Measurement & Instrumentation

Module 2:
Sensors and Transducers
By
Lt Col AS Imam, Professor of Mechatronics & Robotics
Head, Mechatronic Engineering Department
Nigerian Defence Academy

Sensors and transducers are essential

components in mechatronics and robotics,
enabling systems to perceive their environment
and interact with it.
Principles of Sensors and Transducers

1 Sensing Element 2 Transducer

The sensing element converts a physical quantity into a The transducer converts the signal into a form that can
measurable signal. be processed by electronic systems.

3 Signal Conditioning 4 Output

Signal conditioning amplifies, filters, and processes the The output is the processed signal that represents the
signal to make it suitable for further analysis. measured physical quantity.
Types of Sensors
Physical Parameters Chemical Parameters Optical Parameters

Position, velocity, acceleration, force, pH, conductivity, gas concentration, and Light intensity, colour, and distance.
torque, pressure, temperature, flow, chemical composition.
level, and humidity.
Sensor Characteristics: Sensitivity

Sensitivity refers to the change in output signal for a given change in input.
High sensitivity provides greater accuracy in measurement. It is a crucial
factor in determining the effectiveness of a sensor, as it indicates how well
the sensor can detect and respond to variations in the measured quantity.

A sensor with high sensitivity can detect small changes in the input, leading
to more precise and reliable measurements. Conversely, a sensor with low
sensitivity may miss subtle changes or variations in the input, leading to
inaccurate readings.
Sensor Characteristics: Accuracy

Accuracy reflects the closeness of measured values to the true value. High
accuracy is essential for reliable system performance. In essence, it
measures how close the sensor's reading is to the actual value of the
physical quantity being measured. For instance, if a temperature sensor is
calibrated to read 25°C when the actual temperature is 25°C, it is considered
accurate. However, if the sensor reads 24.5°C or 25.5°C, it exhibits some
degree of inaccuracy. The level of accuracy required depends on the specific
application. Critical applications, such as medical devices or industrial
control systems, often demand high accuracy to ensure precision and
reliability. Accuracy is influenced by various factors, including sensor design,
calibration, environmental conditions, and the presence of noise or
interference.
Sensor Characteristics: Resolution
Resolution refers to the smallest change in input that can be detected by the sensor. High
resolution provides fine-grained measurements.

In simpler terms, resolution determines how finely a sensor can distinguish between
different values of the measured physical quantity. For instance, a sensor with a resolution
of 0.1°C can detect changes in temperature as small as 0.1°C, while a sensor with a
resolution of 1°C can only detect changes of 1°C or greater.

The level of resolution required depends on the specific application. In applications where
precise measurements are critical, such as in scientific research or medical diagnostics,
high resolution sensors are essential to obtain accurate and detailed data. On the other
hand, for applications that require less precise measurements, such as in home appliances
or general industrial settings, sensors with lower resolution may suffice.

Resolution is also closely related to the concept of quantization, which refers to the process
of representing continuous values as discrete values. The resolution of a sensor determines
the number of discrete values that the sensor can output, and therefore, the level of detail
that the sensor can capture.
Sensor Characteristics: Response
Time
Response time is the time it takes for the sensor to react to a change in
input. A fast response time is critical for real-time applications, such as in
automotive systems, robotics, and industrial control systems.

A sensor with a slow response time may not be able to accurately capture
rapid changes in the measured physical quantity. This can lead to inaccurate
readings, delayed responses, and even safety hazards in some cases. For
instance, if a pressure sensor has a slow response time, it may not be able
to detect a sudden increase in pressure before it becomes dangerous.

The response time of a sensor is influenced by various factors, including the

sensor's design, the material it's made of, the operating temperature, and the
presence of noise or interference. It's important to consider the required
response time for a specific application when selecting a sensor.
Sensor Characteristics: Linearity
Linearity indicates the degree to which the sensor's output is proportional to its input.
High linearity ensures accurate measurements across the sensor's range. In a perfectly
linear sensor, the output signal increases or decreases at a constant rate in response to
changes in the input signal. This means that the sensor's response is predictable and
consistent, allowing for accurate interpretation of the measured data. For example, if a
pressure sensor has a linearity of 0.1%, it means that the output signal will deviate by no
more than 0.1% from the ideal linear response for any given input pressure. This ensures
that the measured pressure is accurately reflected by the sensor's output. However,
most sensors exhibit some degree of non-linearity, particularly at the extremes of their
operating range. Non-linearity can arise from various factors, including manufacturing
tolerances, temperature variations, and the sensor's internal circuitry. The level of
linearity required depends on the specific application. In applications where high
accuracy is critical, such as in scientific instrumentation or medical devices, sensors
with high linearity are essential. On the other hand, for applications that require less
precise measurements, sensors with lower linearity may be sufficient. It's important to
consider the required linearity for a specific application when selecting a sensor.
Sensor Characteristics:
Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the ability of the sensor to provide consistent
measurements under identical conditions. High repeatability is important for
reliable data acquisition. Repeatability is a crucial characteristic for sensors,
particularly in applications where consistency and precision are essential.
For instance, in industrial automation, a sensor with high repeatability
ensures that the same input value consistently produces the same output
reading, regardless of the number of times the measurement is taken. This
consistency is essential for accurate process control and reliable operation.
In scientific research, repeatability is crucial for obtaining accurate and
reproducible results. Sensors with high repeatability minimize random errors
and ensure that the measurements are reliable.
Sensor Characteristics: Stability
Stability refers to the sensor's ability to maintain consistent output over time, despite
environmental variations. High stability ensures long-term performance. This means that the
sensor's output remains relatively constant even when subjected to changes in temperature,
humidity, pressure, or other environmental factors.

For example, a temperature sensor with high stability will provide accurate readings over an
extended period, even if the ambient temperature fluctuates. This is crucial in applications
requiring continuous monitoring, such as industrial processes or environmental monitoring.

Several factors can affect a sensor's stability. These include:

• Drift: Gradual changes in sensor output over time due to aging, wear, or environmental
effects
• Noise: Random fluctuations in sensor output caused by electrical interference or
mechanical vibrations
• Hysteresis: Differences in output when approaching a specific value from different
directions

Stability is a critical characteristic for sensors used in applications where long-term

reliability is essential. Sensors with high stability ensure that the measurements are
accurate and consistent over time, leading to reliable data acquisition and decision-making.
Sensor Selection Criteria
Selecting the right sensor for a specific application is crucial for achieving desired performance and reliability. The choice of sensor depends on several key factors, each influencing the overall
system's effectiveness. This section explores these factors and guides you in making informed decisions.

The application requirements define the fundamental purpose and functionality of the sensor. Consider factors such as the type of measurement, measurement range, accuracy, resolution,
and response time. For example, a temperature sensor used in a medical device will have stricter accuracy requirements than one used for controlling room temperature.

Environmental conditions play a critical role in determining the sensor's suitability. Factors such as temperature, humidity, pressure, vibration, and electromagnetic interference can significantly
impact sensor performance. For example, a sensor used in harsh industrial environments requires robust construction and the ability to withstand extreme conditions.

Cost considerations are often a significant constraint in sensor selection. Balancing performance requirements with budget limitations is essential. Evaluating the trade-offs between different
sensor types and considering factors such as initial purchase cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is crucial.

Availability and compatibility are important practical considerations. Ensure that the chosen sensor is readily available, compatible with the existing system, and supported by adequate
documentation and technical support. Choosing a sensor with a well-established supplier network can simplify logistics and ensure long-term availability.

Application Requirements Environmental Conditions Cost Considerations Availability and Compatibility

Sensor Applications in Robotics
Navigation
Sensors such as GPS, IMU, and lidar provide data for robot
localization and path planning.

Manipulation
Force sensors, tactile sensors, and proximity sensors enable
robots to grasp and manipulate objects safely and precisely.

Object Recognition
Cameras, depth sensors, and laser scanners provide visual
information for object detection and identification.
Sensor Applications in Mechatronics

1 Control
Sensors provide feedback to control systems, allowing them to
adjust parameters and optimize performance.

2 Monitoring
Sensors monitor system parameters such as temperature,
pressure, and vibration, detecting potential faults and ensuring
safety.

3 Diagnostics
Sensors help diagnose system issues by providing real-time data
that can be analyzed to identify root causes.
Advancements in Sensor
Technology
Micro-Sensors Bio-Sensors
Miniaturized sensors with high Sensors that interact with
sensitivity and accuracy, biological systems, used in
suitable for applications with healthcare, environmental
limited space. monitoring, and food safety.

Smart Sensors
Sensors that incorporate intelligence and computational capabilities for
autonomous data processing and analysis.
Future of Sensors and Transducers
Continued research and development will lead to even more sophisticated sensors with improved accuracy, sensitivity, and
functionality, enabling advanced mechatronic and robotic applications.