GEY 202
Mineralogy
Minerals are solid, crystalline, chemical compounds which have a well defined chemical
composition and are formed by natural/geological processes. Many minerals form at high
temperature and many form/crystallize over long period of time. Igneous and metamorphic
minerals grow at temperatures of hundreds of oC and crystallization and metamorphism may take
millions of years. Sedimentary minerals are not formed at high temp and they often
crystallize/recrystallize over long periods of time.
Naturally, minerals are formed from combination of two or more elements with the
exception of native metals and elements in a mineral can broadly be classified with major, minor
and trace elements. Major elements are fundamental to the mineral and controls basic atomic
structure and general properties of a mineral while minor elements are elements present in small
amounts usually as replacements for some major elements. Minor elements may affect colour
and some other properties but not gross properties.
Trace elements are extremely small amounts of some elements which are present in all
minerals and can provide information regarding genesis, geological setting and age/depth of
formation of specific mineral species. Trace elements have little effect on mineral properties with
the exception of colour.
Formation of Minerals
Minerals can be formed from different processes such as igneous processes, precipitation
from aqueous solution and also through metamorphism. Igneous minerals form from molten
magma, as magma crystalizes, atoms bond together to form crystals. Igneous minerals are often
large, homogenous and euhedral due to the mobility of atoms at high temperature and molten
state of the magma. Crystals of minerals in intrusive rocks grow very large while crystals of
extrusive rocks tend to very small. Why? Igneous rocks are dominated by silicate minerals due
to the high silicon and oxygen concentration in magma e.g olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles and
mica.
In Aqueous solutions: when temperature decreases or water evaporates from the solution
due to different reasons such as the concentration of the dissolved materials will increase leading
to saturation of the solution with respect to certain minerals. The saturated minerals will
precipitate forming minerals such as gypsum, halite, and anhydrite. Precipitation of minerals
from aqueous solutions could also occur at elevated temperature by hydrothermal processes
example are some oxides and sulphides; travertine and tufa (calcite).
Minerals can also be formed during metamorphic/metasomatic processes by
recrystallisation of an existing mineral. It may usually involve replacement of preexisting
minerals by new ones. During metamorphism, mineralogical changes may also occur with
different minerals relating to form another mineral e.g. CaCo3 + SiO2 à CasiO3 + Co2
Wollanstonite may be formed from metamorphism of quartz rich limestone/calcite other
examples of metamorphic minerals are tremolite Kyanite, Andaulusite, Sillimanite, garnet,
zoisite.
Classification of Minerals
Minerals can be classified in many different ways. They can be classified into primary and
secondary minerals. They can also be classified into silicates and non-silicate minerals.
Primary Minerals
These are minerals that are present at the time a rock forms. They are formed at the same time as
a rock. Secondary minerals are minerals which are formed after the frock was formed. They may
be formed by physical/chemical reaction which may involve H 2O or CO2 or before low temp
alteration of preexisting rocks.
Minerals can also be divided into essential and accessory minerals.
Essential minerals are those whose presence is important or necessary for a rock to be
given a particular name e.g is calcite in limestone, feldspars in granites while accessory minerals
are those that are present in minor proportion and their presence/absence does not
affect/determine rock naming. They usually do not affect rock properties and they usually
involve high proportion of incompatible elements which cannot be easily incorporated into the
crystal structure of essential minerals e.g. Zr in Zirconium, Essential minerals in different rocks
differ and an essential mineral in a particular rock could be an accessory mineral in another rock.
Primary minerals in a rock could also be a secondary mineral in one rock and vice versa.
Silicate and Non-Silicate Minerals
Silicate minerals make up over 99% of minerals in igneous rocks. The silicate group of minerals
is the largest mineral group with over 800 members. They are minerals which contain Si and O
in their structure/composition in combination with other elements, silicate minerals dominate
igneous rocks because Si and O are the most common minerals in source regions for magmas.. In
all silicate minerals with the exception of some high pressure minerals which are very rare, four
O2- onions surround every Si cation forming a tetrahedron. The silicate minerals can be classified
into 6 groups depending on how much oxygen in each tetrahedron are shared with other
tetrahedral,
The subclasses of the silicate minerals are classified according to how the tetrahedral are linked
or polymerized in the atomic structure.
S/N Subclass Si:O Si Radical Example Formulae
Ratio
1. Tectosilicates 1:2 SiO2or Quartz SiO2
(Framework Si) (AlxSi1-x)O2 Albite NaAlSi3O8
2. Phyllosilicates 4:10 (Si4O10)4- Pyrophyllite Al2Si4O10 (OH)2
Sheets 2:5
3. Inosilicates 2:6 (SiO3)2- Enstatite Mg2 (SiO3)2 or
-Single Chan 1:3 (Si2O6)4- Mg2Si2O6
Double Chain 4:11 (Si8O22)12- Tremoltie Ca2MgSi8O22(OH)2
8:22
4 Cyclosilicates 1:3 = 6:18 (Si6O18)12- Tourmaline (Na,Ca)(Fe,Mg,Al,Li)3
Ring silicate Al3 (BO3)3
Si6O18(OH)4
5 Nesosilicates 1:4 (SiO4)4- Forsterite Mg2SiO4
isolated
tetrahedral
orhtosilicates
6 Sorosilicates 2:7 (Si2O7)6- Akermanite Ca2MgSi2O7
Paired tetrahedral
Silicate subclass
1. Nesosilicates: These are silicate minerals which contain independent tetrahedral which
are joined together by other cations. E.g olivine group (Fe 2SiO4, Mg2SiO4), garnet group (pyrope)
(Mg3Al2SI3O12). They are densely packed and tend to have high density and crystal habits are
equidimensional and they lack pronounced cleavage. They commonly have orthogonal
crystallographic system. Basic structural unit is SO44-
2. Sorosilicates e.g Epidtoe group (zois.te, epidote, allanite, lawsonite).
In sorosilicates, one oxygen ion is shared between 2 tetahedral. The basic structural unit is
Si2O76. They are a small group of minerals which are widely distributed and occur mainly as
accessory minerals. Some may be a combination of single and double is lads e.g. epidote.
Hemimorphite Zn4S12O7(OH) H2O
3. Cyclosilicates
These are silicate mineral where two of the oxygen atoms are shared with other tetrahedral and
the structure is arranged on form of a ring. E.g Beryl-Be3 Al2 Si6 O18, tourmaline.
The ring structure could be 3, 4, 5 or 6membered rings
3 membered Si3O96-
4 membered Si4O128- 8, 9, 12 may also occur
5 membered Si5O1510-
6 membered Beryl. (6 member most common)
High concentration of strongly linked bonds in cyclosilicates yields a relatively dense mineral
which is quite hard.
3 membered ring silicate: cordierite Mg2Al3AlSi5O18
Benitoite BaTi (Si3O9)
Axinite Ca3Al2BO3(Si4O12)OH
4. Inosilicates
Inosilicates are chain silicates and they may occur as single or double chains with 2 or 2½
oxygen shared. In single chain silicate tetrahedral joins to form single chains with composition of
(SiO3)n. Examples are pyroxenes e.g enstatite (Mg 2Si2O6), ferrosilite (Fe2 Si2 O6) and spodumene
LiAl2SiO6 or LiAlSi2O6 . In double chain silicates, the tetrahedral join to form double chains of
composition (S14O11). Examples are amphibole .
e.g Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Hornblende, anthophyllite, glaucophane
In single chains Si. O = 1:3 and 1:2.5 in double chains
SINGLE CHAIN DOUBLE CHAIN
5. Phyllosilicates
These are silicate minerals where 3 oxygen are shared between tetrahedral. They have a sheet
structure and examples ore the mica group (muscovite, biotite, zinnwaldite, and chlorite)
Clay group: Kaolinite, illite, vermiculite, montmorillonite
Basic structural into is (Si2O5)2-
Example Lizardite Mg3Si2O5 (OH)4
Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Kaolinite KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Pyrophyllite Al2Si4O10(OH) 2
Muscovit KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
There are 2 kinds of layer with the sheet. T layers (tetrahedral sites) tetrahedral co-ordination of
Si and Al and O layers (Octahedral sites) mostly Al and Mg, Occasionally Fe. Most sheet
silicates are hydrous and the different ways the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are arranged
along with cation type occupying octahedral site allows for varieties of Phyllosilicates in nature.
- Phyllosilicates have a platy/flaky habit with a prominent cleavage
- They are generally soft, with low S.G
- Al usually substitutes for Si in one of the tetrahedral groups
6. Tectosilicates Framework silicates- quartz, feldspars, feldsphatoids
Silica group: SiO2 have 8/9 naturally occurring polymorphs
In tectosilicates, all four oxygen in tetrahedra are linked with oxygen from other tetrahedron
resulting in a framework structure. Basic unit is (SiO4)4-
Alkali fieldspars (K,Na)(AlSi3O8) Nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4
Albite NaAl2Si3O8 Leucite KAlSi2O6
Anorthite CaAl2 Si2O8
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
Si: O is 1:2, the minerals tend to form strong covalent birds and have high hardness.
At times, complex silicates which may not have Si:O ratio in any of the six groups may
be formed. A example is vesuvianiate with Si:O of 1:4 and 2:7, radical group (SiO 4)4- and
(Si2O7)6- and formulae of Ca10 (Mg,Fe)2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)2 or Ca10(Mg,Fe)2(Al4Si9O34(OH)2.
Silicate minerals subclasses can be divided into groups based on structural and chemical
similarity. Feldspars are grouped together based on their similar atomic structure thought the
composition varies. Groups may also be further divided into subgroups/series mineral subgroups
may be characterized by similar chemical composition. E.g The K-Feldspar is a mineral
subgroup with chemical composition of KAlSi3O8 (sanidine, microcline and orthoclase). Mineral
series involves minerals with composition which can vary between two end members e.g
plagioclase feldspar with composition between the albite and anorthite i.e NaAlSi 3O8 and
CaAl2Si2O8. These minerals form a solid solution series with plagioclase feldspar having any
composition between Ab100An0 andAb0 An100
.
Framework Silicates
S/N Group Series/Subgroup Species Chemical Formulae
1. Silica group Quartz SiO2
Cristobalite
Tridymite
Coesite
2. Feldspar group Potassium feldspar Orthoclase KAlSi3 O8
Sanidine K(Na) AlSi3O8
Microcline KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase Albite NaAlSi3O8
Feldspar Series Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8
3. Feldsphathoids Analcime NaAlSi2O6H2O
group Leucite KAlSi2O6
Nepheline (Na,K) AlSiO4
4. Scapolite group Scapulite Marialite Na4(AlSi3O8)3Cl
Series Meionite Ca4(Al2Si2O8)3
(CO3.SO4)
5. Zeolite group Natrolite Na2 Al2 Si3 O10. 2H2O
Chabazite CaAl2Si4O12. 6H2O
Stilbite CaAl2Si7 O18.7H2O
Sodalite Na3 Al3 Si3O12. NaCl
Quartz is polymorphic over 10 polymorphs have been identified. Based on symmetry,
common quartz is commonly called low quartz due to its lower symmetry than high quartz and it
is the only stable polymorphs under normal earth surface conditions. Other polymorphs exist at
high temperature and pressure. It may crystallize from magma, silica saturated groundwater or
hydrothermal solutions, they are common in some sedimentary rocks and they are normally not
found in mafic igneous rocks. Quartz also doesnt occur in equilibrium with Al 2O3 (they react to
form Al2Si2O5, Quartz doesnt exist in feldsphathoid rich rocks (reacts to form feldspar).
Stishovite and Coesite are high pressure forms of SiO 2, and thus have much higher
densities and refractive indices than the other polymorphs. Stishovite is the only polymorph
where the Si occurs in 6 fold (octahedral) coordination with Oxygen, and this occurs due to the
high pressure under which the mineral forms. Both Stishovite and Coesite have been found
associated with meteorite impact structures. At low pressure with decreasing temperature, SiO2
polymorphs change from high Cristobalite - Low Cristobalite - High Tridymite - Low Tridymite
- High Quartz - Low Quartz. The high to low transformations are all displacive transformations.
Since displacive transformations require little rearrangement of the crystal structure and no
change in energy, the high (β) polymorphs do not exist at the surface of the earth, as they will
invert to the low (α) polymorphs as temperature is lowered. Transformations between α
Cristobalite, α Tridymite, and αQuartz, however, as well as between the high pressure
polymorphs and Quartz, are reconstructive transformations. Since reconstructive transformations
require significant structural rearrangement and significant changes in energy, they occur slowly,
and the high temperature and high pressure polymorphs can occur as metastable minerals at the
Earth's surface.
Quartz
Quartz is hexagonal and commonly occurs as crystals ranging in size from microscopic to
crystals weighing several tons. Where it crystallizes unhindered by other crystals, such as in
cavities in rock or in a liquid containing few other crystals, it shows well-developed hexagonal
prisms. and sometimes showing apparent hexagonal pyramids or dipyramid. When it crystallizes
in an environment where growth is inhibited by the surroundings, it rarely show crystal faces. It
is also found as microcrystalline masses, such as in the rock chert, and as fibrous masses, such as
in chalcedony. As visible crystals, Quartz is one of the more common rock forming minerals. It
occurs in siliceous igneous rocks such as volcanic rhyolite and plutonic granitic rocks. It is
common in metamorphic rocks at all grades of metamorphism, and is the chief constituent of
sand. Because it is highly resistant to chemical weathering, it is found in a wide variety of
sedimentary rocks. Several varieties of Quartz can be found, but these are usually only
distinguishable in hand specimen. Rock Crystal - clear Quartz in distinct crystals - usually found
growing in open cavities in rock.
Amethyst - violet colored Quartz, with the color resulting from trace amounts of Fe in the
crystal.
Rose Quartz - a pink colored variety, that usually does not show crystal faces, the color resulting
from trace amounts of Ti+4, Li and Na
Citrine - a yellow colored variety.
Milky Quartz - a white colored variety with the color being due to fluid inclusions. Milky Quartz
is common in hydrothermal veins and pegmatites.
Chalcedony: fibrous variety of Quartz. It is usually brown to gray to translucent with a waxy
luster. It is found lining or filling cavities in rock where it was apparently precipitated from an
aqueous solution. When it shows bands of color, it is commonly called by the following names:
Carnelian - red colored Chalcedony
Chrysoprase - apple-green colored as a result of coloration from NiO.
Agate - alternating curving layers of Chalcedony with different colors or different porosities.
Onyx - alternating layers of Chalcedony of different colors or porosities arranged in parallel
planes.
Bloodstone - green Chalcedony containing red spots of jasper.
Very fined grained aggregates of cryptocrystalline quartz makes up rock like Flint and Chert.
Flint occurs as nodules in limestone, whereas chert is a layered rock deposited on the ocean
floor. The red variety of flint is called Jasper, where the color results from inclusions of hematite.
Tridymite: Tridymite is the high temperature polymorph of SiO 2. Thus, it is only commonly
found in igneous rocks that have been cooled rapidly to surface temperatures, preventing the
slow transformation to quartz, the stable form of SiO 2 at surface temperatures. Because of this,
we only expect to find Tridymite in siliceous volcanic rocks like rhyolites, where it commonly
occurs as wedge shaped crystals in cavities in the rock. In volcanic rocks, Tridymite is
commonly associated with Cristobalite, augite, fayalite and Sanidine.
Cristobalite: Cristobalite is also a high temperature SiO2 polymorph, and thus has a similar
occurrence to Tridymite. It also occurs in thermally metamorphosed sandstones. In volcanic
rocks it can occur both as a lining in open cavities, and as fine grained crystals in the groundmass
of the rock.
Opal: Opal is amorphous, and thus a mineraloid, with a formula - SiO2.nH2O.
Feldspars The feldspars are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. They consist of
three end-members: KAlSi3O8 - Orthoclase (Or), NaAlSi3O8 - Albite (Ab), and CaAl2Si2O8 -
Anorthite (An) KAlSi3O8 and NaAlSi3O8 form a complete solid solution series, known as the
alkali feldspars and NaAlSi3O8 and CaAl2Si2O8 form a complete solid solution series known as
the plagioclase feldspars. The feldspars have a framework structure, consisting of SiO4
tetrahedra sharing all of the corner oxygen. However, in the alkali feldspars 1/4 of the Si+4 ions
are replaced by Al+3 and in the plagioclase feldspars 1/4 to 1/2 of the Si+4 ions are replaced by
Al+3. This allows for the cations K+, Na+, and Ca+2 to be substituted into void spaces to
maintain charge balance. Compositions of natural feldspars are shown in the diagram below
based on the 3 components - NaAlSi 3O8, - Albite (Ab), KAlSi3O8 - Orthoclase (Or) and
CaAl2Si2O2. The Alkali Feldspars form a complete solid solution between Ab and oOr, with up
to 5% of the An component. The high temperature more K-rich variety is called Sanidine and the
more Na-rich variety is called anorthoclase.
Albite - Ab90 to Ab100
Oligoclase - Ab70 to Ab90
Andesine - Ab50 to Ab70
Labradorite - Ab30 to Ab50
Bytownite - Ab10 - Ab30
Anorthite - Ab0 to An10
Plagioclase Feldspars Plagioclase is the most common feldspar. It forms initially by
crystallization from magma. The plagioclase solid solution series is coupled solid solution where
the substitution is: Na+1Si+4 <=> Ca+2Al+3. Thus, the general chemical formula for plagioclase
can be written as: Ca xNa1-xAl1+xSi3-xO8 where x is between 0 and 1. The phase diagram for
the plagioclase series is shown here, and shows that the Anorthite component has a higher
melting temperature the than the Albite component. Thus, on crystallization, higher temperatures
will favor more An-rich plagioclase which will react with the liquid to produce more Ab-rich
plagioclase on cooling.
Plagioclase occurs in basalts, andesites, dacites, rhyolites, gabbros, diorites, granodiorites, and
granites. In most of these igneous rocks, it always shows the characteristic albite twinning.
Plagioclase also occurs in a wide variety of metamorphic rocks, where it is usually not twinned.
In such rocks where the plagioclase is not twinned, it is difficult to distinguish from the alkali
feldspars. Plagioclase can be a component of clastic sedimentary rocks, although it is less stable
near the Earth's surface than alkali feldspar and quartz, and usually breaks down to clay minerals
during weathering.
Alkali Feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8 As an alkali feldspar cools from high temperature to lower
temperature, the crystal structure changes from that of sanidine, which is monoclinic, through
orthoclase, also monoclinic, but with a different crystal structure than sanidine, to microcline,
which is triclinic. These transformations are order-disorder transformations, and thus require
large amounts of time. Furthermore, if the feldspar is allowed to cool very slowly, then
exsolution will occur, and the solid solution will separate into a Na-rich phase and a K-rich
phase. Thus, one expects to find sanidine in rocks that were cooled very rapidly from high
temperature, i.e. volcanic rocks. Orthoclase and microcline will be found in plutonic igneous
rocks (cooled slowly at depth in the earth) and in metamorphic rocks. In addition, in the plutonic
rock types if the cooling takes place slowly enough, then perthitic exsolution lamellae may also
form.
Sanidine: Sanidine generally occurs with an equant habit (almost square) and shows perfect and
cleavages, which readily distinguish it from quartz. Rarely does sanidine show twinning, but
when it does, it is usually simple twinning. Optic axis figures will only be found on sections
showing both cleavages. Sanidine is optically negative with a 2V (angle between two optic axes
in biaxial minerals) of 20 - 50°. This distinguishes it from quartz, which is uniaxial positive, and
from the other alkali feldspars which show larger values of 2V.
Orthoclase: Orthoclase is a common alkali feldspar in granitic rocks and K-Al rich metamorphic
rocks. It often shows perfect and cleavages which will distinguish it from quartz. Also, quartz
usually shows a smooth surface texture, while orthoclase appears much rougher. Orthoclase is
also biaxial, which further distinguishes it from quartz. The 2V of orthoclase varies from 60 to
105°, and thus it may be either positive or negative. The 2V angle distinguishes orthoclase from
sanidine, but is otherwise not very useful because of its wide range.
Microcline: Microcline is the lowest temperature form of alkali feldspar. Upon cooling,
orthoclase must rearrange its structure from monoclinic to triclinic. When this happens, twinning
usually results. The twinning characteristic of microcline is a combination of albite twinning and
pericline twinning. This results in a cross-hatched pattern (often called tartan twinning) that is
the most distinguishing characteristic of microcline.
Anorthoclase: Anorthoclase is a Na - rich feldspar with approximately equal amounts of the
Anorthite (Ca) and orthoclase (K) components. Generally anorthoclase occurs in Na - rich
volcanic rocks. Like the other alkali feldspars, it has perfect cleavages. Sections showing both of
the cleavages are best for determining the optic sign and 2V. Anorthoclase sometimes shows
twinning, but generally not the multiple twinning seen in the plagioclase feldspars, but a
crosshatched twinning similar to that seen in microcline, but on a very fine scale. Anorthoclase,
like sanidine shows a low 2V of 5 to 20°, and is optically negative. Anorthoclase can sometimes
be distinguished from sanidine by the fact that anorthoclase usually forms crystals with a tabular,
elongated habit, while sanidine forms crystals with a more equant habit.
Feldspathoid: The feldspathoid group of minerals is SiO2 poor, alkali rich minerals that occur in
low SiO2, high Na2O - K2O igneous rocks. In general, these minerals are not compatible with
quartz, and therefore, are rarely, if ever, seen in rocks that contain quartz. They do, however,
often occur with feldspars. Because of the alkalic nature of the rocks that contain feldspathoids,
associated pyroxenes and amphiboles are of the sodic variety, i.e. aegerine or riebeckite. The
main feldspathoids are Nepheline (Na,K)AlSiO4, Kalsilite KAlSi2O6, and Leucite KAlSi2O6. At
high temperature there is complete solid solution between Nepheline and Kalsilite, but at low
temperature Nepheline can contain only about 12 wt% K 2O. Other similar members of the
feldspathoid group are: Sodalite, Nosean and Haüyne.
Nepheline: Nepheline occurs in both volcanic and plutonic alkaline igneous rocks. In hand
specimen, Nepheline is difficult to distinguish from the feldspars, and thus must usually be
identified by its association with other alkalic minerals. Nepheline has a yellowish colored
alteration product, called cancrinite. Nepheline is hexagonal, and thus uniaxial, making it easy to
distinguish from the feldspars. Furthermore, it is optically negative, making it distinguishable
from quartz. It usually shows no cleavage, has low birefringence, and low relief (refractive
indices are smaller than the feldspars). The only other common mineral with which nepheline
could be confused is apatite, which is also uniaxial negative. Apatite, however, shows much
higher relief than does nepheline.
Sodalite: Sodalite occurs predominantly in alkali-rich plutonic igneous rocks, like syenites, but
can also be found in volcanic rocks. It is essentially 3 nepheline molecules with an added NaCl
molecule. It is a clear colored isometric mineral with low relief. Thus, the only thing sodalite
might be confused with is a hole in the thin section. The blue color of sodalite in hand specimen
and its association with other alkali-rich minerals is usually necessary to detect its presence in a
rock.
Leucite: Leucite is found in alkalic volcanic rocks, and is rarely found in plutonic rocks. It is a
tetragonal mineral, however, its refractive indices e and w are so close together that it almost
always appears isometric. It usually occurs as small, slightly rounded, low relief grains that go
extinct upon insertion of the analyzer. Commonly, leucite contains tiny inclusions within the
mineral, and sometimes shows a slight twinning, barely visible with the analyzer inserted.
