College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Physics
General Physics (Phys1011)

Chapter -1: Preliminaries

November, 2024

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 OUTLINES

 Preliminaries

 Physical Quantities and Units of Measurement

 Uncertainty in Measurement and Significant Digits

 Vectors: composition and resolution

 Unit Vectors

 Vector Addition

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HU, CNCS, Department of Physics
 Preliminaries
The word Physics comes from the Greek word meaning “nature”.

Physics deals with matter in relation to energy and the accurate

measurement of natural phenomenon.

Thus physics is inherently a science of measurement.

The fundamentals of physics form the basis for the study and the

development of engineering and technology.

HU, CNCS, Department of Physics

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 1.1.Physical Quantities and Measurement
 Physical quantity is a quantifiable or assignable property ascribed
to a particular phenomenon or body
For instance the length of a rod or the mass of a body.
The are two types of Physical quantities
1. Basic Physical Quantities:
 Basic quantities are the quantities which cannot be expressed in
terms of any other physical quantity. Example: length, mass and
time.
2. Derived Physical Quantities:
 Derived quantities are quantities that can be expressed in terms of
any other physical quantity. Example: Area, speed and force.

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HU, CNCS, Department of Physics
 Measurement

 Measurement is the act of comparing the measured value of a

physical quantity with a certain standard.

 Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of

number and units, which are standardized values.

 For example, the length of a race, which is a physical quantity,

can be expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers
(for distance runners).

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HU, CNCS, Department of Physics
 SI Units: Basic and Derived Units
 SI unit is the abbreviation for International System of Units and is
the modern form of metric system.
 SI system possesses features that make it logically superior to any
other system and it is built upon 7 basic quantities and their associated
units (see Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Basic quantities and their SI units

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 Cont’d…
Dimension is a measure of a physical variable that is not
associated with numerical values.
Table 1.2: Derived quantities, their SI units and dimensions

Property Symbol Definition Unit Dimension

Area A length x length m2 [L2]
Volume V (length)3 m3 [L3]
Speed, velocity v length/time m/s [LT-1]
Acceleration a velocity/time m/s2 [LT-2]
Momentum p mass x velocity kgm/s [MLT-1]
Force F momentum/time newton (N) [MLT-2]
Pressure P force/area pascal (Pa) [ML-1T-2]
Density 𝜌 mass/volume kg/m3 [ML-3]
Energy E force x distance joule (J) [ML2T-2]
Power W work/time watt (W) [ML2T-3]

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HU, CNCS, Department of Physics
 Prefixes For SI Units
 Some of the most frequently used prefixes for the various powers of
ten and their abbreviations are listed in Table 1.3
Power prefix Abbreviation
10-15 femto F
10-12 pico P
10-9 nano N
10-6 micro Μ
10-3 milli M
10-2 centi C
10-1 deci D
101 deka Da
103 kilo K
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
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1015 peta P
 Conversion of Units
 To convert a quantity from one unit to another, multiply by
conversions factors.
 Below is the table for commonly used unit conversions (see Table
1.4).
Quantity Form To Operation
Length inch (in) m (inch) x 0.0254
foot (ft) m (foot) x 0.3048
mile (mi) m (mile) x 1609.34
Mass pound (lb) kg (pound) x 0.4536
metric ton (t) kg (ton) x 1000
Ounce kg (ounce) x 0.02835
Volume liter (l) m3 (liter) x 0.001
gallon (ga) m3 (gallon) x 0.00379
Temperature fahrenheit (F) K {(farhrenheit) – 32} x 5/9 + 273.15
celsius (C) K (celcius) + 273.15 9
 ACTIVITIES:

1. A common Ethiopian cities speed limit is 30 km/hr. What is

this speed in miles per hours? (Hint: 1mile = 1609.344m )

1. How many cubic meters are in 250,000 cubic centimeters?

1. The average body temperature of a house cat is 101.5 oF.

What is this temperature in Celsius?

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 Uncertainty In Measurement and Significant Digits

No measurement of a physical quantity can be entirely accurate.

Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of the measure and,

which covers the true value of the measure

 the uncertainty also indicates a doubt about how well the result of
the measurement presents the value of the quantity being measured.

 All measurements always have some uncertainty. We refer to the

uncertainty as the error in the measurement

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 Cont’d…
Errors fall into two categories:

1. Systematic Error - errors resulting from measuring devices being out

of calibration.
• These errors cause measurements to be consistently too small or too large.
• These errors can be eliminated by pre-calibrating against a known,
trusted standard.

1. Random Errors - errors resulting in the fluctuation of measurements of

the same quantity about the average.

• The measurements are equally probable of being too large or too small.
• These errors generally result from the fineness of scale division of a
measuring device.

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 The following general rules of thumb are often used to determine
the uncertainty in a single measurement when using a scale or digital
measuring device.

• Uncertainty in a scale measuring device is equal to the smallest

increment divided by 2.
Example: Meter Stick (scale device)
1𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑥 = = 0.5𝑚𝑚 = 0.05𝑐𝑚
2
• For example, if we measure a length of 5.7cm with a meter stick,

• this implies that the length can be anywhere in the range 5.65 cm
≤ L ≤ 5.75 cm.
• Thus, L =5 .7cm measured with a meter stick implies an
uncertainty of 0.05 cm.
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 Cont’d…
• Uncertainty in a digital measuring device is equal to the
smallest increment.
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Example: A reading from digital Balance (digital device) is
5.7513 kg,

Therefore, 𝜎𝑥 = 0.0001

Measurement = xbest ± 𝜎𝑥

Where, xbest= best estimate of measurement,

𝜎𝑥 = uncertainty (error) in measurement.
 Example
1.What is the uncertainty in the calculated area of a circle whose
radius is determined to be 𝑟 = (14.6 ± 0.5) cm?
 Significant Digits
 Significant digits are digits read from the measuring instrument plus
one doubtful digit estimated by the observer.

In general to determine significant digits in a given number:

1. All non-zero numbers are significant. For example, the number

125.68 contains five significant figures.

2. Zeros within a number are always significant. For example,

1.0005 has 5 significant figures.

3. Zeros that do nothing but set the decimal point are not significant.
Both 0.000098 and 0.98 contain two significant figures.

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 Significant Digits
4. Zeros that aren’t needed to hold the decimal point are significant.
For example, 4.00 has three significant figures.
Zeros that follow a number may be significant.

5. In a number that has no decimal point and that ends in one or more
zeros (such as 300), the zeros that end the number may or may not
be significant.

 To avoid confusion in this case, write the number in scientific

notation.
 Rather one should write 3 × 102, one significant figure, or 3.00 x
102, 3 significant figures.

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 Rules for Significant Digits

Rule 1: When approximate numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of

significant digits in the final answer is the same as the number of significant
digits in the least accurate of the factors.

45 𝑁
 Example 1: x = = 6.97015 .
3.22𝑚 𝑥(2.005𝑚) 𝑚2

• Least significant factor (45) has only two (2) digits so only two are justified
in the answer.
 The appropriate way to write the answer is P = 7.0 N/m2

Example 2: Find the area of a metal plate that is 8.71 cm by 3.2 cm.
𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊 = (8.71 𝑐𝑚) × (3.2 𝑐𝑚) = 27.872 cm2
• The appropriate way to write the answer is A = 29 cm2
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 Rules for Significant Digits

Rule 2: When approximate numbers are added or subtracted, the

number of significant digits should equal the smallest number of
decimal places of any term in the sum or difference.
Example: 9.65 cm + 8.4 cm - 2.89 cm = 15.16 cm

 Note that the least precise measure is 8.4cm.

 Thus, answer must be to nearest tenth of cm even though it
requires 3 significant digits.

 The appropriate way to write the answer is 15.2cm.

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 Exercise 1
1. Write the number for each expression with appropriate number of
significant figures.
a) 1.513 + 27.3 =
b) 6.789 − 4.23 =

138.0
c) 11.9
=

d) 2.1 × 5.687 =

Answer:

a) 28.8
b) 2.56
c) 11.6
d) 12
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 Scalar and Vectors quantity

 Based on the their direction physical quantities are categories into two

1 A scalar is a quantity that is completely specified by a number and unit.

 It has magnitude but no direction.

 Scalars obey the rules of ordinary algebra. Examples: mass, time, volume,

speed, distance, energy, etc.

2 A vector is a quantity that is specified by both a magnitude and direction

in space.

 Vectors obey the laws of vector algebra.

 Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, etc.

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 1.3. Vector Representation
B. Geometric Method
A. Algebraic Method
 Vectors are nothing but straight arrows drawn(line
 Vectors are represented with an arrow) from one point to another. A
algebraically by a letter (or
symbol) with an arrow over its  Zero vector is just a vector of zero length - a
point.
head.
 Length of vectors is the magnitude of vectors.
 (Example: velocity by v⃗, The longer the arrow the bigger the magnitude.
momentum by, momentum by)
 It is assumed that vectors can be parallel
 the magnitude of a vector is a transported around. If you attach beginning of
positive scalar and is written as vector A ⃗ to end of another vector B⃗ then the
either by |A| or A. vector A⃗+ B⃗ is a straight arrow from begging of
vector A⃗ to end of vector B ⃗.
 For example, when velocity, a vector, is
multiplied by time, a scalar, we obtain a
displacement.
 VECTOR ADDITION
 A single vector that is obtained by adding two or more vectors is called resultant
vector and it is obtained using the following two methods
A. Graphical method of vector addition
 Graphically vectors can be added by joining their head to tail.
 In any order their resultant vector is the vector drawn from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the last vector.
 In Figure 1.1, graphical technique of vector addition is applied to add three
vectors.

 The resultant vector R = A + B + C is the vector that completes the polygon. In

other words, R is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the
last vector.

Figure 1.1. Geometric construction for summing three vectors.

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 B. Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
 The parallelogram law states that the resultant R of two vectors A and B is the
diagonal of the parallelogram for which the two vectors A and B becomes adjacent
sides. All three vectors A, B and R are concurrent as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Parallelogram law of vector addition

 A and B are also called the components of R. The magnitude of the diagonal
(resultant vector) is obtained using cosine law and direction (i.e. the angle that the
diagonal vector makes with the sides) is obtained using the sine law.

 Applying cosine and sine laws for the triangle formed by the two vectors:

cosine law: 𝑅 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
sine law: = =
𝑅 𝐴 𝐵
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
Components of Vector
 Considering Figure 1.3. below, components of the given vector A are obtained by
applying the trigonometric functions of sine and cosine.

The components Ax and Ay can be added to give back A as their resultant.

A = Ax+ Ay

 Because Ax and Ay are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of their resultant
vector is obtained using Pythagoras theorem.

𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦
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Similarly, any three dimensional vector A can be written as the sum of
its x, y and z components.
A = Ax+ Ay + Az
And its magnitude becomes
𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧2
The direction angles that this vector makes with the three axes, is
given by the direction of cosines.
 Unit Vector
 A unit vector is a vector that has magnitude of one and
 it is dimensionless and its sole purpose is to point a given
vector in specified direction.
 It is usually denoted with a “hat”.
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑢ො
 For a two-dimensional x-y coordinate system we have the unit
vector pointing in the +x direction, and, the unit vector
pointing in the +y direction.

 For a three-dimensional x-, y- and z-coordinate system, we

have those two, and one more, namely the unit vector pointing
in the +z direction.

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 Figure 1.5: unit vectors along x, y and z.

 Any vector can be expressed in terms of unit vectors. Consider,

for instance, a vector A with components Ax, Ay, and Az.

 The vector formed by the product Ax has magnitude │Ax│ in the

+x direction.
 This means that Ax is the x-component of vector,

 Ay is the y-component of vector A and, Az is the z-component

vector of A. 28
Finding a Unit Vector
 Thus A can be expressed as:
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠
The vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠ is depicted in the figure 4 above,
along with the vectors

𝐴𝑥 𝑖,Ƹ 𝐴𝑦 𝑗,Ƹ and 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠ drawn so that is clear that the three of them add
up to 𝐴⃗
 the unit vector along 𝐴መ is give by:
𝑨
𝐴መ =
|𝑨|

Magnitude of vector A, 𝐴 = ( (𝐴𝑥 )2 +(𝐴𝑦 )2 +(𝐴𝑧 )2

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Given force vector 𝐹⃗ = 𝟑𝒊Ƹ + 𝟒𝒋,Ƹ what is a unit vector along 𝐹⃗
Solution:
The magnitude of the force vector is calculated as follows:

𝐹⃗ = ( (𝐹𝑥 )2 +(𝐹𝑦 )2 = ( (3)2 +(4)2 = ( 9 + 16 = ( 25

𝐹⃗ = 5
Unit vector along 𝐹⃗
𝑭
𝐹෠ =
|𝑭|
𝟑𝒊Ƹ + 𝟒𝒋Ƹ
𝐹෠ =
𝟓
𝐹෠ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒊Ƹ + 𝟒𝟎. 𝟖
Exercise:2 Find the unit vector along the direction of 𝐴⃗ = 𝒊Ƹ + 𝒋Ƹ + 𝟐𝒌 Ƹ

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 Vector addition in Unit Vector Notation
Adding vectors that are expressed in unit vector notation is easy in that
individual unit vectors appearing in each of two or more terms can be
factored out.
Example 3:Give two vectors: A = Ax iƸ + Ay jƸ + Az k෠ and
B = Bx iƸ + By jƸ + Bz k෠
The resultant vector (vector addition) is give by
A + B = Ax + Bx iƸ + Ay + By jƸ + (Az + Bz )k෠

Example: Given vectors 𝑨 = 𝟑𝒊Ƹ + 𝟒𝒋Ƹ and B = 𝟔𝐢Ƹ + 𝟖𝒋Ƹ.

find A+B
Solution:
A + B = Ax + Bx iƸ + Ay + By jƸ = 3 + 6 iƸ + 4 + 8 jƸ
A + B = 9iƸ + 12jƸ

Exercise 3:Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors:

෠ 𝐵 = 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑗Ƹ + 2𝑘෠ and 𝐶⃗ = 3𝑖Ƹ − 2𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘෠
𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖Ƹ − 3𝑗Ƹ + 𝑘,
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Questions

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 Cont.. General Physics I(phys1101) Questions

Q1. Consider the three displacement vectors A = ( 3i + 3j ) m, B = ( i - 4j ) m, and

C = (-2i + 5j ) m. Use the component method to determine

(a) the magnitude and direction of the vector D = A + B - C and

(b) Find the angle between A and B .

Q2. Vector A has a negative x component 3.00 units in length and a positive y
component 2.00 units in length.

(a) Determine an expression for A in unit-vector notation.

(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of A.

(c) What vector B, when added to A, gives a resultant vector with no x component
and a negative y component 4.00 units in length?
 Cont’d…
Q3. If A= 6i - 8j, B= -8i + 3j and C= 26i +19j. Find a and b such that

aA + bB + C = 0

Q4. Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors.

A= 2i – 3j + k, B= 8i + j + 2k , C= 3i - 2j + 4k

Q5. Find the dot and the angle between the two vectors :

A= 2i + 3j +7k , B= 5j + 4k
Q7. Vector A has magnitude of 8 units and makes an angle of 30° with
the positive x-axis. Vector B also has the same magnitude
of 8 units and directed along the positive x-axis. Calculate:
a) the horizontal component of the resultant vector,
b) vertical component of the resultant vector,
c) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
Cont’d…
 Cont..
Q10.Three displacement vectors are oriented as shown in Figure
below, where |A| = 20.0 units, 0 |B| = 40.0 units, and |C| = 30.0
units. Find

(a) the x and y components of the resultant in unit-vector notation and

(b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
THANK YOU !!

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