 10
PN junction of semiconductor
Semiconductor materials are pivotal in modern electronics, underpinning
devices like transistors and diodes. The two core semiconductor types are N-
type and P-type, each distinct in properties and applications.
N-Type Semiconductors:
• Definition: N-type semiconductors are doped with impurities that
introduce additional electrons into the crystal lattice.
• Dopants: Common dopants for N-type semiconductors include
phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony.
• Electron Majority Carriers: Due to the
presence of excess electrons, the majority
carriers in N-type semiconductors are
electrons.
• Electron Mobility: Electrons in N-type
semiconductors typically exhibit higher
mobility compared to holes in P-type
semiconductors.
• Conductivity: N-type semiconductors
have higher conductivity due to the abundance of mobile charge
carriers.
P-Type Semiconductors:
• Definition: P-type semiconductors are doped with impurities that
create electron deficiencies or "holes" in the crystal lattice.
• Dopants: Common dopants for P-type semiconductors include boron,
gallium, and indium.
• Hole Majority Carriers: In P-type
semiconductors, the majority carriers are
holes, which represent the absence of
electrons.
 • Hole Mobility: Holes in P-type semiconductors typically exhibit
lower mobility compared to electrons in N-type semiconductors.
• Conductivity: P-type semiconductors have lower conductivity
compared to N-type semiconductors due to fewer mobile charge
carriers.
Formation of N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors:
• Doping Process: The doping process involves introducing specific
impurity atoms into the semiconductor crystal lattice.
• Donor and Acceptor Atoms: Donor atoms (e.g., phosphorus)
introduce additional electrons, creating N-type conductivity, while
acceptor atoms (e.g., boron) create holes, leading to P-type
conductivity.
• Controlled Doping: Doping concentration and distribution are
carefully controlled during semiconductor manufacturing to achieve
desired electrical properties.
Semiconductor Junctions and Devices:
• PN Junction: A PN junction is formed by joining
P-type and N-type semiconductors, creating a
depletion region where electrons and holes
recombine, leading to the formation of a built-in
electric field.

• Diodes: PN junctions form the basis of

semiconductor diodes, allowing current to flow
in one direction while blocking it in the opposite
direction.
• Transistors: Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
utilize both N-type and P-type regions to control
the flow of current, enabling amplification and
switching functions.
Semiconductor applications
Semiconductors are used in almost every sector of electronics.
Consumer electronics: Mobile phones, laptops,
games consoles, microwaves and refrigerators all
operate with the use of semiconductor components
such as integrated chips, diodes and transistors. The
high demand for these devices is part of the reason
there are currently such long wait times for many
consumers electronic devices.

Embedded systems: Embedded systems are small computers that form part
of a larger machine. They can control the device and allow user interaction.
Embedded systems that we commonly use include central heating systems,
digital watches, GPS systems, fitness trackers, televisions and engine
management systems in vehicles.

Thermal conductivity: Some semiconductors have

high thermal conductivity, so can be used as a cooling
agent in certain thermoelectric applications.

Lighting and LED displays: Some semiconductors,

usually those available in liquid or amorphous form as
a thin-coated film, can produce light and are used in
LEDs and OLEDs.

Solar cells: Silicon is also the most used semiconductor

in the production of solar panel cells.