International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101 (2025) 673–691

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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

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An efficient energy management system for a micro-grid system

considering the volatility of hybrid renewable energy
Sandeep Tripathi a , Ashish Shrivastava b,* , K.C. Jana a
a
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
b
Shri Vishwakarma skill University, Palwal, Haryana, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: M Mahdi Najafpour Owing to the swift depletion of conventional energy sources, the future of energy production relies on renewable
sources. Amid these green energy options, solar and wind power emerge as pivotal players in partially mitigating
Keywords: the energy challenge. Nonetheless, their volatility makes it difficult to rely entirely on each source separately.
Photovoltaic systems Combining these two resources into hybrid energy systems looks to be a more reliable strategy to increase
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
dependability and cost-efficiency. In this paper, author introduce an efficient energy management system
POASMC
designed for a micro-grid that encompasses wind and solar energy conversion systems, battery storage and
Grid connected system
Wind energy control unit. The primary purpose of this study is to evaluate the operation of a renewable energy-powered
Energy storage hybrid energy source-based micro-grid system in order to maintain a stable power balance despite inherent
Power management variability in renewable energy supply and load demand. A POASMC (PO adaptive sliding mode control) has
been proposed and developed to improve the performance of hybrid energy generation systems. Furthermore, a
standard energy management system based on grid current, solar/wind power, and battery SOC has been
established to enable smooth power distribution among diverse sources, loads, and the battery.

1. Introduction weather conditions and unpredictable environmental factors In

response, researchers have introduced various maximum power point
The increasing depletion of non-renewable energy sources, such as algorithms, including perturb & observe [6,7], incremental conductance
fossil fuels and the deterioration of their quality over time have resulted [8,9], modified incremental conductance [10], PID control [11–13],
in an energy crisis in contemporary human society. Furthermore, during fuzzy logic control [14–16], neural network control [17,18], sliding
the past several decades, these non-renewable resources have exacer- mode control [19,20], and PO adaptive sliding mode control [21], to
bated climate change and environmental degradation as major prob- extract the maximum power from these sources under varying envi-
lems, attracting significant attention on global scale. Additionally, the ronmental condition, thereby maximising the potential of these renew-
simultaneous growth of the world population and the advent of industry able resources.
have substantially increased the energy demand to fulfil varied de- A hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) is characterized as an
mands. In response to this intensified demand, renewable energy sources energy system comprising two or more renewable sources, designed to
(REs) are now emerging as a viable way to meet complex energy re- enhance the reliability and cost-effectiveness of power generation.
quirements with lowering greenhouse gas emissions [1–3]. Nonetheless, one common difficulty with solar and wind energy systems
REs like solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal are dependable is their dependency on weather and climatic variations, which leads to
sources that have the capacity to generate a substantial amount of en- unpredictability. For instance, solar energy generation is limited to day
ergy, effectively bridging the energy gap. These resources currently time and further affected by weather condition and seasonal changes.
account for meeting 18% of the world’s total energy demand [4]. Among Furthermore, the generation of wind energy depends on changes in wind
all these alternatives, solar and wind energy system considered most speed, which can vary significantly by time and location, making
promising alternative energy sources due to their adaptability, wide- continuous energy production. However, since these sources comple-
spread accessibility and cost effective outcome [5]. However, these ment one another, smart integration of these two energy sources
energy sources share some challenge of reliance on ever-fluctuating significantly minimise the accompanying drawbacks by connecting

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Tripathi), [email protected] (A. Shrivastava), [email protected] (K.C. Jana).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.260
Received 21 September 2024; Received in revised form 13 December 2024; Accepted 15 December 2024
Available online 3 January 2025
0360-3199/© 2024 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and
similar technologies.
S. Tripathi et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101 (2025) 673–691

Table 1 allows peak energy shaving and load shifting, which altogether
Recent work on solar-wind driven micro-grid integrated with energy storage. contribute to the improvement of the overall stability of the grid [34]. In
Configuration Used Controller Application Year Ref addition to these functions, power flow control strategies are used to
technique ensure that there is an efficient distribution of energy among various
Solar/Wind/battery P&O, Neuro- Boost converter, 2019 [27, sources, including solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind turbines, en-
based micro-grid fuzzy inverter 31,34] ergy storage systems (ESS), and the larger power grid [35–37]. This
FO-PI Boost converter, 2020 [29] power flow control strategic distribution significantly reduces our reli-
inverter ance on conventional utility grids. Additionally, it actively supports grid
FLC, FOPID Boost converter, 2021 [5]
inverter
stability by providing essential ancillary services, which include fre-
ANN, SMC Boost converter, 2022 [33] quency regulation and voltage regulation, thereby maintaining the
DC line power supply [38]. From an economic perspective, while hybrid energy
ANN, PI Boost converter, 2023 [17] systems (HES) integrating solar and wind technologies require signifi-
inverter
cant initial capital investment, the declining costs of renewable tech-
nologies, combined with government incentives and revenue from grid
these energy sources to the grid or independently, with the option of services, enhance their financial viability. Improved energy yields,
incorporating storage capabilities or conventional sources [22–26]. higher capacity factors, and participation in energy markets contribute
A recent comprehensive review of publications from 1995 onwards to a favourable return on investment (ROI), making solar-wind hybrid
[2] shows that notable developments in renewable energy systems have systems a sustainable and economically viable solution to meet the
been achieved, including both standalone configurations and hybrid increasing global demand for clean energy [39–41].
renewable energy systems (HRES). These systems are configured to meet
the various energy needs of consumers worldwide, either functioning 1.1. Research gap and contribution
standalone or as grid-connected solutions. In a standalone setup, suffi-
cient storage capacity is essential to manage power variations from the In light of the literature review and the research challenges presented
renewable sources, operating as a micro-grid with its own generation in Table 1, there is an impetus to enhance the current work. Accordingly,
sources and loads. For grid-connected applications, the system may a distinctive setup featuring a two-stage grid-integrated PV-Wind and
provide power to both local loads and the utility grid, thus eliminating Battery HESS, equipped with a unified control approach, is proposed to
the need for significant storage since the grid acts as backup. address the identified research issues. The system and proposed strate-
The integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems with energy gies involve: a) rapid adjustment of the DC-Link voltage in response to
storage systems (ESS) often involves a bidirectional DC-DC converter sudden variations in renewable power and abrupt load changes; b)
(BDDC) to regulate power flow within the ESS, as pointed out in recent efficient control of power flow at the DC-Link.
studies [5,7,27,28].The power output of the PV system is optimized by The following outlines the key contributions of the current work:
Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controlled DC-DC converters,
while a voltage source inverter (VSI) ensures efficient conversion and 1) Designing a hybrid energy system that integrates PV, wind, and
integration of PV power under varying operating conditions. Different batteries into grid, with the objective of delivering reliable energy
control strategies for bidirectional DC-DC converters have been inves- and power support while efficiently handling sudden variations in
tigated, such as: Perturb and Observe (P&O) [6,19], Fractional-Order weather and load conditions. This design has proven successful in
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (FO-PID) [5], Sliding Mode Control mitigating PV power fluctuations.
(SMC) [27], Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) [5,29]. Despite their wide usage, 2) Developing a swift energy management mechanism for HESS, which
each of these control strategies presents certain limitations that may leverages DC link power and accommodates variation in generating
impact the overall performance and stability of hybrid renewable energy power state of charge (SOC) limits, the highest current limit, and
systems (HRES): PID controllers are less effective and unstable in the Energy Storage System (ESS) power limits.
presence of disturbances and system uncertainties, which results in se- 3) Implementing POASMC control for PV/Wind to extract maximum
vere power oscillations. SMC-based control is very sensitive to the sys- power and HESS control, enhancing the overall system’s dynamic
tem parameters and states, which can be difficult to obtain in dynamic response to fluctuations in sunlight and grid disturbances.
environments. FLC is one of the more accurate control methods, yet 4) A feasibility and economic analysis of proposed system has been
often severely limited by the computational complexity in large-scale performed through simulation and analysed using HOMER software.
systems. The challenges presented emphasize the need to choose an
appropriate control strategy that can provide system stability, effi- The remaining paper is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines the
ciency, and also be computationally feasible in standalone and architecture of the PV/Wind-based hybrid energy system. Section 3
grid-connected HRES applications [30]. details the steps involved in designing the proposed algorithm for
In grid-connected PV systems, effective power management is extracting maximum power and the power flow strategy. Section 4
necessary to overcome fluctuations in loads, intermittence, and syn- covers the demonstration of results and comparisons. Section 5 details
chronization with the grid, which can sometimes cause disruption in the the feasibility and economic analysis of the proposed system Finally,
DC-Link due to its dependency on converter topology of direct MPPT Section 6 provides the conclusion.
technologies and on load changes [17,31,32]. These disruptions cause
the voltage of the renewable energy system deviate from its MPP, thus 2. Architecture of PV/wind based HES system
reducing its overall efficiency. To mitigate and solve such problems,
indirect MPPT techniques are used to maintain both photovoltaic and Fig. 1 depicts the system architecture, which incorporate with a PV
wind voltages close to the MPP, regardless of the fluctuation in the load array, a wind source as its main energy conversion setup, an Energy
and changes in the DC-Link voltage [29,33]. Storage System (ESS), and loads. The wind energy configuration in-
To enhance the power management in grid connected hybrid energy cludes a boost converter, rectifier, PMSG, and wind turbine. The
system, advanced MPPT algorithms are employed to maximize power POASMC approach is used to maintain a voltage of 400V by coupling the
extraction under varying environmental and load conditions. Energy boost converter output to a DC bus. Using POASMC mppt techniques,
Storage Systems (ESSs) are very important in the stabilization of power PWM changes its duty cycle depending on rectifier voltage and current
supply as they manage the state of charge (SOC) very effectively. This signals. Similarly, the 1600-W solar pv is coupled to the DC bus via its
boost converter, which employs the POASMC MPPT algorithm. This

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Fig (1). System Archicture of Hybrid energy based grid system.

MPPT algorithm generates a signal based on PV voltage and current and this challenge, a strategic solution involves inserting a DC-DC converter
sends a pulse via a PWM generator to control the boost converter’s IGBT between the load and the solar panels. Through the control mechanisms
for maximum power extraction from the solar PV system. Furthermore, of the DC-DC converter, the PV panels are directed to operate at their
battery integration via a bidirectional converter provides for balanced maximum power point (MPP), regardless of fluctuations in irradiation or
current flow in the system, with voltage control mechanisms guaran- load conditions. This control is facilitated by adjusting the duty ratio of
teeing the DC bus voltage stays constant at 400 V. A grid system is also the converter. In ideal circumstances and with no faulty components, the
integrated with an LCL filter and an inverter, which are attached to a DC boost converter maintains an ideal steady-state connection between its
bus with a frequency of 50 Hz and a voltage of 230 V RMS. In the input and output variables which is as follows:
beginning, the grid establishes connections with two loads: one load
VDC = PVV *D, PPI = IDC *D (1)
consumes 1000 W, while another load experiences a rise in energy
consumption to 2400 W after 2 s. The inverter’s function is controlled by [ ]2
VDC *IDC VDC *IDC VDC Rinp D2 *Rinp
a current control system that takes into account both solar current and η= = P 2 = * = (2)
PVV *PVI VV PVV Rload Rload
battery state of charge (SOC). Rinput
This method of operation generates an inverter reference current
The impedance load (Rload ) will show at the (Rinp ) input of buck
depending on specific requirements. For example, when the solar PV
converter as mentioned below.
current is less than 1 A and the battery state of charge is less than 50%,
the reference current is set to − 10 A. This signifies that the grid should Rload
Rinput = (3)
provide power to the load. Furthermore, when the solar photovoltaic D2
(PV) current rises above 1 A and the battery SOC exceeds 50%, renew- In this equation, D represents the duty cycle of the converter. To
able energy is sent to the grid at a reference current of 2 A. optimize power transmission, adjust the duty ratio such that the load
resistance (Ri) varies and equals the impedance (Rmpp = Vmp/Imp) of
2.1. Solar PV system modelling the PV module under specific operating conditions. Based on this above
computation, a boost converter may accurately determine the MPP of
Fig. (2a) depicts the electrical layout of a self-sufficient photovoltaic solar PV in situations when the load resistance is less than or equal to the
system, featuring a load, MPPT controller, boost converter, and PV PV’s internal resistance.
panels. Fig. (2b) and (c) and Tables 2 and 3 depicts the specification of
(Kyocera 200 GT) of solar PV panels and their used value. The optimal 2.1.1. DC-DC boost converter design for solar PV
performance of the PV panels relies on achieving impedance matching A MOSFET is utilized as a switching device when designing a boost
between the panels and the connected load [21]. converter for solar PV MPPT.MOSFET switch is the component that is
To ensure optimal efficiency of the PV panels, it’s crucial to align the accountable for deciding the functioning of the converter as well as the
impedance of the connected load with that of the solar panels. However, output of the converter. When the MOSFET is turned “ON”, the diode
potential impedance mismatches mean that directly connecting the load 0 < t < Dt becomes reverse-biased, and the inductor L starts charging
to the PV panels may not lead to maximal power extraction. To tackle with the voltage VL = Vin . During the time interval Dt < t < T, the

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Fig (2). Solar System and PV-IV characteristics.

Table 2 Iout = (1 − D)Iin (5)

Solar PV parameters (Kyocera 200 GT).
Vin *D
Solar System Parameter Value Lpv = (6)
fsw1 *ΔIB
1 No of series string 8
2 No of parallel String 1 Iout *D
3 Maximum power PV panel 200.143 W Cpv = (7)
4 Cells per module in a panel 54
fsw1 *ΔVB
5 Open circuit voltage of PV module Voc 32.9 V
6 SCC of PV panel Isc 8.21 A Where Vout represents output voltage of converter, Vin represents the
7 Current at MPP IMP 7.61 A input voltage of converter, Iout , Iin represents the output and input cur-
8 Voltage at MPP VMP 26.3 V rent, Lpv , fsw1 , Cpv converter inductor, switching frequency at which the
boost converter operates and capacitor respectively, ΔIB denotes the
allowed ripple current, ΔVB denotes the permitted ripple voltage in the
Table 3 boost converter and D is converter duty cycle.
Solar system boost converter parameters.
Boost converter Value 2.2. Wind turbine system modelling
1 CPV 4.825 F
2 CDC 4.825 F The establishment of a wind power-producing unit includes
3 LPV 11.64 mH numerous stages of design, which are explained below.
4 fSW 5 KHz

• Wind turbine modelling and character analysis.

MOSFET is in the off state due to the forward bias of the diode and the • Created a wind-generating system using SEIG to maximize power
output voltage becomes Vout = Vin + Vload . It is important when inductor extraction.
L is in a steady state condition, the total amount of energy that it stores
must be equal to the amount of energy that it releases during a switching To design and construct a power unit for a wind turbine, one must
period.The following equations (4)–(7) is used to calculate L and C have a thorough understanding of the link between the mechanical
parameter of boost converter and Table 3 specify the converter torque exerted and the turbine’s output, as well as knowledge of
parameter. numerous physical attributes. This includes variables like wind speed,
air density, the area swept by the rotor, and the speed at which the
Vin
Vout = VBdc = (4) turbine rotates. These connections may be mathematically defined using
(1 − D) the equation below.The wind energy power coefficient Cpw can be

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Table 4 rotor speed, as shown by wind turbine power curves Fig (4). For every
Wind System Parameters. wind speed, there is an optimal rotor velocity that allows and extract the
Wind System Parameter Value maximum wind power at the shaft. Table 4 describes the wind turbine
design and numerous turbine parameters, as well as the coefficients
1 Wind power capacity 3 kW
2 Wind speed 12 m/s (C1–C6).
3 Wind power minimum value 3 m/s
4 Maximum range 25 m/s. 2.2.1. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator modelling
5 Rotor Diameter 5m The mathematical formulas driving the Permanent Magnet Syn-
chronous Generator (PMSG) are articulated inside a dq reference frame,
obtained by equation (8) [17]. in which the d-axis aligns with the PMSG’s permanent flux vector [25].

1 diDS
Pwp = ρ*A*Cpw (λ, β)vw 3 (8) VDS = iDS RS + LD − ψ QS ωE (10)
2 dt

Where, ρ is density of air, vw is wind speed, and Cpw power coefficient. diDS
VQS = iQS RS + LQ ψ ωE (11)
Cpw (λ, β) is power coefficient and is the function of tip speed ratio λ and dt QS
pitch angle β. A is blade swept area.
ωE = ωM *nP (12)
( ) −C
C2 5
Cpw (λ, β) = C1 − C3 β − C4 e λi + C6 λ (9) Where, iDS , iQS , VDS , VQS are stator current and stator voltage in dq frame
λi
respectively. RS , LD , LQ are the stator resistance and inductance
The mechanical power produced by the turbine is proportional to the respectively. ωE is PMSG rotor speed and ψ QS is permanent linkage of

Fig (3). Wind energy system (WES).

Fig (4). Wind turbine characteristics.

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Table 5 2.3. Battery energy storage system modelling

Wind energy boost converter parameters.
Boost converter Value The modelling of energy storage unit as a battery used in this article
are taken from Refs. [6,24,25]. Specifically, this battery model com-
1 CPV 4.825F
2 CDC 4.825 F prises E i.e battery open-circuit voltage in conjunction with resistor RB ,
3 LPV 0.1142H and the battery source voltage is defined as [7]
4 fSW 5 KHz
VB = E − IB *RB (21)

flux linkage. For the stator flux and electromagnetic torque that the Where, E, IB and RB are the open circuit voltage, battery current and
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) produces, the DQ resistor respectively.
components may be found in the following equations. ( ∫ )
Q
VB = E0 − K ∫ + A exp − B IB dt (22)
ψ DS = LD iDS + ψ MP (13) Q− IB dt

In this context, the constant voltage of the battery is denoted by E0 ,

ψ QS = LD iSQ (14)
whereas the polarisation voltage and capacity of the battery are denoted
∫
3 by K and Q, respectively. It’s vital to note that IB dt denotes the battery
TE = nP (ψ DS iQS − ψ QS iDS ) (15) charging unit, A indicates the amplitude of the exponential zone while B
2
indicates inverse of the tie zone exponential constant.
dω M
TT + TE = J + BF ωM (16)
dt 2.3.1. Bi-directional DC-DC converter design
An arrangement of bidirectional DC-DC converters is utilized in the
Where, nP is number of pole pair, ψ DS and ψ QS are two axis machine development of the ESS, as illustrated in Fig. 5 with their values pro-
inductance. vided in Table 6. To formulate an energy storage converter, one can
establish the minimum values for the filter inductance and capacitance
2.2.2. Boost converter design for wind energy of the bidirectional converter as follows:
Fig. 3 presents a block diagram depicting the wind energy-assisted
system. By adjusting the duty ratio of the buck converter, the system VB (1 − Dbuck )
Lbuck = (23)
can modify the operating point of wind power to optimize power fsw *ΔI
extraction. The specific parameters used for wind MPPT are outlined in
the equation provided (17–20) and used value for designing the con- VB *Dboost
Lboost = (24)
verter are given in Table 5. fsw *ΔI

Vwin L = max[Lboost Lbuck ] (25)

Vwout = Vwdc = (17)
(1 − D)

Iwout = (1 − D)Iwin (18) Table 6

LCL filter and 1 ϕ grid inverter parameter.
Vwin *D Parameter Rating Value
Lw = (19)
fsw2 *ΔIw
1 DC bus voltage 400V
2 Voltage of grid 300V
Iwout *D 3 Frequency of grid 50 Hz
Cw = (20)
fsw2 *ΔVw 4 Switching frequency in (kHz) 10 KHz
5 Rated power 5KVA
Where Vwin , Vwout is the wind input and output voltage, Iwin , Iwout is wind 6 Input inductor value 4.06 mH
the wind input and output current. Lw , fsw2 , Cw wind converter inductor, 7 Output inductor value 4.35 mH
8 Capacitor value 6.017 μF
switching frequency at which the boost converter operates and capacitor 9 Constant time 150μs
respectively, ΔIw denotes the allowed ripple current, ΔVw denotes the 10 Kp 27.066
permitted ripple voltage in the boost converter and D is duty cycle. 11 Kr 100

Fig (5). Energy storage system.

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Fig (6). Grid connected inverter and LCL filter.

2.4. Designing of grid connected Full bridge inverter and LCL filter
Table 7
Battery parameters.
In the designed system, Grid-connected inverters in the intended
Parameter Value system employ LCL filters due to their better performance than other
1 Range 48Ah types of filters [17].
2 Cut-off 180V These filters play an important role in ensuring that the output
3 Completely charge voltage 279.35V
waveform of the inverter is harmonic distortion-free and smooth.
4 Nominal discharge current 20.86A
5 Internal resistance 0.5 Ω
Fig. (6) demonstrates how the LCL filter operates when connected to the
6 Nominal voltage capacity 43.40V inverter. Furthermore, before constructing an LCL filter for a grid-
7 Nominal voltage 240V connected system, a few considerations and parameters must be
tackled. These parameters determine the efficacy and properties of the
filter. Table 6-7 provides detailed information on the design parameters
VDC *D required for the LCL filter and battery specification to achieve optimal
C= (26)
Rload *ΔVDC *fsw performance while adhering to grid connection requirement.
Furthermore, the controller of a grid-connected system is critical in
Where, VB , D , fsw , VDC , Rload , ΔI, ΔVDC are the battery voltage, duty cycle supervising many elements that assure the effective operation of an
of converter, switching frequency, DC bus voltage, load resistance, rip- inverter. This emphasizes the need of the controller receiving inputs
ple current and ripple voltage respectively. from numerous sources in order to operate effectively. These inputs

Fig (7). Block diagram of the Proposed POASMC technique.

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Fig (8). Solar irradiance and wind speed profile.

include grid voltage, mains grid power, and inverter current, which produced and the amount needed. To guarantee that the DC micro-grid
serve as critical indications of the system’s performance. In addition, the operates reliably, keep the DC bus voltage constant regardless of oper-
controller compares the inverter’s reference current to its actual current, ating circumstances. This allows the DC micro-grid to adapt appropri-
sending an error signal if the two differ. This feedback mechanism al- ately to fluctuations in power generation/demand from RERs and loads,
lows the controller to alter its output to ensure optimum working con- while also guaranteeing adequate ESS charging/discharging. The
ditions. In addition, a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is employed to create a equation for the total power balance at the DC bus is provided
reference current. The PLL-generated reference current, which is taken
Ppv (t) + Pw (t) − PL = ± PB (t) ± Pg (t) (27)
from the grid voltage, aids in synchronizing the inverter’s output with
the grid, assuring accurate phase alignment and synchronization, and
Where, Ppv , Pw , PL , PB , Pg represents solar pv, wind, load, battery and
generating reference voltage (Vref) for the controller. This reference
grid power. The positive sign of power implies that power is being drawn
voltage is coupled with the grid voltage to provide a reference signal for
(surplus power), whilst the negative sign shows that power is being
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), which is used to regulate the switching
supplied (power deficit).The grid electricity is bidirectional to maintain
of the four Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) shown in Fig. 6.
the micro grid in a balanced level of power. Consider Pnet is the required
Inverters rely on IGBTs to convert DC to AC power.
power to regulate the DC bus system. Therefore

2.4.1. Optimal power flow management and DC bus voltage stabilization Pnet (t) = VDC (t)*inet (t) (28)
The power management (PM) system controls and regulates the
Therefore from above equation,
various power electronic converters in an independent DC micro-grid.
( )
Its primary purpose is to ensure that energy from renewable sources is Pnet (t)
inet (t) = (29)
used optimally to satisfy demand while preserving the stability and VDC (t)
reliability of the micro-grid. The converters in wind and solar PV power ( ∫ )
systems are fine-tuned to enhance power output. The Battery Energy ( )
inet (t) = Kpv + Ki Vref − VDC (30)
Storage System (BESS)’s bidirectional converter is able to charge or
discharge based on generation and demand, ensuring a consistent DC ∫
bus voltage. The PM handles the BESS’s charging and discharging op- Where, Kpv , Ki is the controller gain to stablish the DC line stable. For
erations by establishing a reference current setting that ensures power The effective performance of the proposed power management scheme
balance inside the micro-grid despite changes in loads or supply. For relies on the crucial inet of the DC bus. The net reference current is passed
example, if the generation exceeds the demand, the charging mode will through a bidirectional converter and battery.
be enabled. If power demand exceeds output, the discharging mode will
start. The PM guarantees that the micro-grid runs smoothly and
dependably by maintaining a balance between the level of power

Table 8
Performance comparison of efficiency for InC, P&O, and proposed POASMC techniques.
Output Power (Achieve) Efficiency

Irradiance Solar output (Ideal) InC technique P&O technique POASMC Proposed InC technique P&O technique POASMC Proposed

20 W/m2 28.83W 19.1W 18W 19.2W 66.25 62.43 66.59

500 W/m2 812W 810W 804W 810W 99.75 99.01 99.75
700 W/m2 1134W 1128W 1128W 1131W 99.47 99.47 99.73
1000 W/m2 1601W 1590W 1586W 1600W 99.31 99.06 99.93

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Table 9
Performance comparison and analysis of settling time and output power variation in InC, P&O, and proposed POASMC techniques.
Output power settling Time Variation in Output

Insulation Solar output (Ideal) Voltage InC technique P&O technique POASMC Proposed InC technique P&O technique POASMC Proposed

1000 W/m2 188.6 V 0.1 0.13 0.07 1588–1598W 1584–1590W 1598–1601W

500 W/m2 212.7 V 0.36 0.36 0.325 755–810W 770–810W 800–810W
20 W/m2 211.6 V 0.75 0.75 0.7 16.6–21.5W 15.2–19.1W 18–19.2W
700 W/m2 210.4 V 1.04 1.05 0.98 1124–1128W 1125–1130W 1128–1132W

Fig (9). Performance of INC, P&O, POASMC technique for maximum power.

3. Description of proposed MPPT technique and power flow

Ṡ = KD err .. (t) + e˙ee (t) + Ki err (t) = 0
} (33)
This paper proposes the design of a cascade structured PIDSM (PID = − KD Pvv .. − P˙vv + Ki err (t) = 0
sliding mode) voltage regulator for boost converters, as illustrated in
Fig. 7. It provides the necessary duty cycle D of the signal to drive the Since pv power and load current can defined with respect to duty
boost circuit towards the reference voltage. Consequently, the PIDSM cycle as [19,21].
controller is designed with a special equilibrium-sliding surface by Eq. [
1 PVv
]
(31) to enhance the voltage behaviour of the controller and increase P˙Vv = − iload (34)
Cin PVr
solar PV power.
d
∫ 1
S(t) = Kp err (t) + KD err (t) + Ki err (t)dt (31) iload = [PVv − VO + VO *D] (35)
dt L
After combining equations (33)–(35), we get
Where err (t) designated as a difference of reference voltage VR and
∫ [ ] [ ]
solar voltage SPvi dtd err (t), err (t)dt represents corresponding differential − KD Pvv ˙ − 1 Pvv − iload
− iload ˙ + Kierr (t) = 0 (36)
and integral error, and Kp , Ki , KD are controller parameters coefficient. Cin Pvr Cin Pvr
The sliding mode control is a composition of identical and discon-
⎛ IC1 ⎞ IC1
tinuous controller parts and.can be represented as equation (32) ⏞̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⏟⏟̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⏞ ⏞̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⏟⏟̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⏞
[ ] [ ]
− KD ⎜
⎜ 1 Pvv ˙ − 1 [Pvv − Vo + Vo *D]⎟ − 1 Pvv − iload
⎟
C(t) = CDIS (t) + CEQ (t) (32) − iload ˙
Cin Cin *Pvr Pvr
⎝ L ⎠ Cin Pvr
So, from the above equation (31), to determine the sliding surface of
the corresponding control signal, it is formulated and equated to 0. + Kierr (t) = 0
Therefore, equation (31) can be rewritten as (37)

Fig (10). Performance of INC, P&O, POASMC technique for voltage profile.

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Fig (11). Wind energy rectifier and output power.

Fig (12). Applied load power, load voltage and load current.

Compare equation (37) with equation (32); we can get ( ( [ ]) [ ])

1 1 1 Ki
( ( [ ]) [ ]) CEQ = Vo − Pvv + L*IC1 + − *L*Cin *err (t)
1 1 1 Ki Vo Cin *Pvr KD KD
Ceq = Vo − Pvv + L*IC1 + − *L*Cin *err (t) (38)
Vo Cin *Pvr KD KD s
− Kd (40)
‖s‖ + ε
From equation (32), it can be seen that controller signals are com-
bined with CDIS (t) and CEQ (t). Therefore, the discontinuous CDIS (t) Stability Condition:
switching of the controller is assumed sigmoidal in this paper to
1
approximate the chattering amplitude as indicated in equation (39). V = s2 (41)
2
s
CDIS = − Kd (39)
‖s‖ + ε V̇ = sṡ < 0 (42)

where Kd is a small, steady positive integer. After combining equation From equations (34) and (35)
[ ]
(38) and equation (39), we obtain equation (40), which shows the 1 Pvv
overall controller. Ṗvv = − iload
˙ (43)
Cin Pvr

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Fig (13). Response of Inverter Voltage, Inverter current, Grid current.

Fig. (14). Response of battery voltage and battery current.

[ ]
1 P˙vv 1 ˙ Where, IC1 = Cin
P..vv = − [Pvv − Vo + Vo *D] (44)
Cin Pvr L
˙ 1 [Pvv ]
P˙vv = − iload
˙
From equation (31) Cin Pvr

ṡ(t) = KD *e..rr (t) + ėrr (t) + Kierr (t) So equation (46) can be rewritten as
m
= KD *P..vv − P˙vv + Kierr (t) (45) ⏞̅̅̅̅̅⏟⏟̅̅̅̅̅⏞
[ ]
KD *Vo s
ṡ = − K * (47)
Putting equation (43) in (45) and solving L*Cin ‖s‖ + ε
[ ]
KD Pvv ˙ + KD IC + 1 IC − Kierr (t) From equation (47) value of m is always positive. So the sign of the
ṡ = 2 − iload
Cin *Pvr P⎛ Cin 2 *Pvr Cin 1
1
vr
⎞ equation depends on the sign of K. So, ṡ considered as
[ ] (46)
K*KD *Vo ⎜ s(t) ⎟ 1 Pvv s
= − ⎝ s ⎠− ˙ + Kierr (t)
− iload ṡ = − K* (48)
L*Cin Cin Pvr ‖s‖ + ε
‖s(t)‖ + ε
Putting equation (48) into (42), we can get

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{ ( )}
s2 that energy can be stored when it is in surplus and retrieved when
V̇ = sṡ = − K <0 (49)
‖s‖ + ε needed to fulfill load demands. Moreover, the converter act as an in-
termediate component balancing power distribution between the
( )
s2 renewable energy sources, the battery storage, and the load demand
>0
‖s‖ + ε while maintaining system stability. In addition, system also contains the
grid with an inverter and an LCL filter to ensure smooth DC to AC power
− K<0 exchange. The inverter works on the basis of a power flow algorithm that
generate the reference current based on two specific conditions as per
From equation (49), the value of K should be positive for
following energy management flowchart.
convergence.
The PLL converts this reference current into an AC signal producing
sinusoidal waveforms synchronized with the grid frequency. The PLL
3.1. Energy management system output, combined with the reference current, undergoes Park and Clarke
transformations, which transform the three-phase AC quantities into a
The EMS is the principal controller responsible for coordinating and two-phase rotating reference frame, simplifying complexity of the
controlling all control actions in the micro-grid system. Moreover, en- inverter control. The PWM generator processes the transformed current
ergy management system play the critical role in optimizing the per- and generates the necessary pulses to control the switching devices of
formance of hybrid renewable energy system by continuously the inverter, thereby regulating the bidirectional flow of current be-
monitoring the power output from solar pv and wind energy, SOC of the tween the DC bus, load, and grid. Furthermore, when power generated
battery, demand-supply conditions within the micro-grid system. In from renewable sources exceeds the load demand and charging re-
order to micro-grid operate effectively, it is essential to maintain the quirements of the battery, the surplus energy is exported to the grid,
power production from renewable sources and the load demand as fol- which improves the efficiency of the systems and enhance the stability in
lows. the grid. Conversely, in periods of insufficient renewable generation, the
Ppv (t) + Pw (t) − PL = ± PB (t) ± Pg (t) (50) system seamlessly imports power from the grid to ensure a smooth and
reliable energy supply. This mechanism of the bidirectional flow of

Proposed Power flow algorithm Mechanism for Energy Management

In proposed EMS configuration, the PV array, wind turbine system, energy along with advanced inverter control strategy ensures optimal
and battery storage are connected through a DC bus, while the grid and energy management along with reduced dependency on the grid and
load demand are connected to DC bus by an inverter system. A POASMC improved system reliability. The proposed strategy for reliable hybrid-
MPP technque employed to extract the maximum power from renewable ization of multi-source renewable energy systems with hybrid MPPT
source, such as solar pv and wind. The extracted power is then fed to the algorithms introduces a few critical challenges: namely, those related to
DC bus for the seamless integration with battery storage and grid con- computational complexity, real-time feasibility, scalability, and
nected inverters. A battery connected bidirectional converter used to computational efficiency.
regulating energy flow and maintaining a constant level of the DC bus
voltage. This converter allows charging and discharging of the battery so

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Fig. (15). Response of grid voltage, grid current, grid power.

Fig.(16). Response of voltage, current and power of DC bus.

4. Result and discussion power outputs, for ultimately optimizing power generation capabilities
to their fullest extent. Although the fluctuations in wind speed and sun
The investigation detailed in this section utilized MATLAB Simulink irradiation are simply step variations, they cannot occur in the actual
software, a tool renowned for its capabilities in modelling, simulating, world since climatic conditions are constantly changing.
and analyzing system dynamics. Within the context of our study, we These values are chosen in such a way that they fluctuate between
explored diverse solar insolation profiles, represented in trapezoidal the maximum and minimum limits of operation of the PV panel and WT,
shapes, to depict the varying levels of solar radiation received by a to allow the system to be evaluated for these fluctuations. Additionally,
specific solar region. These profiles, ranging from 20 to 1000 W/m^2, are in this scenario, the load is maintained at a constant level, which is
illustrated in Fig. 8 and categorized into five stages: 500, 20, 700, and something that would not be possible in a real-world scenario. However,
1000 W/m^2, each maintained at a constant temperature of 25 ◦ C. The the load is maintained at a constant level to track the solar and wind
discrepancies in solar insolation are observed at intervals of 0.3 s, 0.6 s, energy conversion systems performance and the storage of battery sys-
0.9 s, and 1.2 s, respectively. For solar power generation, Kyocera tems for fluctuations in the power supplied from renewable sources. If
KC200GT module has been used. Additionally, wind power generation the load is continually changing, it will be impossible to evaluate the
was investigated by manipulating the speed of the fan blower, with wind performance operation of these systems.
speeds ranging from 12 m/s to 10.8 m/s at the start and 2.0 s, respec- To maximize the power output of a PV array, three distinct MPPT
tively depicted in Fig. 8. approaches were used: P&O, InC, and POASMC. The performance of
The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the efficacy of these approaches was assessed in both transient and steady-state set-
the proposed methodology in response to fluctuations in solar insolation tings, as well as under varied climatic conditions, by examining the
and varying wind speeds. This examination aims to offer valuable in- voltage, current, and power output of the solar array. A comprehensive
sights into enhancing the efficiency of both solar photovoltaic and wind examination of efficiency, dynamic power output fluctuation, and

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generated by solar energy with a tracking efficacy of 99.93%, with

hardly any ripple content (Table 8).
Furthermore, when compared to the P&O and InC techniques for
transient performance evaluations, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10 and
Table 9, the POASMC technique performs quite well. To achieve
maximum solar output, the P&O approach employed output responses
with settling times of 0.13s, 0.36s, 0.75s, and 1.05s for 1000 W/m2, 500
W/m2, 20 W/m2, and 700 W/m2 irradiance, respectively. Similarly,
when the InC technique is applied, the settling time for monitoring
output power is 0.1 s, 0.36 s, 0.75 s, and 1.04 s, resulting in less ripple
content in power output for the same irradiance. Using the POASMC
approach in PV systems results in minimum ripple content and minimal
settling times of 0.07 s, 0.325 s, 0.7 s, and 0.98 s for 1000 W/m2, 500 W/
m2, 20 W/m2, and 700 W/m2, respectively. According to the results and
extensive research, the suggested POASMC MPPT scheme produces
excel results than the P&O and InC approaches in terms of transient and
steady-state performance, i.e., more excellent tracking, reduced ripple at
the output, and lower settling time. As a result, the suggested POASMC
technique has been studied and deployed to track MPP efficiently.
From Fig. 8, which depicts wind speed fluctuation, the speed begins
at 12 m/s from 0 to 2 s before dropping to 10.8 m/s at the 2.0- s point, as
shown. Fig. 11 shows the rectifier power and output power of a boost
converter using the POASMC MPP approach. Fig. 11 which shows that
when the wind speed changes from 12 m/s to 10.8 m/s in 2 s, the wind-
generated output power is recorded at 3 kW at t = 0.22 s and drops to 2
kW at t = 2.15 s. The system encounters a transient phase spanning from
t = 0.22 to t = 2.15 s.

Fig.(17). schematic layout of the proposed HES.

4.1. Grid-connected solar PV/wind/battery power flow result
settling time for each technique is given in Table 8 and 9, and the
findings are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. Overall, the research compares and This section discusses a grid-connected hybrid renewable energy
evaluates the efficacy of three unique MPPT techniques. system that includes solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power, as well as
The developed MPPT approach effectively monitors the MPP of solar battery storage and inverter. This section specifically evaluates the
production in all four investigated states, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10 and performance of the proposed POASMC MPPT controller on a single-
Table 8 and 9. Fig. 10 clearly shows that when P&O MPP approaches are phase grid connected renewable energy system (1.6 kW solar PV and a
used, changes around the MPP cause a significant ripple in output 3 kW wind turbine) while battery initial state of charge is 50%. More-
power. As a consequence, the solar PV array’s overall output power is over, the analysis emphasizes on critical grid parameter, particularly the
reduced. Furthermore, using the InC MPP algorithm resulted in a quality of injected current in the presence of variable solar insolation
considerable reduction in ripple content in Ppv. However, this approach and variable wind speed. The grid system operate at 230 V RMS and 50
cannot run MPP in a steady-state environment. In contrast, the proposed Hz, with the configuration of an LCL filter and an inverter. The battery’s
POASMC MPP technique can effectively track the maximum power state of charge (SOC) and PV current (Ipv) has been used to calculate the
reference current for the inverter, using the concept of current control

Fig.(18). Geographical location of NTPC society.

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S. Tripathi et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101 (2025) 673–691

Fig.(19). Environmental input data for selected location (a) Load profile (b) Solar daily profile radiation (c) Average wind speed.

and ensure the smooth power distribution between hybrid energy currents through the inverter are measured and converted from alpha-
source, load and battery. There are two loads considered, one requiring beta to DQ format. The DQ reference current is then compared with
about 1000W power and the other 1400 W. At initial stage (0–2 s), only the measured DQ current, and the difference passes through a PI
1000W load is connected followed by additional 1400W load is attached controller. The output of this controller is the control voltage in DQ
after 2 s as depicted in Fig. 12. For smooth power distribution between format that again gets converted back to alpha-beta format. This alpha
energy source, load and battery, the considered conditions for system component is fed into the control signal generator, which governs the
operation are the following: It is assumed that when PV current is at 1A
and the state of charge (SOC) of the battery is above 50%, then sufficient
Table 10
PV power generation and enough charge in the battery In such a case, Component specification [ 28,39,40,41].
the reference current is established at 2A with power transfer to the grid.
Component Capital Cost Replacement O&M Lifetime
The reference current is initially defined only by its magnitude, with
(₹) (₹) (₹) (Year)
the sine-cosine or Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) methods used to measure
PV Gen.System 85000.00 (₹) 85000.00(₹) 0.00 (₹) 25
the grid voltage and current. This magnitude then converted into a si-
Wind energy 85000.00 (₹) 85000.00 (₹) 0.00 (₹) 20
nusoidal waveform by multiplying it by a sine wave and converting it to system
an alpha-beta or DQ (direct-quadrature) format. The reference current Battery 15000.00 (₹) 0.00 (₹) 0.00 (₹) 18
in DQ format is then derived from the alpha component. In parallel, the Converter 20000.00 (₹) 20000.00 (₹) 0.00 (₹) 20

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Fig.(20). (a) Average load profile data for one house (b) Average load profile data 523 house.

operation of the inverter. It ensures the inverter tracks the reference irradiance declines from 500 w/m2 to 20 w/m2 the PV current falls
current and drives the PV current to a balanced state. Thus, inverter acts below 1 A and the battery SOC stays below 50%, the required power is
as a bidirectional converter that supplies power to the grid or draws obtained from the grid at a rate of − 10 A as we can see from Fig.(13).
power from the grid. This delivering or receiving power from the grid From Fig (12) and Fig.(15), at 0–0.6s when A load requirement is
based on the parameters given above in Table 6. 1000W, the grid supply the 725W and remaining 225 W will be supply
In simulation modelling and operation, solar irradiance at 1000w/ from solar pv, wind and battery. After that, from 0.6 to 2 s, the grid
m2 generates 1600W from 0 to 0.3 s. After 0.3 s, the irradiance changes continues to provide power from 725 W to 2680 W since the battery SOC
from 1000w/m2 to 500 w/m2, resulting in a fall in PV generating power is less than 50% and the solar current is less than 1 A. After that when the
to 812W. At 0.6 s, the solar irradiance drops from 500 w/m2 to 20 w/ power supply of the rectifier changes at 2s., it affects the current flowing
m2, reducing solar PV output power to 28.8W. Furthermore, irradiance through the battery as well as the battery charging. At 2 s, grid power
rises at 0.9 and 1.2 s from 20 w/m2 to 700 w/m2 and 700 w/m2 to 1000 increased because the AC load increased from 1000 W to 2400 W, and
w/m2, enabling PV to produce 1132W and 1600W, respectively Fig.(9). solar PV and wind did not provide the needed power to the load. As a
Similarly, employing POASMC MPPT technique, at 12 m/s wind speed, result shown in Fig (15), to fulfilling the required AC load requirement,
the wind system generates around 3000W from 0 to 2 s. At 2 s, the wind grid power increases from 2680 to 4074 W and maintains the DC bus
speed drops to 10.8 m/s, yielding a power output of about 2000 W. This 400V Fig(16).
fluctuation in wind speed affects the amount of generated power by the
boost converter Fig. (11). When it comes to the functioning of the bat- 5. Feasibility and techno-economic analysis
tery, the current through the battery is initially kept at around 2 A. It
subsequently drops to − 10 A, − 15 A, and eventually − 20 A when PV The techno-economic analysis plays a vital role for the practical
current and power approaches zero as shown in Fig. (14). implementation of hybrid multi-source energy systems. This is directly
Regarding grid and inverter functioning Fig. (15), from 0 to 0.6 s, the responsible for the viability and sustainability of a system over a long
combined solar PV, wind, and battery systems provide power to the AC period of time. This also analyses the feasibility assessment of such
demand, sustaining around 2 A. However, after 0.6 s, when the system. These feasibility assessments, encompass typically used methods

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Fig.(21). Optimized homer result for the system.

like lifecycle cost analysis, taking into account the costs and benefits maintenance and repair of the installation, energy storage management,
throughout the system’s lifetime capital costs include procurement etc. add to the ongoing financial burden. Return on investment and
costs, installation costs, and integration costs of renewable energy profits generate additional information about the system’s potential for
components at the initial stage. The operational cost that includes profitability compared to its one-time costs.

Fig.(22). Cash flow of the proposed system with base case system.

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S. Tripathi et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101 (2025) 673–691

5.1. System configuration and input data 5.5. Scalability of load profile

In this study, HOMER Pro, widely used simulation software for Scaling or resizing of the load profile is crucial for analysing the
optimizing hybrid energy systems, has been utilized to carry out the energy systems of different capacity. In this case study, scaling was
analysis. The HOMER Pro software enabled detailed modelling and necessary for conducting load data from 1.86 kW to 931.26 kW in order
comparisons of different configurations that gives insights into cost- to ascertain viability of the system across different operational capac-
effectiveness and financial sustainability under different scenarios. ities as shown in Fig (20). The obtained result demonstrated consistent
Fig. (17) shows the schematic layout of the proposed HES, highlighting system behaviour despite increased power requirement and therefore it
its key components: PV module, wind turbine, and battery bank. In this is asserted that the suggested power management strategy will main-
configuration, the PV module, wind energy system, and battery are tains stability and efficiency well across any scale of the power. This
connected to the DC bus while the grid system and load demand are means that the system is scalable and can be reliably deployed for small-
connected to the AC bus. Energy flows in both directions, from the DC scale and large-scale energy applications while maintaining its intended
and AC buses, to either satisfy a load demand or to charge the battery via functionality and performance.
a bidirectional converter. Moreover, when the renewable energy sour-
ces: PV and wind generate excess energy after satisfying load demand 5.6. Optimization result
and charging the battery, the extra power is supplied to the grid.
Conversely, when the load demand exceeds the combined energy from The HOMER software analysis of the selected location determines an
the renewables and the battery, the deficiency is supplied from the grid, optimal configuration for a hybrid renewable energy system that will
thus ensuring a smooth and uninterrupted power supply. This smooth meet load demand. For this system, it will comprise 824 kW of PV ca-
energy management optimizes the use of the renewable resources while pacity and 35 kW of wind energy capacity, ensuring efficient generation
keeping the system reliable at all times. of energy according to the demands of the location. The results of sim-
ulations based on this design indicate its capability in fulfilling the
5.2. Study area required load effectively shown in Fig (21). From the financial analysis,
it follows that in terms of carrying all the costs over the life cycle of the
The hybrid renewable energy system is specifically designed to meet system (including installation costs, operating costs, and replacements),
the electricity needs of 523 houses in the NTPC Anandam Housing So- the Net Present Cost is at ₹188 M. This sets up the COE, which stands at
ciety, located in Greater Noida, India as shown in Fig. (18). To evaluate ₹5.84 per kWh, as a relatively low-cost alternative. The year-round
the system’s feasibility and cost effectiveness, an analysis in this study is operating cost is ₹ 7.99 M while the initial capital required to put up
conducted using HOMER Pro, a powerful tool aimed at optimizing the system is ₹ 84.4 M. These results underscore the economic viability
renewable energy systems. Two scenarios have been considered in this of the proposed system, balancing upfront investment with long-term
study. The first is single house where the average energy consumed per operational savings and affordable energy generation. Moreover,
day is 11.27 kWh and a peak load power demand of 1.86 kW, while the Fig. (22) shows the Cash flow of the proposed system with base case
second is the combined energy for all 523 houses in the society, repre- system.
sent total load as shown in Fig (19a),. This dual approach would
encompass a proper, all-rounded analysis of the hybrid system’s per- 6. Conclusion
formance, with it not only scalable but also economically feasible at both
the individual and community levels. In this paper, a grid-connected residential PV system with battery
energy storage is examined. A POASMC MPPT control technique for
5.3. Daily radiation, and wind profile data solar PV and MPSG has been used for hybrid micro-grid system. In this
article, the study enlightens the integration of 3 kW wind energy and 1.6
The selected NTPC Anandam Housing Society, located in Greater kW solar energy, battery energy storage with connected to the grid. For
Noida, India.It is located in national capital region (NCR) of India. The extracting the maximum power from renewable energy sources
average annual temperature is of this location is 26.5 ◦ C and July is the POASMC MPPT control technique has been applied and outcome of
warmest month with an average temperature of 28.9 ◦ C. Wind and solar proposed techniques has been compared with the classical P&O and InC
input data for location are shown in Fig. (19b) and Fig. (19c). Average techniques. Furthermore, for better power flow between generated
solar radiation for the whole year is 5.18 kWh/m2/da with maximum power and load demand a power flow control logic implemented based
average solar radiation in May and June 6.73 kWh/m2/da and 6.71 on battery state of charge and renewable energy generated current.
kWh/m2/da respectively. The average speed of the wind is 4.55 m/s From the result it is evident that the proposed power flow algorithm
annually with the maximum in April and May with 5.39 m/s, 5.350 works suitably between power flow between battery and grid under
respectively and lowest in and October–November with 3.350 m/s, 3.60 varying environmental conditions. Despite its small size, this system is
m/s respectively. quite complicated, since it employs current control for power trans-
mission, voltage regulation to assure DC bus voltage stability, and
5.4. Input cost inverter control for perfect grid synchronization. Furthermore, the use of
cutting-edge technology such as lithium-ion batteries and direct drive
Table 10 summarizes on the cost and lifespan details of the major PMSG wind turbines, as well as complex techniques such as phase-
components in the hybrid renewable energy system, providing insights locked loops in conjunction with Park and Clarke transforms, en-
into their economic and operational planning. The PV generation system hances its excellence. These changes considerably improve the proposed
has an initial cost of ₹85,000, the same amount is required for system’s performance, demonstrating a wide range of control mecha-
replacement after its 25-year lifespan, and it incurs no O&M expenses. nisms within a constrained framework. The goal of this study is to set a
Similarly, the wind energy system has a capital cost of ₹85,000 and a new standard for small-scale domestic renewable energy systems by
replacement cost of ₹85,000 but with a somewhat reduced lifespan of 20 optimizing space while adhering to control, efficiency, and innovation
years, with no O&M costs. The battery costs ₹15,000, with no specified principles.
replacement or maintenance costs. The converter has both capital and
replacement costs of ₹20,000 and also no O&M costs. This highlights the CRediT authorship contribution statement
system’s upfront and lifecycle cost structure, ensuring cost-effective
planning and operation. Sandeep Tripathi: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal

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analysis, Conceptualization. Ashish Shrivastava: Writing – review & fast irradiation changes. ISA Trans 2019;87:297–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
isatra.2018.11.020.
editing, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. K.C. Jana:
[20] Cortajarena JA, Barambones O, Alkorta P, De Marcos J. Sliding mode control of
Writing – review & editing, Supervision. grid-tied single-phase inverter in a photovoltaic MPPT application. Sol Energy
2017;155:793–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.07.029.
[21] Tripathi S, Shrivastava A, Jana KC. PO based adaptive sliding mode control for PV
Declaration of competing interest system under varying load condition. Mater Today Proc 2023;79:430–3. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.030.
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial of renewable hybrids energy systems: a review of methodologies. Sol Energy 2012;
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence 86(4):1077–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2011.10.016.
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