2025

FIRST EDITION

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GEOGRAPHY notes
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

BY MWALIMU EDWIN B. MASSAI

KAPAMA
EDWIN 2025
B. MASSAI 2025
 FORM ONE COURSE OUTILINE

1. DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE ORIGIN AND THE

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEMS
2. DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE MAJOR FEATURES OF
THE EARTH SURFACE
3. DEMONSTRATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN RELIEF, CLIMATE AND NATURAL VEGETATION
4. THAT WILL BE ACHIEVED AFTER COVERING THESE TOPICS

1. CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY

1. BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
2. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING GEOGRAPHY
3. THE RELATIONSHIP OF GEOGRAPHY WITH OTHER
DISCIPLINES
2. THE EARTH
1. MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
2. PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS
3. MAJOR FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S
SURFACE
1. THE CONTINENTS
2. THE OCEANS
3. MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES
4. LARGE INLAND WATER BODIES
5. VEGETATION ZONES.
:
A. DEVELOP INTENDED COMPETENCES BY PARTICIPATING ON VARIOUS
LEARNING ACTIVITIES INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM
B. ACTIVELY ENGAGE IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS; AND
C. PARTICIPATE IN THE SEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE FROM VARIOUS
SOURCES, INCLUDING TEXTBOOKS, SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS AND
OTHER PUBLICATIONS IN ONLINE LIBRARIES.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

TOPIC ONE: THE CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF
GEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
Geography is like a big puzzle that helps us understand the world we live in. It’s the study of places,
people, and the environments they live in. Here are some important parts of geography you should
know:
1. Maps: Think of maps as treasure maps that show us where different places are located. They can
show countries, cities, rivers, mountains, and more! Learning to read maps helps us know how
to get from one place to another.
2. Physical Geography: This part focuses on natural things, like landforms (mountains, valleys,
plains), water bodies (oceans, rivers, lakes), climate (weather patterns), and ecosystems (where
plants and animals live). For example, the Grand Canyon is a physical feature you can find in
geography.
3. Human Geography: This part studies how people live, work, and interact with each other and
their environment. It looks at things like cultures, cities, economies, and how people change the
land. For example, why do people build cities near rivers? Because the rivers provide water and
food!
4. Location: Geography helps us learn about where things are located. We can use coordinates (like
latitude and longitude) or landmarks (like the Eiffel Tower in Paris) to describe a place.
5. Human-Environment Interaction: This means looking at how people affect the environment and
how the environment affects people. For example, building a dam to create electricity can change
the local environment and surrounding communities.
6. Regions: We can divide the world into different regions based on physical features or cultures.
For example, we have continents (like Asia or Africa) and can also have cultural regions, like Latin
America.
7. Travel and Exploration: Geography helps us explore the world! When you learn about different
countries, cultures, and landscapes, it makes you curious to learn more and can inspire you to
travel someday!

THE MEANING OF GEOGRAPHY

Etymologically, the word “geography” comes from two Greek words
(i) “geo” which means “The earth”, and
(ii) “graphien” or “grapho” which means “to draw”, “describe” or “write”.
- The two words formed the word “geographien” which was later accepted into the English language
as “Geography”.
- Therefore, Geography is the science that describes the earth.
- It started as a study concerned with the simple description of the earth in words, using maps and
statistics.
- The description involved both the physical earth and everything found in it such as plants, animals,
people, and water bodies.
Thus, “Geography” can be defined as the study of the interrelationship between human beings and the
environment over time and space.
- Geography helps us to understand the relationship between human activities and the
environment.
Geography describes how human beings interact with the environment and how different natural
features are formed and distributed. It also explains the distribution of human activities on the earth’s
surface. Therefore, Geography focuses on the study of the earth as the home to people where they
establish settlements and utilize space and resources.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 ?
The term “environment” refers to the surrounding conditions, influences, and factors in which living
organisms exist and interact. It encompasses both the natural elements (such as air, water, soil, and
climate) and human-made elements (such as buildings, infrastructure, and urban areas) that affect the
behavior, health, and survival of living beings.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS
.
The physical environment refers to the natural elements and geographic features that exist in the
world without direct human involvement. It includes landforms, climate, vegetation, animals, water
bodies, and natural resources.
. - - ( )
The non-physical environment encompasses the social, cultural, economic, and political aspects
that influence human behavior and interactions. It includes human-made environments as well as
abstract elements like cultural practices, values, and social structures.
In other words, it refers to environments that have been constructed or significantly modified by
humans for various purposes. Examples include cities, agricultural lands, roads, bridges, and any
infrastructure built to serve human populations.

“Go outside the class, and each one of you come with five things that makes natural environment and five
things that defines artificial environment”.

 Geography is the science that studies the relationships among physical and human phenomena
in the context of space.
 This definition emphasizes the spatial relationships and interconnections between various
geographic phenomena, both natural and human-made.
 Geography is the organization of space and the systematic study of the relationships and
interactions between people and their environments.
 This definition highlights the particular experience of geography and the importance of
how people notice and interact with their environments.
 Geography is the study of the earth’s landscapes, environments, and the relationships between
people and their environments.
 This definition underscores the physical aspects of geography while also recognizing the
impact of human activities on the environment.
 Geography is concerned with the spatial aspects or different dimension of human existence,
including how people organize, manage, and change the world around them.
 This definition focuses on the socio-economic processes that shape geographical space and
how these processes influence social justice and equity.
 Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.
 This definition emphasizes the importance of both physical places and social dynamics
within geographic study, reinforcing the idea of interconnectedness in human-
environment relations.

THE BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY

Geography is traditionally divided into two main branches:
(i) Physical Geography and
(ii) Human Geography.
Each branch addresses different aspects of the world and its phenomena, and they often complement
and intersect with one another.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 .
Physical Geography focuses on the natural environment and the physical processes that shape Earth’s
landscapes. It involves the study of the following key areas:
- Landforms: Examination of the Earth’s surface features such as mountains, valleys, plateaus, and
plains, and the processes that create them (e.g., tectonic activity, erosion, sedimentation).
- Climate and Weather: Analysis of atmospheric conditions over short and long periods, including
temperature, precipitation, and their patterns across different regions.
- Ecosystems and Biomes: Study of the various ecosystems, their components (flora and fauna), and
how they interact with each other and with the physical environment.
- Hydrology: Investigation of water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and oceans, along with the water
cycle, and the significance of freshwater resources.
- Soil Geography: Exploration of soil types, their formation, distribution, and relationship to various
land uses and plant life.
- Natural Hazards: Understanding of events such as earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and their
impact on humans and ecosystems, as well as the study of mitigation strategies.
.
Human Geography examines the relationships between people and their environments, emphasizing
the social, economic, and cultural aspects of geography. Key areas of focus include:
- Cultural Geography: Study of cultural practices, beliefs, and identities and how they vary across
different regions and their spatial distribution.
- Economic Geography: Exploration of how economic activities are distributed, including industries,
agriculture, and trade, and their relationship to physical geography.
- Political Geography: Investigation of spatial aspects of political processes, including the formation
of political boundaries, the influence of geography on political behavior, and geopolitics.
- Urban Geography: Analysis of urban areas, their development, spatial organization, and the
challenges faced by cities, such as urbanization and infrastructure.
- Population Geography: Study of human populations, including demographics, migration patterns,
population growth, and the interactions between populations and their environments.
- Social Geography: Examination of how social structures and human relationships are influenced
by geographic context, including issues of inequality, community, and identity.
?
Practical geography refers to the application of geographic knowledge and skills in real-world
contexts. Unlike theoretical geography, which focuses on concepts, theories, and models, practical
geography emphasizes hands-on methods, techniques, and tools that geographers use to analyze and
solve spatial problems.
KEY COMPONENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY INCLUDE:
1. Mapping and Cartography: The creation of maps using various techniques, including GIS
(Geographic Information Systems), which allows for the visualization and analysis of spatial
data.
2. Fieldwork: Engaging directly with the environment to collect data, conduct surveys, or observe
geographical phenomena. This can include everything from environmental assessment to
urban planning.
3. Spatial Analysis: Utilizing statistical tools and software to analyze geographic patterns and
relationships. This can involve techniques like spatial modeling and geostatistics.
4. Remote Sensing: The use of satellite imagery and aerial photography to gather information
about the Earth’s surface, which can be used in environment monitoring, land use planning, and
disaster management.
5. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Tools and software that allow for the input, storage,
analysis, and visualization of geographic data. GIS is widely used in urban planning,
environmental management, and many other fields.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 6. Environmental and Social Applications: Applying geographic knowledge to address practical
issues such as resource management, urban development, transportation planning, and
disaster response.
INTERSECTION OF THE TWO BRANCHES WITH PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
While Physical and Human Geography are different, they are deeply interconnected (not separated).
They are impacted one another. For example, climate change (a physical geography issue) has
significant social and economic impacts on human populations (human geography). Geography as a
discipline encourages a general understanding of both natural environments (Physical geography) and
human experiences (human geography), providing insights into how they shape one another. For
example:
.
Photography interpretation involves analyzing images, particularly aerial and satellite
photographs, to gather information about the physical landscape, land use, and environmental
changes.
Example, Environmental scientists may use aerial photographs to assess deforestation in a region
over time. By comparing images from different years, they can identify changes in land cover, such
as the loss of forested areas or the emergence of urban developments, and analyze their
environmental impacts.
.
Reading and interpreting maps is crucial for understanding geographic locations, spatial
relationships, and topographical features. It involves extracting information from various types of
maps, including topographic, thematic, and political maps.
Example: Hikers (walkers or Climbers, etc.) use topographic maps to navigate trails. These maps
provide detailed information about elevation changes, terrain features like rivers and mountains,
and landmarks, allowing hikers to plan their routes safely and effectively.
.
Surveys are systematic methods for collecting data about a specific area, often involving
measurements and observations. Map projections refer to the various techniques used to
represent the curved surface of the Earth on flat maps, affecting how areas, distances, and shapes
are represented.
Example: Land surveyors conduct surveys using tools like theodolites and GPS to measure land
boundaries accurately. Their findings are then used to create cadastral maps that depict property
lines and land ownership. Additionally, a map projection may be selected based on the
geographical area being mapped, influencing how that area is displayed on paper (for instance,
using the Mercator projection for maritime navigation).
.
Research in practical geography often involves gathering and analyzing geographic data to study
specific trends, phenomena, or issues. This can include fieldwork, qualitative studies, or
quantitative analysis using geographic information systems (GIS).
Example: A research team might study the impact of climate change on coastal erosion by
conducting surveys of eroding shorelines, collecting sediment samples, and analyzing historical
data. Their findings could influence coastal management and conservation policies.
.
Geographic statistics involve the analysis of numerical data related to geographic phenomena.
This includes demographic statistics, environmental data, and economic indicators, often
presented using tools such as GIS and statistical software.
Example: A city planner may utilize demographic statistics from census data to assess population
density patterns in different neighborhoods. By analyzing this data, they can make informed

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 decisions about where to allocate resources, build infrastructure, and develop public services to
meet community needs.

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING GEOGRAPHY

?
Studying geography is essential for a variety of reasons that impact individuals and societies at multiple
levels. Here are twenty important reasons to study geography:
1. Spatial Awareness: Understanding the spatial relationships between people, places, and
environments enhances our awareness of the world.
2. Cultural Understanding: Geography explores various cultures, fostering appreciation and
respect for diversity.
3. Environmental Literacy: Geography teaches about ecosystems, climate, and the human impact
on the environment, promoting sustainable practices.
4. Global Interconnectedness: It highlights the interconnectedness of global systems, including
trade, migration, and communication.
5. Urban Planning: Knowledge of geographical principles aids in effective urban planning and
development.
6. Resource Management: Geography helps in understanding natural resources distribution and
sustainable management of these resources.
7. Disaster Preparedness: Studying geography equips individuals and communities to prepare for
and respond to natural disasters like fire, earthquakes or floods effectively.
8. Political Awareness: It provides insight into geopolitical issues and the influence of geography
on political borders and conflicts.
9. Economic Development: Geography informs about regional economic activities and the impact
of location on economic outcomes.
10. Transportation and Logistics: Understanding geographic factors is crucial for navigation,
transportation routes, and the logistics industry.
11. Climate Awareness: Geography educates about climate patterns, climate change, and its effects
on different regions.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 12. Historical Context: Geography connects historical events with their locations, enriching the
understanding of history.
13. Public Health: It examines how geography affects health outcomes, including the spread of
diseases and access to healthcare.
14. Tourism and Recreation: Knowledge of geography can enhance tourism and recreational
planning, contributing to local economies.
15. Biodiversity and Conservation: Geography studies habitats and biological diversity, informing
conservation efforts.
16. Political Boundaries: It helps in understanding how geographical features influence the
creation and maintenance of political boundaries.
17. Social Justice: Geography highlights spatial inequalities and issues of social justice, including
access to resources and services.
18. Critical Thinking: Geographic studies develop analytical skills and critical thinking through the
examination of complex spatial issues.
19. Technology Integration: The field integrates technology like GIS (Geographic Information
Systems), which has widespread applications.
20. Interdisciplinary Connections: Geography intersects with various disciplines such as history,
economics, sociology, and environmental science, enriching knowledge across fields.
21. It increases awareness of our country, its boundaries and resources as our national heritage.
22. It promotes proper use of the available resources. Studying Geography helps people develop
skills and capabilities that will help them make informed decisions on the use, management and
protection of natural resources, thus improving their standard of living.
23. It develops methods and skills of observing, measuring, recording and interpreting various
geographical phenomena.
24. It helps us understand social and economic relations between countries and share ideas and
experiences in solving related problems.
25. It equips us with skills for environmental conservation.
26. It equips us with practical skills and knowledge that are relevant for employment in various
fields, for instance map making (cartography), teaching and research, surveying, land use
planning, natural resources management, conducting environmental impact assessments
(EIAs), aviation, navigation, surface transport and tourism industry.
27. It’s a career subject in that it enables one to go for advanced studies in specialized fields e.g.
geography teachers, meteorology, surveying etc.
28. Enables us to appreciate other people’s way of life by learning economic activities of different
communities within our country and other parts of the world.
29. Enables us to conserve our environment when we learn negative and positive effects of human
activities on the environment.
30. Enables us to conserve our resources when we learn wise use of resources in conservation and
management of resources e.g. wildlife, forests, energy, etc.
31. It trains us the importance of cooperation and patience as we work in groups.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER

DISCIPLINES.
Geography is a many-sided field that explores the relationships between people, places, and
environments. It examines the physical features of the Earth, such as landforms, climate, ecosystems,
and resources, as well as the human aspects, including cultures, economies, and political systems.
This field employs various methods and technologies to collect and analyze spatial data, allowing us to
understand patterns and processes that shape our world. It looks at how different elements interact
across scales—from local neighborhoods to global phenomena—offering insights into issues like urban
development, environmental sustainability, and social dynamics.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

Here’s a brief description of some of disciplines and its relation to geography:
1. Remote Sensing: The acquisition of information about the Earth’s surface using satellite or aerial
imagery. It helps geographers analyze spatial patterns and monitor changes in land use,
vegetation, and climate.
2. Geology: The study of the Earth’s structure, composition, and processes. It relates to geography by
providing insights into the physical landscape, natural resources, and hazards such as earthquakes
and volcanoes.
3. Meteorology: The science of weather and atmospheric conditions. It is linked to geography
through the study of climatic zones, weather patterns, and their impact on human activities and
the environment.
4. Climatology: The study of climate, its variations and trends over time. It relates to geography by
exploring how climate influences ecosystems, geography, and human settlements.
5. Biography: While it may refer to a narrative of individual lives, in this context, it can relate to
human geography by examining personal stories and cultural landscapes in various geographic
locations.
6. Pedology: The study of soils, their formation, classification, and mapping. It connects to geography
by analyzing soil characteristics and their influence on agriculture, land use, and ecosystem
productivity.
7. Demography: The statistical study of populations, including their distribution, density, and
growth. It relates to geography by assessing how population dynamics affect regional
development, urbanization, and resource management.
8. Sociology: The study of social behavior and society. Geography intersects with sociology by
examining how spatial factors influence social structures, cultural practices, and community
development.
9. Psychology: The study of the mind and behavior. It connects to geography through environmental
psychology, which explores how geographic settings influence human behavior and mental health.
10. Economic Geography: The study of economic activities and their spatial distribution. It relates to
geography by analyzing how location affects trade, resource allocation, and economic
development.
11. Political Geography: The study of the relationship between politics and space, including territorial
boundaries and geopolitical issues. It connects to geography through the analysis of power
dynamics and governance in different locations.
12. History: The study of past events. Geography relates by providing context for historical
developments, such as how geographical features influenced human migration, settlement
patterns, and conflicts.
13. Geographic Information System (GIS): A framework for gathering, managing, and analyzing spatial
data. It is essential for geography as it allows for mapping and spatial analysis of geographic
phenomena.
14. Computer Science: The study of computation and information technology. It supports geography
through GIS, spatial analysis tools, and modeling environmental processes.
15. Cartography: The art and science of map-making. It is fundamental to geography, enabling the
visualization of spatial data and patterns in ways that are accessible and informative.
16. Geodesy: The science of measuring the Earth’s shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. It
relates to geography by providing accurate data for mapping and understanding Earth’s physical
characteristics.
17. Statistics: The study of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. It is crucial for geography to
analyze spatial patterns, demographic data, and environmental statistics.
18. Physics: The study of matter and energy. It connects to geography through physical geography,
which examines natural processes such as erosion, weathering, and energy transfer within the
Earth’s systems.
19. Chemistry: The study of matter and its interactions. Geography relates to chemistry in areas like
environmental chemistry, where pollutants’ impacts on ecosystems and human health are studied.
20. Civics: The study of the rights and duties of citizenship. Geography relates to civics by examining
how spatial factors influence governance, civic engagement, and community organization.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

These disciplines highlight the interdisciplinary nature of geography, integrating various fields to
enhance our understanding of the Earth and its systems.

Fig. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

#
1. Visit a nearby area at your home then and observe different activities carried out. Make a list of
five (5) activities, then:
i. Explain how such activities relate with geography
ii. Indicate under which disciplines such activities fall.
2. Answer the following questions.
i. Hekima is a Form One student interested to be a pilot. His teacher encourages him to study
hard and ensure he performs well in Geography, Physics, Mathematics and language subjects.
Hekima’s friends also advise him that, besides being a pilot, he can also become a cartographer,
surveyor, environmental expert, geologist, astronaut, astronomer, or meteorologist. Write an
essay to explain Hekima’s interest in becoming a pilot in relation to the geography subject.
ii. Give reasons why the following career paths require specific geographical knowledge?
(a) Weather forecasting
(b) Map making and interpretation

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025

 (c) Planning and organisation of cities
(d) Aviation
(e) Photographer
3. (a) Pictures (a) to (f) represent different activities that require geographical knowledge and
skills. Write the correct letter of the picture against its corresponding activity on the table that
follow

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Activity Picture Activity Picture Activity Picture

letter letter letter
Aircraft piloting Scuba diving Mountain climbing
Tree planting Land surveying Cartography
(b) Explain how they relate to the use of geographical knowledge.
(c) List any other four human activities that require geographical knowledge and skills.

4. Read the following statements carefully, Beside each statement, write letter A if the statement
refers to physical geography, B if it refers to human geography, and C if it refers to practical
geography
(i) Studying the behaviour of stars in the sky………..
(ii) Analysis of population structure and migration…………
(iii) Studying about manufacturing industry in Tanzania………
(iv) Understanding physical features and their change in time and space……..
(v) Migration of people from rural areas to urban areas……….
(vi) Volcanic activities that are taking place around Kilimanjaro Mountain……
(vii) Drawing a map showing all roads and schools at your village……….
(viii) Taking photographs during study tour at nearby school………
(ix) Prepare a farm before rain has started……….
5. Mention four job opportunities that can be obtained after studying Geography.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 10

 TOPIC 2: THE EARTH

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and is the only known celestial body to support life. It has a
diameter of approximately 12,742 km and is roughly 4.5 billion years old. Earth features a diverse
atmosphere and is composed of various landforms, water bodies, and ecosystems, which have
contributed to a supportive environment for life. The planet is unique due to its abundance of liquid
water, a protective magnetic field, and a stable climate that has evolved over millions of years.
/
.
1. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS: [PTOPOSED BY EMMANUEL KANT IN 1755]
The nebular hypothesis suggests that the solar system, including Earth, formed from a giant rotating
cloud of gas and dust known as the solar nebula. Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, this nebula
collapsed under its own gravity, leading to the formation of the Sun at its center. As the remaining
material combined around the young Sun, it formed a protoplanetary disk. Within this disk, particles
began to collide and stick together, forming larger bodies called planetesimals. Eventually, these
planetesimals merged into planets, including Earth.
This hypothesis is supported by observations of protoplanetary disks around young stars and the
chemical similarities found in meteorites, which are remnants from the early solar system.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 11

The diagram illustrates the birth of the solar system.
(1) Diffuse gas cloud, or nebula, begins to contract inward. (2) Cloud flattens into nebular disk as it
spins faster around a central axis. (3) Particles in the outer parts of the disk collide with each other
to form protoplanets. (4) Protoplanets coalesce into planets and settle into orbits around the hot
center. (5) The final product: a central Sun surrounded by eight orbiting planets (solar system not
shown in correct scale). The original nebular disk was much larger than our final solar system.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 12

2. BIG BANG THEORY [PROPOSED BY LEMATRE GEORGES AND EDWIN
HUBBLE IN 1920]
The Big Bang theory explains the origin of the universe, stating that approximately 13.8 to 15 billion
years ago, when the great explosion occurred. The explosion called BIG BANG.
The universe began as an extremely hot and dense point that rapidly expanded. Throughout its
expansion, matter cooled and formed atoms, leading to the creation of stars, galaxies, and eventually
solar systems, including ours.
The Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago as part of the solar system, resulting from processes
that began in the aftermath of the Big Bang.
The Big Bang theory is proved by the observation of cosmic microwave background radiation, the
abundance of light elements (like hydrogen and helium), and the redshift of distant galaxies,
supporting the notion of an expanding universe.
3. INTERSTELLAR DUST HYPOTHESIS [PROPOSED BY OTTO SCHMIDT IN 1943]
The interstellar dust hypothesis posits that Earth and other terrestrial planets formed from the
accumulation of dust particles found in interstellar space. In this view, clouds of dust and gas in the
galaxy coalesce and collapse, forming dense regions that ultimately lead to the birth of stars and
planetary systems. The grains of dust aggregate over time to form planetesimals, which collide and
merge to become planets, including Earth.
This hypothesis finds support in the study of cosmic dust particles captured by spacecraft and
laboratory simulations that illustrate how dust can lead to the formation of larger entities under the
right conditions.
These hypotheses provide a framework for understanding the origin of Earth and the solar system.
The nebular hypothesis describes a process directly related to the formation of our solar system,
while the Big Bang theory provides context for the universe’s creation. The interstellar dust
hypothesis highlights the role of cosmic materials in planetary development. Together, they
illustrate Earth’s complex beginnings in the vast cosmic tapestry of the universe.

POSITION OF EARTH IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Earth is the third planet from the Sun in our solar system, which consists of eight recognized planets,
their moons, and various smaller celestial objects like asteroids and comets.
This solar system is part of a vast collection of stars, gas, and dust known as the Milky Way Galaxy.
MILKY WAY GALAXY
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy that contains between 100 to 400 billion stars, including our Sun.
It is characterized by its spiral arms, which radiate outward from a central bulge where a
supermassive black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, is located. The solar system, including Earth, is
situated in one of the spiral arms called the Orion Arm, located about 27,000 light-years from the
galactic center.
EARTH’S POSITION
1. Relative Position: Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance known as an astronomical unit
(AU), which is about 93 million miles (150 million kilometers). Earth’s orbit is relatively
stable and lies in a plane called the ecliptic plane.
2. Location in the Solar System: Following Mercury and Venus, Earth is the third planet from the
Sun. The solar system includes inner rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and
outer gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn) and ice giants (Uranus and Neptune).
3. Galactic Context: The Milky Way, as a whole, is spinning, which also affects the relative
positions of stars and their planetary systems, including our own. The solar system is located
in a peripheral region of the galaxy, far from the densely populated center, which presents a
unique environment conducive to life.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 13

Earth occupies a special position within our solar system, orbiting the Sun in a stable environment
that supports life. As part of the Milky Way Galaxy, it is one of billions of planets, illustrating the
vastness and complexity of the universe. Understanding Earth’s position helps to highlight the
unique conditions that allow life to flourish in our corner of the cosmos.

?
The word “solar” comes from a Greek word “sol”, which means the sun.
 The solar system refers to the arrangement of planets and other solid objects in space in relation
to their positions from the sun.
 The solar system is a gravitationally bound system consisting of the Sun and all the celestial
bodies that orbit it, including eight planets, their moons, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and
meteoroids.
- The solar system formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse
of a portion of a giant molecular cloud.
- The Earth has one moon which revolves around it. Some planets also have moons which
revolve around them.
- Moons are natural satellites.
- All the planets revolve around the sun, each following its own path known as an orbit.
- Orbit is an imaginary path of elliptical shapes that the planets and other celestial or heavenly
bodies pass through.
- Planets and other heavenly bodies are arranged in such a way that no orbit crosses the path
of another.

APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SURFACE AREA OF

AVERAGE
NO PLANET DISTANCE FROM THE MOONS PER PERIOD PER ORBIT EACH PLANET IN
TEMPERATURE
SUN (MILLION KM) PLANET KM2
1 MERCURY 58 0 430 °C 88 days 74.8 mill
2 VENUS 108 0 462 °C 225 days 460.2 mill.
3 EARTH 150 1 15 °C 365 days (1 year) 510.1 mill.
4 MARS 228 2 -63 °C 1 year and 322 days 144.8 mill.
5 JUPITER 778.5 79 -145 °C 12 years 61.42 bill.
6 SATURN 1434 62 -178 °C 29 years 42.7 bill.
7 URANUS 2871 27 -216 °C 84 years 8.038 bill.
8 NEPTUNE 4495 14 -214 °C 165years 7.618 bill.
1. MERCURY
- The closest planet to the Sun; it is a rocky planet with extreme temperature variations
- Mercury revolves at a distance of about 58 million kilometres from the sun.
- It is the closest planet to the sun and the smallest planet in our solar system.
- Its average surface temperature is 430 °C
- It is called a boiling planet because of its closeness to the sun which is extremely hot.
- This planet has no natural satellite.
2. VENUS
- Known for its thick, toxic atmosphere and surface temperatures hotter than Mercury
- Venus revolves at a distance of about 108 million kilometres from the sun.
- Its size is close to that of the planet Earth.
- It is the second planet from the sun.
- This planet has no natural satellites.
- It is the hottest planet, with an average surface temperature of 462°C, most likely because of the
high amount of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 14

3. EARTH
- The third planet, characterized by liquid water, an atmosphere suitable for life, and diverse
ecosystems.
- The planet Earth revolves at a distance of about 150 million kilometres from the sun.
- It has an average surface temperature of 15°C.
- It is the only planet in the universe known to have geological and biological activities.
- Therefore, the earth is the only planet which supports life.
- The earth has one natural satellite known as the moon.
4. MARS
- The fourth planet, often called the “Red Planet” due to iron oxide on its surface and the potential
for past water presence.
- Mars revolves at a distance of about 228 million kilometres from the sun. It is smaller than the
Earth and Venus.
- Its atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon dioxide and it has two natural satellites.
5. JUPITER
- The fifth planet and the largest in the solar system, known for its Great Red Spot and many
moons, including Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system.
- This planet revolves at a distance of about 778.5 million kilometres from the sun.
- Its atmosphere is composed of hydrogen and helium gases.
- It is the largest planet in the solar system.
- It has 79 natural satellites.
6. SATURN
- The sixth planet, famous for its prominent ring system made of ice and rock particles
- This planet revolves at a distance of about 1,434 million kilometres from the sun.
- It is distinguished by its extensive ring system
- The ring system is composed of solid materials such as dust.
- The ring system is a distinctive feature of Saturn.
- It has 62 natural satellites.
7. URANUS
- The seventh planet, known for its blue-green color due to methane gas in its atmosphere and its
unique tilt that makes it rotate on its side.
- Uranus revolves at a distance of about 2,871 million kilometres from the sun.
- Its atmosphere is mainly composed of hydrogen, helium, and methane.
- It has 27 natural satellites.
8. NEPTUNE
- The eighth planet, the farthest from the Sun, recognized for its deep blue color and strong winds.
- This planet revolves at a distance of about 4,495 million kilometres from the sun.
- It is composed of hydrogen, helium and contains small amount of water and methane.
- It has 14 natural satellites.

?
Pluto was once considered the ninth planet in our solar system but was reclassified as a “dwarf
planet” in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is located in the Kuiper Belt, a
region beyond Neptune that contains many small icy bodies.

WHY IS PLUTO NOT A PLANET?

Pluto was reclassified due to the following reasons:
1. Not Clearing its Orbit: One of the defining criteria for a planet is that it must have cleared the
neighborhood around its orbit of other debris. Pluto shares its orbital zone with other objects in
the Kuiper Belt and does not meet this criterion.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 15

2. Size and Composition: While Pluto is large compared to many objects in the Kuiper Belt, it is
smaller than Earth’s Moon and has a different composition, primarily of ice and rock.
3. Orbit: Pluto’s orbit is more eccentric and tilted compared to the orbits of the eight recognized
planets.

Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that orbit the Sun and meet the following criteria as defined by the
International Astronomical Union (IAU):
1. Orbiting the Sun: They must directly orbit the Sun and are not satellites or moons of other planets.
2. Sufficient Mass: They must be massive enough for their self-gravity to overcome rigid body
forces, resulting in a nearly round shape (hydrostatic equilibrium).
3. Not Clearing Their Orbit: Unlike true planets, dwarf planets have not cleared their orbital
neighborhood of other debris, meaning they share their orbital zone with other objects of similar
size.
4. Not a Satellite: They cannot be a moon or a natural satellite of another body.

1. Pluto: Once considered the ninth planet of the solar system, Pluto is located in the Kuiper Belt
and is known for its icy composition, a thin atmosphere, and five known moons, including Charon,
which is almost half its size.
2. Eris: Discovered in 2005, Eris is located in the scattered disk region of the solar system and is
slightly smaller than Pluto. It is one of the most massive known dwarf planets and has one known
moon, Dysnomia.
3. Haumea: Haumea is recognized for its elongated shape, rapid rotation, and two known moons
(Hi’iaka and Namaka). Discovered in 2004, it is located in the Kuiper Belt and is distinguished by
its unique surface characteristics, including a variety of ices.
4. Makemake: Discovered in 2005, Makemake is also situated in the Kuiper Belt and is known for
its reddish color and a lack of atmosphere. It has one known moon, discovered in 2016.
5. Ceres: Ceres is the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar system, specifically in the asteroid
belt between Mars and Jupiter. It is the largest object in the asteroid belt and has unique features
such as a differentiated structure and the presence of water ice.

ARRANGEMENT OF PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

- The Earth is round and can be described as having a spherical shape. It is not a perfect sphere
because is slightly flat at the North and South Poles which give it a nearly spherical shape called
a ‘geoid’.
- The flattening of the earth is very slight as the measurements in the north-south and east-west
distance indicate.
- The distance through the centre from the North Pole to the South Pole is 12,713 kilometres
whereas the distance through the centre of the earth at the equator is 12,756 kilometres.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 16

- The circumference of the earth at the equator is about 40,008 kilometres was flat, the whole
world would have sunrise and sunset at the same time. This simply shows that the earth is not
a perfect sphere.
- It is a little flattened at both ends like an orange. It can, in fact. be called a geoid (hearth-
shaped').

Fig. Earth’s dimensions.

Earth’s equatorial and polar circumference (a) and diameter (b).
The dashed line is a perfect circle for reference to Earth’s geoid.

’
There are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical. The following are some of them
1. CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH.
- One piece of evidence to show that the shape of the
Earth is spherical is to travel around the Earth.
- If you travel around the whole world by air, land, sea,
or ocean and in any direction, you will never reach
the end but will come back to where you started.
- This is because spherical objects have no fixed
points. If the Earth were flat, you woul d start
somewhere and end at another place. You would
have to turn around and retrace your steps to get
back to the place you started.
- In the 16th century, Ferdinand Magellan proved the
Earth was round because was able to travel and go
around the world ending up back at the same place
he started.
- He took this event between 1519 and 1522. If you travel from a certain point on the earth by
going straight around the earth, you will eventually come back to the point of origin.
- Modern air routes and ocean navigation are based on the assumption that the earth is round.
- If you go round the spherical object, it is possible to come back to the starting point without going
through the same route but on a flat surface, you will either fall at the end or you can only come
back to the starting point by going back through the same route.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 17

 A diagram to illustrate an abrupt drop at the edge of a table-like earth (Flat earth)
2. THE CIRCULAR HORIZON.
- This explains the curved horizon of the Earth. The horizon
of the earth, viewed from any direction or elevation, such
as a mountain or an airplane appears curved.
- This curved horizon widens as the height of the observer
increases until it completely becomes circular. This
curved horizon is proof that the Earth is a sphere.

3. SHIP’S VISIBILITY.
- When an observer stands at the coast to observe a ship approaching the shore, the mast of
the ship will be seen first before the whole body of the ship appears.
- Two ships approaching the shore from the sea are both visible at the same time.
- The ship in front appears to be an observer before the one behind.
- If the Earth was not spherical but flat, both ships would appear at the same time. Furthermore,
the observer at the shore watching the approaching ship would first see its mast, then the
deck, and finally the entire hall.
- This is evidence to demonstrate the spherical shape of the earth.
- The observer would have seen the entire ship if the Earth was flat.

The mast of a ship is seen before the hull on A flat earth, the entire ship is seen at once on a
curved horizon. flat surface
4. THE SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
Have you ever thought of why we have day and night or sunrise and sunset?
- It is caused by the rotation of the earth which has a link with the spherical nature of the Earth.
- The rotation of the Earth from the west to the east makes the sun rise from the east and set
in the west.
- This implies that those in the east will see the sun before those in the west.
- This also causes day and night at different places on the earth.
- It indicates that the earth is spherical.
- If the earth were flat, the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at the same time. But
we know this is not. The following figures help to explain it further.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 18

 Sun rises and sun sets at different times The whole world will have sun rise or sun set
for different places at the same time
5. THE LUNAR ECLIPSE.
The eclipse of the Moon helps explain the spherical nature of the Earth. During the eclipse of the
moon, the Earth comes between the sun and the moon. The shadow of the Earth, which is cast or
reflected on the moon, is round. It is an indication that the Earth is circular because only circular
shapes cast a round shadow.

LUNAR ECLIPSE
6. PLANETARY BODIES ARE SPHERICAL.
All observations from telescopes reveal that the planetary bodies, the Sun. Moon, satellites and stars
have circular outlines from whichever angle you see them. They are strictly spheres. Earth, by
equivalence, cannot be the only exception.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 19

7. DRIVING POLES ON LEVEL GROUND ON A CURVED EARTH.
- When three poles of equal lengths are driven into a spherical surface, you will notice that the
first and the last poles would have equal lengths or appear at the same levels, with the middle
pole being projected due to the curvature of the Earth. The three poles would have the same
heights if the Earth had a flat surface.
- In the following diagram, compare the heights of the poles on a spherical surface as against a
flat surface.

(a) (b)
The diagram (a) above, depicts poles driven in the ground on a round surface as against b, those
driven in the ground on a flat surface.

Observe it and explain the difference.

8. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
- Moreover, aerial photographs taken by artificial satellites at great distances from the Earth
all show that the Earth’s surface is curved.
- Only spherical objects could give these curved shapes.
- Some of the photographs were taken by Apollo Spacecraft in 1968 (Apollo 8) and 1972
(Apollo 17).

TEST
On you are own or find assistance from whoever you want, find solutions for the following questions.
1. With the aid of annotated diagrams, attempt to prove that the earth is spherical. Give as many
reasons as you can.

2. Explain with the aid of fairly accurate diagrams, how the tilt of the earth's axis on its orbital plane
around the sun causes:
(i) The seasons
(ii) The variations in the length of day and night
(iii) The altitude of the midday sun to change at different times of the year.

3. Explain the differences between any three of the following:

(i) Perihelion and aphelion
(ii) Parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude
(iii) The earth's rotation and the earth's revolution
(iv) Solstice and equinox
(v) Standard Time and Greenwich Mean Time

4. Explain any three of the following terms connected with the earth and its planetary relations:
(i) Galaxy (iii) Elliptical orbit
(ii) Prime Meridian (iv) International Date Line

5. What is the approximate distance in a straight line between Cairo (lat. 3°1' N., long. 31°5'E.) and
Durban (lat. 29°57'S., long. 30°59'E.)?

6. When it is 2.00 p.m. in Greenwich, what is the local time of: -

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 20

 a) Sydney (long. 151°E.) b) Chicago (long. 87°30'W.) c) Bombay (long. 73°E)
7. The captain of a ship observed that it was local noon. He turned on the radio and listened to the
7,00 a.m. B.B.C. news. What was his longitude?

8. (a) Explain the meaning of the terms 'Equinox' and 'Solstice'.

(b) With the aid of diagrams, show how they are related to the movements of the earth.

9. Answer the following:

a. Describe any three experiments or observations which support the belief that the earth is
roughly a sphere.
b. Explain why mean temperatures for London are lowest in winter.
c. Explain why the local clock time in the Samoa Islands (17I°W.) was noon on 1st November
when in the Fiji Islands (I78°E.), it was 11.00 a.m. on 2nd November.

10. Explain the following:

When it is noon at Cairo (30°E.), the local time in New York (75°W.) is 5.00 a.m.

11. Explain the effect of:

(a) Latitude on temperature.
(b) Latitude on the length of day and night.

EARTH’S MOVEMENT
The earth is in motion all the time. One does not feel this motion because one moves with it, like all
other planets, the earth has two motions known as: -
(a) Rotation (b) Revolution

ROTATION
Rotation is the spinning of a body on its axis.
- Earth’s rotation – is a spinning of the earth on its axis. Or, it is the movement of the earth
on ts axis.
- Axis – is an imaginary line joining the north and south poles through the center of the
earth
▪ Earth is the third planet from the sun and most dense among all. It is the only planet known
to support life on it. We also call it a blue planet.
▪ Circumference of the earth is 40,232km, its area is 510 million sq. Km and its distance from
the sun about 149 million km.
▪ The earth rotates around an imaginary line that passes through its north and south pole. This
imaginary line is called the axis of the earth.
▪ Earth rotates from west to East.
▪ Earth takes about 23hours, 56minutes and 40.91seconds to complete one rotation.
▪ The rotational velocity at the equator is 1667km/hr.
▪ Its speed decreases towards the pole, where it is zero.

Earth rotates from west to east. Looking down at

the North Pole from above, Earth appears to rotate
in a counterclockwise direction. The speed of
Earth’s rotation is constant but it varies by
latitude, being greatest at the equator, and
effectively diminishing to zero at the poles. The
speed of rotation at different latitudes is shown in
kilometers per hour (kph) and miles per hour
(mph).

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 21

It makes one complete rotation after every twenty four hours (24 hurs) or one day, the following
observations illustrates the earth’s rotation from west to east.
A. When traveling in a fast moving vehicle we notice trees and other objects on both sides of the
road moving in the opposite direction. This observation is similar to the movement of the earth’s
rotation to the sun.
B. In the morning the sun appears to rise over the eastern horizon but due to the fact that the sun
is the center of the solar system we know that it does not move in relation to the solar system.
This shows that the earth is moving from west to east.
C. At night most of the stars appear to move across the sky from east to west. This shows that the
earth is moving from west to east.
.
Sample question.
 What are the effects of the earth’s rotation?
 What rotation of the earth may cause or what are the causes of nthe earth’s rotation?
The anwer for the questions may be as the answer of the question about the evidences of that the
earth rotates which are as follow:
1. DAY AND NIGHT
Earth rotating on its axis is the reason behind days and nights every 24 hours. If the
earth does not rotate day/night cycle would have never happened. As the earth is tilted
22½° on its axis this causes the difference of longer and shorter days. When the
difference is largest, we call it solstice. When days and nights are equal, we call it
equinox.

A “top view” of the march of the seasons. Earth’s rotational axis maintains polarity (points in the
same direction) throughout the year, so on the June solstice the North Pole leans most directly
toward the Sun, whereas on the December solstice the North Pole leans most directly away from the
Sun (the dates shown are approximate). One-half of Earth is illuminated at all times during the year.
The line between the two halves is called the circle of illumination.

Remember, equinoxes are occurring each year

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 22

The change between day and night is caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The side that
faces the sun experiences the light from the sun (day) whereas the side that is not facing the sun at
that time is in darkness (night).

A DIAGRAM SHOWING DAY AND NIGHT

A diagram to demonstrate day and night

2. DIFFERENT HOURS
The earth’s rotation results in different times for different locations. The difference in time is determined by
longitudinal differences between two or more places. We have learned that the earth rotates from the west
to the east making a circle of 360o. Then, how long will it take to turn 1º?
To find the answer to this question, we must divide 24 hours by 360º. But first, we will change the hours
into minutes: 24 x 60= 1440. Therefore, the earth goes through 360º in 1,440 minutes.
To find how long it takes 1º to rotate, we divide 1,440 minutes by 360º. Therefore, the earth takes 4
minutes to turn 1º. As there are 60 minutes in 1hour, the earth will turn 15º in 1 hour.
To simplify,

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 23

 The earth is sphere (round) so it has 360 º = 24hrs 360°𝑋1ℎ𝑟
= 15°
24
a total of 360 º
? = 1hr
The earth completes one rotation or
circle (360 º) in 24hours ∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 15° 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
This is to say, 360 º = 24hours In minutes
If 360 º = 24hours, what about 1hour = 60minutes ("), now
1hour? If 15 º = 60"
60 𝑥 1°
= 4"
15°
What will it be if in 1º
1º = ? this is to say, in every 4minutes, the
earth rotates 1 degree.

3. DEFLECTION OF WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS

The earth’s rotation causes deflection of

planetary winds and ocean currents. This
means that they do not blow and flow in the
intended direction. The planetary winds and
ocean currents are deflected to the right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
This is summarised by Ferrel’s Law which
states that "freely moving bodies are deflected
to their right in the northern hemisphere and to
their left in the southern hemisphere from their
point of origin".
This is evident in the deflection of winds and
ocean currents as it illustrated in the following
DEFLECTION OF WIND
diagram of ocean currents in the world.

4. DAILY RISING AND FALLING OF TIDES

The ocean tide is the rising and falling of the water level in the ocean. This is caused by gravitational
attraction exerted by the sun and largely by the moon upon the rotating earth. When the sun, the
moon and the earth are in a straight line, the ocean tide rises and when the sun, the moon and the

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 24

earth are not in a straight line, the ocean tide falls. Tides are experienced at different times of the day
and in different places on the earth’s surface.

5. ANTICLOCKWISE MOVEMENT OF CYCLONES

Due to earth’s rotation cyclones move in an anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and
in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere
#
1. Give short notes on the following
(i) Earth’s rotation (ii) the earth’s axis
2. What is the degrees of the earth’s axis?
3. What is the direction of the earth rotation?
4. What time is used by the earth to make one complete rotation and the time for one degree of
rotation?
5. How many degrees the earth complete in 3 hours?
6. Mention four causes of the earth’s rotation.

REVOLUTION
The earth’s revolution refers to the movement of the
earth around the sun following its orbit.
The speed of revolution is about 29.6 kilometres per
second.
The earth revolves around the sun for approximately
365 days a year.
A normal year has 365 ¼ days. The fraction days are
not counted every year but is added once in 4 years to
make a leap year of 366 days.
The leap year is a long year which occurs once in every
four years, when February has 29 days instead of 28.
’
The revolution of the earth around the sun and tilting on its axis have the following effects:
a) Seasons of the year b) Aphelon and Perihelion. c) Eclipse d) Difference in the length of day and
night e) Change of midday sun in the latitudes.

I. SEASONS
A season is the main period of the year with a particular type of weather.
There are for seasons each year namely, Summer, Autumn, Winter and Springs
CAUSES OF SEASONS
Seasons are caused by
(i) The inclination of the earth’s axis and (ii) the earth’s revolution around the sun.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 25

 1°
The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 66 2 to the earth’s orbital plane and it is always pointing to the
same direction in space.
- In its revolution around the sun, one hemisphere is inclined towards the sun at one period of
the year and away from it at another period of the year for example: - June, July and August,
the northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun, this is summer time.
- The same months, is Winter time because the southern hemisphere is tilted away from the
sun.
- Autumn and Springs are short seasonal transition between Summer and winter.

Months’ seasons Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere

(i) May, June, July Summer month Autumn months

(ii) August, September, October Autumn months Springs months

(iii) November, December, January Winter months Summer month

(iv) February, March, April Springs months Winter months

Diagram shows the annual march of the seasons as Earth revolves about the Sun. Shading indicates
the changing position of the circle of illumination. Note the hours of daylight for the equator and the
poles. As you read, begin on the right side at December 21 and move counterclockwise.

II. APHELION AND PERIHELION

Aphelion is the furthest position of the earth’s orbit from the sun.
- The earth is at Aphelion each year on 4th July when it is in 152 million kilometers from the sun.
Perihelion is the nearest position of the earth from the sun.
- The earth is at perihelion each year on 3rd January when it is 147.3 million kilometers from the
sun.
Therefore, the speed of revolution is about 29.66 km per second.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 26

 Diagram that demonstrates Perihelion and aphelion

III .ECLIPSE
An eclipse is the movement of one heavily body between the two others, such that it casts shadow
over the other.
The eclipse involves three heavily bodies namely; the Sun, the Earth and the Moon. So long as the sun
is the central body of the solar system, it never moves, only the earth and the moon are in the motion
all the time.
An eclipse can be either, a total eclipse or a partial eclipse
Total eclipse is when the whole body is obscured i.e completely blocked from the sun light.
Partial eclipse is when the only part of the body becomes obscured.
At any place an eclipse will last short time, hardly seven minutes because both the earth and the
moon are in motion.

There are two types of eclipse (i) Lunar eclipse and (ii) solar eclipse
LUNAR ECLIPSE (ECLIPSE OF THE MOON)
This occurs when the earth moves between the sun and the moon, this casting its shadow over the
moon.

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE

- The solar eclipse is also known as the eclipse of the sun.
- It occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun.
- The moon throws its shadow over the earth.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 27

 - An eclipse of the sun is partial when only part of the earth is obscured by the shadow of the
moon.
- Umbra or total eclipse is when the whole body is obscured i.e completely blocked from the
sun’s light.
- Penumbra or partial eclipse is when only part of the body becomes obscured.
- On 23rd October 1976, parts of Tanzania witnessed a total eclipse of the sun.
- Partial eclipses occurred on 19th April 1977 and 14th October 2000. On 1st September, 2016, a
total solar eclipse was witnessed in Rujewa, Mbarali
- At any place an eclipse will last for short time or hardly seven minutes

IV. THE APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE OVERHEAD SUN (CHANGES IN THE

LATITUDE OF THE OVERHEAD SUN)
The apparent movement of the overhead sun is related to the different positions of the earth on its
movement as it revolves around the sun.
The overhead sun appears to move north wards and south wards in an osculating (swinging)
manner.
However the overhead sun’s northward limit is latitude 23ºN. People beyond this latitude never see
the sun vertically above their head . The latitudes 23ºN is known as Tropical of cancer .
Similarly the overhead sun ends latitude 23ºS in its apparent Southward movement. This latitude is
known as the Tropic of Capricorn
On 21st June the sun is vertically overhead on the Tropical of cancer. This is known as the summer
solstice in the Northern hemisphere.
On 22nd December the sun is vertically overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn this is the winter solstice
in the Northern Hemisphere.
Solstice means equal night or is when the sun on these days appears to stand still between its north
ward and southward journeys.

V. THE SOLSTICES AND EQUINOX

The tilting nature of the earth’s axis causes parts of its surface to receive different amount of sunlight at
different times of the year. This situation results to seasons of the year and two phenomena which are
solstice and equinox.
A. SOLSTICE
- Solstice comes from the Latin word solstitium which contains two words: Sol means sun and
sistere which means stand still.
- The solstice, means “sun-stand still”.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 28

- Solstice is a phenomenon that occurs when the earth poles are mostly inclined towards or away
from the sun, causing the earth pole which is inclined to the sun to receive maximum sunlight.
- This makes the most inclined pole towards the sun to experience the longest day in the year. During
this time, the sun is vertically overhead in respective tropic on specific dates.
Summer Solstice Tropic of Capricorn In southern
December 22nd
Winter Solstice Tropic of cancer hemisphere
Summer Solstice Tropic of cancer In Northern
June 21st
Winter Solstice Tropic of Capricorn hemisphere
B. EQUINOX
The equinox simply refers to equal lengths of days and nights.
- The sun is overhead twice a year at the equators, 21st March and 23rd September.
- The March equinox is referred to as vernal equinox in the northern hemisphere and autumnal
equinox in the southern hemisphere.
- The September equinox is known as autumnal equinox in the northern hemisphere and vernal
equinox in the southern hemisphere.
VI. VARYING LENGTHS OF DAY AND NIGHT AT DIFFERENT TIMES OF THE
YEAR
The lengths of day and night are not the same across the world because the earth’s axis is inclined to its
plane at an angle of 661/2º.
- If the earth’s axis had been vertical to its orbital plane, all the parts of the earth would have the same
duration of days and nights throughout the year.
- Places along the equator experience equal day and night throughout the year, but northwards or
southwards toward the poles, the lengths of day and night vary with latitude.
- For example, when the overhead sun is in the northern hemisphere, the days are longer than the
nights in that hemisphere.
- However, at latitude 661/2° N (the Arctic Circle) and beyond, there is no sun.
- At the North Pole, daylight is experienced for six months without sunset. During that period, the
polar regions south of the Antarctic Circle (661/2oS) experience prolonged six months of darkness
and, vice-versa; they receive six months of day light as the North Pole experiences darkness.
- The polar regions south of the Antarctic cycle experience the long six months night from March
to September and the six months day light from October to February.
- Latitude 661/2° N is called the Arctic Circle and 661/2oS is called Antarctic Circle
#
Choose the correct letter of the phrase which completes the statement correctly:
1. Day and night are caused by:
(a) Earth’s rotation (b) earth’s revolution
(c) Distance of the earth from the Moon (d) Eclipse of the moon

2. Places on the East of Greenwich experience sunrise before places on the west because the earth:
(a) Rotates from east to west (c) Revolves around the sun
(b) Rotates from the west to the east (d) Is very far from the sun
3. The earth has:
(a) Two poles, namely the north pole and the south pole.
(b) Four poles, namely east, west, south, and north.
(c) An axis which is as long as the diameter of the earth at the equator
(d) An east-west axis. (e) Two seasons: cold and wet
4. When the moon’s shadow is cast over the earth’s surface the phenomenon is known as:
(a) Lunar eclipse (b) Solar eclipse (c) Equinoxes (d) Summer solstice

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 29

PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS.

LATITUDE/PARALLEL
Latitudes/Parallels are imaginary lines parallel to the equator joining all the places at an equal angular
measurement.
They can also be defined as the arcs or angular distances (measured in degree minutes and seconds)
of a point on the surface north or south of the earth from the equator.
- The North Pole has a latitude of 90o North, and the South Pole has a latitude of 90o South.
- The equator divides the earth into two equal parts, namely the northern hemisphere and the southern
hemisphere.
- The most common parallels are the Equator (0o), the Tropic of Cancer (231/2o N), the Tropic of Capricorn
(231/2o S), the Arctic Circle (661/2o N) and the Antarctic Circle (661/2oS), and the Horse latitudes (30o N.

LONGITUDES OR MERIDIANS
Longitude is an angular distance. measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime
(or First) Meridian.
Longitudes or Meridians are imaginary lines which run from the North Pole to the South Pole east or
west of the Greenwich meridian (0o).
On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from pole to pole passing through
the equator. Such lines are also called meridians.

Meridians: Are commonly known as Longitude.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 31

It was decided in 1884, by international agreement, to choose as the zero meridian the one which
passes through the royal astronomical observatory at Greenwich, near London. This is the
prime meridian (0°) from which all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°.

They have one very important function, they determine local time in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich
mean time, which is sometimes referred to as world time
The Greenwich meridian is the prime meridian which passes through the Greenwich Observatory
Station near London where it derives its name. In Africa, it passes through Accra in Ghana.
The prime meridian divides the earth into East and West. Since there are 360º in the sphere,
meridians of 0º to 180º lie east of the Greenwich meridian and the other 0º to 180° west of Greenwich.

Diagram: Meridians of longitude.

(a) Longitude is measured in degrees east or west of a 0° starting line, the prime meridian. Note the
measurement of 60° E longitude.
(b) Angles of longitude measured from the prime meridian determine other meridians. North
America is west of Greenwich; therefore, it is in the Western Hemisphere.

A great circle is any circle that divides the earth into two equal spheres
- The equator and the Greenwich Meridian together with Meridian 180º are all great circles.
- Other great circles are the Meridian 10º E and 170º W and 20º E and 160º W.
- In other words, all the meridians are great circles.
- The equator, on the other hand, is the only latitude that is a great circle.
- The number of great circles is limitless.

- Great circles are used in water navigation (by ships) and aviation (by airplanes).
- They are used to plot routes for ships crossing the oceans to save fuel and time.
- In aviation, pilots use great circles to mark the shortest path.

The usefulness of latitudes and longitudes are as follows:

(i) Latitudes determine climatic variations. For example, the temperature decreases from the
equator towards the poles.
(ii) Longitudes are used to calculate local time of different places on the earth’s surface.
(iii) Longitudes are used to determine days and dates in the world with reference to the
International Date Line.
(iv) Both show the location of a place on the earth’s surface.
(v) Both help to identify routes for aviation and navigation.
(vi) Both help to determine distances between places on the earth’s surface.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 32

 (i) Latitudes are imaginary lines parallel to the equator joining all the places at an equal angular
measurement, while; longitudes are the distances measured in angles of any point east or west
of the prime meridian.
(ii) The main latitude is Equator while the main longitude is Prime meridian or Greenwich
(iii) Only equator is a great circle among the latitudes while, all are great circle among longitudes
(iv) Latitudes are used to determine the climate or vegetation of a region while longitudes are used
to determine time, date and days of a region.
(v) Latitudes are aligned horizontally while longitudes are aligned vertically

LONGITUDE AND TIME

Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15°
in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.

The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour.
Conversely, if we go westwards, local time is retarded by I hour.
Places East of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich see
the sun later and lose time.

A simple memory aid for this will be East-Gain-Add (E.GA.) and West-Lose-Subtract (W.L.S.).

Hence when it is noon, in London (Longitude 0'5W), the local time for Madras (80°E.) will be 5 hours
20 minutes ahead of London or 5.20 p.m. But the local time for New York (74°W) will be 4 hours 56
minutes behind London or 7.04 a.m.

We can put it in another way, when Londoners are having lunch, Indians will have dinner and New
Yorkers will have breakfast.

The earth rotates on its own axis from west to east once after every twenty-four hours (one day).
This means that the earth turns through 360° in 24 hours or 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
All the places along the same longitude experience mid-day at the same time. For example, if it is
12:00 noon in Addis Ababa (39°E), it will also be 12 noon in Dar es Salaam as it is also located at 39°E.
On the contrary, places along different longitudes experience different times.
For example, when it is 12 noon at places along the Greenwich meridian (0°), like Accra in Ghana or
London in England, it will be 1.00 pm at all places along longitude 15°E or 11:00 am along longtude
150W.
The time recorded along the same longitude is known as Local Mean Time (LMT).

EXAMPLE 1
The local time at Tunis 10o E is 3:00 pm. What is the local time of Mombasa, Kenya 40o E?
Solution
(i) The difference in degrees of longitude between Tunis and Mombasa will be:
40º - 10º = 30º
(ii) The difference in time between Tunis and Mombasa will be calculated as follows:
If 15º = 1 hour 30°𝑥1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑆𝑜, 2ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Then 30º = ? 15°

(iii) Since Mombasa is found in the East of Tunis, Mombasa’s time will be ahead of that of Tunis by
2 hours (3.00 pm + 2 hours = 5 pm).
Therefore, the time in Mombasa will be 5.00 pm.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 33

EXAMPLE 2
The local time at Washington, D.C. (96oW) is 05:00 pm. Friday. Find the time and day at Zanzibar (39oE.)
Solution
(i) The difference in degrees between Washington, D.C and Zanzibar will be:
96o + 39o = 135o
(ii) The difference in time between Washington, D.C and Zanzibar will be calculated as follows:
If 150 = 1 hour
135°𝑥1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
Then 1350 = ? 𝑆𝑜, 9ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
15°
(iii) Since Zanzibar is to the east of Washington, D.C, time will be ahead of that of Washington, D.C
by 9 hours.
Thus, 5.00 pm + 9 hours = 02:00 am Saturday.
Therefore, the time in Zanzibar will be 02:00 am Saturday.

Example 1
Find the longitudinal position of Mogadishu whose local time is 4:40 pm. when the local time at Tunis
10º E is 2:20 p.m.
Solution
(i) The difference in time between Tunis and Mogadishu is given by 4:40 – 2:20 = 2.20 hours.
(ii) Convert the time into minutes. 2 hours 20 minutes = 140 minutes.
(iii) Use the minutes to calculate the difference in degrees of longitude between Tunis and
Mogadishu. Since the earth rotates 1° in 4 minutes, how many degrees will it take to rotate 140
minutes? Difference in longitude
140 min 𝑥 1°
(iv) 140 min X 1º = 35°
4𝑚𝑖𝑛
(v) Since the time of Tunis is behind that of Mogadishu, then Mogadishu must be located East of
Tunis. Therefore, the longitudinal position of Mogadishu will be
10° E + 35° = 45° E.
Example 2
What is the longitude of Lindi whose local time is 8:24 pm when the local time in Montevideo (Uruguay)
56º W is 02:00 pm?
Solution
(i) The difference in time between Lindi and Montevideo will be: 08:24 – 02:00 = 6:24 hours
(ii) Convert the time into minutes 6 hours and 24 minutes = 384 minutes
(iii) Use the minutes to calculate the difference in degrees of longitude between Lindi and
Montevideo. The earth rotates 1o in 4 minutes. How many degree will it take to rotate 384
minutes?
384
(iii) Difference in longitude 4𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 96°
Since the time of Lindi is ahead of that of Montevideo, Lindi must be located east of
Montevideo. Therefore, the longitude position of Lindi will be:
96o – 56o = 40oE.

TIME ZONES
A time zone refers to a stretch of land where the standard time is accepted throughout the
longitudinal zone of 15o in width. There would be problems in telling time if every place had its own
time set according to the local mean time.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 34

ESSENCE OF TIME AND TIME ZONES
- The essence of time and time zones resulted from difficulties in identifying time for a particular
area.
- If each place across a country followed its own time, it would create confusion. For example,
Dodoma is about 35oE and Tanga is about 39oE. If each follow edits own local time, there would
be a difference of 16 minutes between the two towns.
- There would be confusion in railway and airways timetables or in radio programmes if they had
to show different times, each referring to its local area.
- To avoid time confusion, different stretches of land take their time from agreed meridians. The
time adopted is known as standard time. In East Africa, standard time is taken from the meridian
of 45°E.
- When the whole stretch of land keeps the same standard time and that stretch forms a time zone.
- The Greenwich Meridian is the starting point for dividing the globe into 24 time zones.
- The standard time for Greenwich is known as the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

Diagram shows the 24 time zones of the world, each based on central meridians spaced 15° apart.
Especially over land areas, these boundaries have been significantly adjusted.
VARIATION OF STANDARD TIME IN A SINGLE COUNTRY
Countries with large stretches of land, for example, Russia, the United States of America, Canada and
China have several standard time zones for practical purposes.
The International date Line
The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line following the meridian/or longitude 180o W (or
E) whereby the date changes by one day when it is crossed or where calendar day begins.
QUESTION
Why the international date line is not straight instead it is in zigzag form?

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 35

Answer: The IDL is not straight for the purpose of avoiding crossing land masses which would cause a
country to have two different days at the same time.
GAINING AND LOSING DAY
- If one travels eastwards and cross the date line, one will gain a day
- If one travels westwards and cross the date line, one will lose a day.
- If Greenwich it is noon on Tuesday, a place 900w would be 10 a.m. On Tuesday, and at a place
1800w it would be midnight Monday.
- On the other hand, a place 900E would be 6.00p.m on Tuesday and at a place 1800E would be
midnight on Tuesday.

TOPIC 3: MAJOR FEATURES OF THE

EARTH’S SURFACE
Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. Its surface is approximately 510 million square
kilometers. This means that earth is very large. The surface of the earth is made up of two main
features LAND and WATER BODIES. The land's surface area is estimated at 29.2% of the total area
of the earth's surface, while water covers the remaining 70.8%. Most of the land exists in large blocks
called Continents.
Likewise, most of the water is contained in large water bodies called seas and oceans.

CONTINENT
Continent is a major landmass rising from the ocean floor.
HOW CONTINENTS WERE FORMED?

Formerly the continents were big landmass known as Pangaea. Due to the forces operating
continuously, the landmass was separated into two parts namely Laurasia to the northern
hemisphere and Gondwanaland to the Southern hemisphere. Further separation or drifting led to
the formation of the present continents which include Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe,
North America and Southern America.
S/N. CONTINENT LOCATION SIZE (Km2)
1. Asia Located to the east of the Ural Mountain and Suez Canal and South of Caspian Sea 43,608,000
Located in the Southern hemisphere bordered by red sea and Suez Canal to the
2. Africa north east, Mediterranean Sea to the north Atlantic ocean to the west and Indian 30,335,000
ocean to the South East
Located in the Northern hemisphere surrounded by oceans, to the north Atlantic
3. North America 25,349,000
Ocean, to the east Arctic Ocean to the west Pacific Ocean
Located to the Southern hemisphere and small part of the continent is located in the
4. South America northern hemisphere. It is separated with Atlantic Ocean to the north and North 17,611,000
east, to the west Pacific Ocean to the south southern sea
Located in the Antarctic region in the Southern hemisphere. Antarctica is
5. Antarctica 13,340,000
surrounded by the Southern Ocean. Almost 98% is covered by ice.
Located in the northern hemisphere. The continent is surrounded by:
Black sea (South east)
6. Europe Arctic ocean (North) 10,498,000
Atlantic Ocean (West)
Mediterranean Sea (South)
Located in the Southern hemisphere near New Zealand. The continent of Australia
7. Australia 7,682,000
along with New Zealand constitutes a region called Oceania or Australasia

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 36

MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES OF CONTINENTS
The surface of any continent is not smooth. It has mountains, hills, plain and plateaus, river valleys,
lakes, basins and rift valleys. Altitude and slope give rise to the different relief features. Plain,
plateaus and mountains form the major relief features of continent.
.
A great part of any continent is plain. Plains are continuous stretches of comparatively flat land and
not rising much above the sea level. Many extensive plains are a result of down warping of the earth’s
crust for example, Siberia in Asia, North European plains, Indo- getic plain and the Great central
plains of North America.
.
Extensive high altitude areas with more or less uniform summit levels are known as plateaus. They
are formed when forces formed within the earth uplift a plain region. Major plateaus regions include
the central plateau of Africa, the Brazilian Highlands and the Arabian plateau. The African plateau is
higher in the South and East of the continent than it is in the north and west. In some areas, the
outflow and spread of lava have formed plateaus over an extensive area, for instance the Deccan
plateau in the India sub-continent and Colombia plateaus in the United states.
.
There are three major types of Mountains: These are;
1) Fold mountains
2) Block mountain
3) Volcanic mountain
A] FOLD MOUNTAIN
The wrinkling of the earth’s crust forms fold mountains, folding once occurs where rocks are laid in
layers, fold mountains usually consist of high ranges that extend for hundreds of kilometers across
the continent. Thus fold mountains form the most extensive ranges in the world. For example the
Rock mountains in North America vary in width from 640 to 1,600 kilometers and are about 5,000
kilometers in length.
These types of mountains have some of the highest peaks of the world. Mountain Everest is 8,848
meters above sea level and the Andes is 7,003m above sea level. Apart from the Himalayas in Asia
and the andes in South America, this group of mountains includes the Andes-in South America, the
Alps in Europe, the Atlas in North Africa, the Cap Rangers in South Africa, the Appalachians in U.S.A
and the Great Divide Range in Australia.
EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 37
B] BLOCK MOUNTAINS
Block Mountains are formed when a movement in
the earth’s crust forces the rocks to break. As a
result, severals cracks or faults are formed when
sets of faults run parallel to each other and the
ground between is forced up, a block mountain
(horst) is formed.
Examples of block mountains are the Sambara,
Uruguru and Ruwenzori mountains in East Africa,
the Vosges and Black forest mountains in Europe
and mount Sinai in Asia.
Other features associated with faulting and Block
Mountains are rift valleys or grabens.
Rift valleys are formed when the land is between
two sets of faults sink down. The Great East African
Rift valley is the longest in the world. It stretches
from the Baka’s valley east of the Lebanon
mountains, through the Red sea, Ethiopia, East
Africa to the lower Zambezi Area.
A branch of the valley runs along Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania to Lake Albert in Uganda. Another
less extensive rift valley is the middle Rhine Rift valley between the Vosges and black forest
mountains.
The walls of a rift valley form fault lines or escarpments. Trenches formed by rift valley are
sometimes filled with water to form Lakes like Lake Nyasa, Lake Albert, Lake Eyas, and Lake Turkana
all of which are in East Africa and the Dead Sea in Jordan.

]
Volcanic mountains are cone-shaped mountains formed from the cooling and solidification of hot
molten material (lava) from the interior of the earth during a volcanic eruption. There are three main
types of volcanic mountains depending on the frequency of eruption.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 38

1. ACTIVE VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
Active volcanic mountains are mountains that experience periodic eruptions, for example, Oldonyo
Lengai in Tanzania, Vesuvius in Italy, Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Mauna
Loa in Hawaii.
2. DORMANT VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
Dormant Volcanic mountains are the one which erupted only once in historical times and are no longer
active. Examples include the Kilimanjaro Mountain in Tanzania, Mount Ararat in Turkey, Fuji and
Mauna Kea in Hawaii.
3. EXTINCT OR DEAD VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
Extinct or dead volcanic mountains are Volcanic mountains which have not erupted for a very long
time and have not shown any sign of erupting. Examples include Mount Rungwe in Tanzania, Mount
Kulal in Kenya, and Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador.
]
Residual Mountains are formed by a prolonged denudation.
Denudation involves removing weaker rocks from the land the result
of which landforms are lowered leaving behind resistant rock. The
remaining resistant rock is known as residual mountains. Examples of
residual mountains include the Haggard Mountains of central Sahara,
the Sekenke hills of Singida in Tanzania, the Adamawa mountains of
Eastern Niger, the Highlands of Scotland. The sierras of central Spain,
and the Mess and Butlers of the western plateau of the United States.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 39

BASINS
A basin is a natural depression or bowl-shaped hollow on the earth’s surface, formed when part of the
land sinks due to the earth movements. These basins vary in size, with some occupied by water. Basins
collect water and sediments from surrounding land surfaces.
WHERE CAN WE FIND BASINS?
Some of the basins are found in oceans (ocean basins) or in seas (sea basins) or in lakes (lake basins).
Other basins are found higher above sea level and surrounded by mountains. These river basins include
the Congo Basin in Africa and the Amazon Basin in South America. Lakes such as Victoria and Kyoga are
examples of basins occupied by water.

WATER BODIES
A water body is an area on the earth’s surface where water has accumulated. Water bodies can be salty
or fresh, large or small. Water occupies about 71 percent of the earth’s surface. There is more water
surface in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere. Some of the major water bodies
are rivers, lakes, seas and oceans.

A river is a mass of fresh water flowing by gravity into a definite channel from the source to the
mouth. The source of a river may be a watershed, a natural spring, a melting glacier or a marshland.
The river’s mouth is a point where the river discharges its water into the ocean, sea, lake or swampy
area.
In Tanzania, the major rivers are Rufiji, Ruvuma, Kagera, Pangani, Malagarasi, Ruaha, Wami and
Ruvu. Major rivers in Africa include the Nile River (6,650 km long), and Congo River (4,700 km long).
River Nile originates from Lake Victoria basin and discharges its water into the Mediterranean Sea.
Other major rivers in the world are the Amazon River (South America) 6,400 km long, the Mississippi
River (North America) 6,275 km long, and Yangtse River (Asia) 6,385 km long.

A lake is a hollow or depression in the earth’s surface that contains fresh or salty water. Example of
lakes in Tanzania are Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Rukwa, Manyara and Eyasi.
Some lakes are so large that they are called seas. Examples of such lakes are the Caspian Sea, Dead Sea
and the Aral Sea. Although most lakes are permanent, few of them are temporary depending on climatic
variations.
Some lakes are natural whereas others are man-made, for example, dams.
The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the World. It is referred to as a sea because of its size and its salty
water. Lake Superior in North America is the world’s largest fresh water lake followed by Lake Victoria
in East Africa. Lake Baikal in Russia (1,642 metres) is the deepest fresh water lake in the world followed
by Lake Tanganyika (1,470 metres) found in Tanzania.

A sea is a large body of salty water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land. Examples include the
South China Sea, Sea of Japan, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Yellow Sea.
WHAT ARE THE MAJOR DETERMINANTS OF SALINITY OF SEA WATER?
The salinity of a sea depends on the temperature and the amount of fresh water from rivers and melting
of ice that is discharged into it. High temperature causes high evaporation that increases the salinity,
whereas the addition of fresh water decreases salinity due to dilution. Very high salinity occurs in inland
seas such as the Dead Sea because of high evaporation and very little fresh water that enters them.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 40

An ocean is a large body of salty water surrounding the landmass of the earth. The major oceans of the
world are the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic.
The oceans of the world with their relative sizes are shown in the table below

SN Ocean Size (Million Km2)

1 Pacific Ocean 168.7

2 Atlantic Ocean 85.1
3 Indian Ocean 70.5
4 Southern Ocean 22.0
5 Arctic Ocean 15.6

An ocean current is the movement of surface water in the ocean. These are warm and cold
currents. Currents of the oceans are set in motion by prevailing winds, differences of density and
temperature of the ocean water, the rotation of the earth and the shape of continent influence the
flow of the major ocean current of the world.

Tides are the rising and falling in the level of water in the ocean. The tides occur twice in 24 hours.
The level of which tides rise and fall varies slightly. On the days when it rises to its highest level it
also falls to its lowest level. This rising and falling is caused by the pull of gravity of the moon and the
sun.

GRAVITATIONAL PULL BETWEEN SUN AN MOON MAY

HIGH TIDE AND LOW TIDE CAUSE HIGH OR LOW TIDE

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 41

WAVES.
Waves are the up and down movement of the surface of water. The highest part of the waves is called
the crest and the lowest is called the trough. The distance from one crest to the next or from trough
to trough called the wave length. Upper waves travel in a definite direction, while the lower waves
are the up and down movement . For example a cork thrown into the water does not travel with the
waves. It moves up and down but not forward. Waves are driven to the shore by wind. The higher
of the wave and the force with which it is driven are determined by the strength of the wind and the
distance of open water which it has blown.

This is the bottom of the surface of the ocean.

The floor of the ocean is irregular. The major relief features of the ocean floor are;

CONTINENTAL SHELF
A continental shelf is a gently sloping margin of a continent that is occupied by shallow waters that extend from
the coastline to a depth of about 200 metres towards the continental slope. Some continental shelves provide
excellent fishing grounds in the world because they are shallow, and they allow the sun's rays to reach the shelf
floor. Hence, they provide good conditions for the growth of plankton, which fish feed on.

CONTINENTAL SLOPE
A continental slope is found at the point where the continental shelf forms a steep slope towards the
ocean basin.

MID-OCEAN RIDGE
A mid-ocean ridge is a raised part of the ocean floor. Some of these ridges appear above the surface of
the ocean as oceanic islands such as Azores in Portugal and Bouvet in Norway. Examples of the mid-
oceanic ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mid-Indian Ridge in the Indian
Ocean.

DEEP SEA PLAIN

Deep sea-plains are extensive undulating areas of the ocean floor. It is also known as abyssal plains. Large
parts of these plains are covered by thin layers of sediments of both organic and inorganic materials
brought in by rivers and some from broken rocks of the ocean floor and cliffs.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 42

ABYSSAL HILL
Abyssal hill are small sharp hills rising from abyssal plain surface.

OCEAN DEEP
An ocean deep (trench) is a long narrow steep sided depression plunging from the deep sea-plain to the
depths of 10000 metres or more. The deepest known ocean trench in the world is Mariana Trench, which is
approximately 11000 metres deep. It is located 11035 metres off the Island of Guam in the Pacific Ocean.

ISLAND
An island is a piece of land surrounded by water. Islands may occur in oceans, seas, lakes or rivers. A group
of islands is called an archipelago. Examples of an archipelago include Islands of Zanzibar and the Comoros.
There are three types of islands: continental islands, oceanic islands, and coral islands.

A. CONTINENTAL ISLANDS
A continental island is a large unbroken landmass similar to a continental landmass rising from a
continental shelf. Examples of continental islands include Mafia, Pemba, Unguja, Philippines, Indonesian,
Greenland, and Sri Lanka.

B. OCEANIC ISLANDS
Oceanic Islands rise directly from the ocean floor. Some of the oceanic islands are the tops of oceanic
ridges, plateaus, and ocean floor volcanoes. Examples of oceanic islands are Hawaii, Cape Verde,
Iceland, Canary, and Seychelles.

C. CORAL ISLANDS
A coral island is an island, which is built up from limestone rocks made of skeletons of very small marine
organisms called coral polyps. Examples of those islands include: Maldives, Aldabra, Bermuda, and St.
Martines Island

VEGETATION
Vegetation refers to all the plant cover growing in a particular area. It also refers to the ground cover
provided by plants.
Human beings, animals, and insects all depend on vegetation. They purify the air that we breathe.

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETATION
Vegetation is classified into three main groups, namely:
(a) Natural vegetation
(b) Artificial vegetation
(c) Secondary vegetation

- This is the vegetation that grows naturally in an area without any human aid.
- It grows under natural physical conditions and has not been interfered with by people or
animals.
- Types of natural vegetation include forests, grasslands, desert vegetation, and swamp
vegetation.

A forest is a large area of land covered by trees and other woody vegetation.

Grasslands are areas where the main vegetation is grass. They grow naturally.

- A desert is an area of land with little or no vegetation.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 43

 - There is very little rainfall in these areas, thus the conditions are unsuitable for plant and
animal life.
- There are some plants adapted to growing in the desert.
- These are desert and semi-desert vegetation such as scrub and cactus.

A swamp is a wetland with woody vegetation. Swamp vegetation can be found in salty or fresh water.

- This is composed of the vegetation that has been planted by human beings.
- It is also known as planted vegetation.
- Forests made up of exotic trees are examples of planted vegetation.
- Exotic trees that are planted include pine, cypress, and eucalyptus.

- This is the vegetation that grows naturally in an area after being interfered with by people or
animals.
- It is also known as derived vegetation.
- The vegetation is still in the process of development and will eventually acquire the
characteristics of natural vegetation.
- A good example of secondary vegetation is the one that grows in an area after the previous
vegetation cover is cleared or destroyed by an outbreak of fire.

There are four main factors that influence the distribution of vegetation over the earth’s surface.
(a) Climatic factors
(b) Edaphic factors
(c) Topographic factors
(d) Biotic factors

- Climate is the weather condition in an area over a long period of time.

- The main elements of climate that influence vegetation include precipitation, temperature,
sunlight, and wind.

(A) PRECIPITATION
- Precipitation is the deposit of water in liquid or solid form on the earth’s surface from the
atmosphere.
- The type and amount of precipitation influence the type and distribution of vegetation.
- Different plants have different moisture requirements.
- Areas that receive heavy and well-distributed rainfall throughout the year have forests
composed of many tree species.
- Areas with moderate and seasonal rainfall are dominated by grasslands.
- Areas with low rainfall are dominated by desert and semi-desert vegetation.

(B) TEMPERATURE
- Temperature plays an important role in the growth of vegetation.
- It determines plant processes such as germination, rate of plant growth, flowering, ripening
of fruits, and shedding of leaves.
- Warm conditions encourage rapid growth of plants.
- Cold conditions slow down the rate of plant growth.

(C) SUNLIGHT
- Sunlight is important to plants for photosynthesis.
- Long hours of sunlight encourage the growth of many varieties of plants.
- Areas with fewer hours of sunlight have fewer plants.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 44

(D) WIND
- The moisture content and strength of the winds influence plant growth.
- Warm moist winds contain sufficient moisture. This helps in the formation of rainfall
necessary for plant growth.
- Hot dry winds cause wilting of plants since it accelerates water loss from the plants. Strong
winds cause the trees to bend.

- This refers to soil, particularly with respect to its influence on organisms.

- Deep, well-drained soils support a variety of large trees.
- Soils that are shallow in depth support the growth of shallow-rooted plants such as grass.
- The pH of the soil also determines the type of plants found in a region.
- Soils with nutrients and humus support the growth of plants.
- Soils with few nutrients support very little plant growth.

- Topography defines the physical features in a place.

- The topographic factors include relief, slope, and aspect.
- These factors affect vegetation through soil formation processes, climate, soil moisture, and
soil nutrients.

A. RELIEF
- Relief refers to the difference in elevation between any two points on the earth’s surface.
- The height of the land determines temperature and rainfall.
- There is an increase in vegetation with an increase in altitude.
- This is distinct on mountains.
- The vegetation ranges from grass to forests, bamboo, heath, and moorland.

B. SLOPE
- Steep slopes experience high rates of soil erosion, leading to the development of thin and
shallow soils.
- This results in poor plant growth.
- Gentle slopes have deep and well-drained soils, resulting in the growth of thick vegetation
and a wide variety of plants. Flat areas are easily waterlogged, resulting in the growth of
swamp vegetation.

C. SLOPE ASPECT
- Aspect is the direction of the slope with regards to sunshine and rainfall.
- Slopes that are exposed to the sun are warm.
- They support plant growth.
- The slopes which are not exposed to the sun have fewer vegetation.

- These are the living organisms which have an effect on the growth of vegetation.
- These include human beings, animals, bacteria, burrowing animals, and insects.
- Human activities such as deforestation, mining, and overgrazing destroy vegetation.
- Other activities such as agroforestry, reforestation, afforestation, and creation of forest
reserves result in the development of vegetation.
- Some insects aid in plant pollination.
- Animals and birds aid in seed dispersal, leading to growth and distribution of vegetation.
- Burrowing animals and earthworms aerate the soil, resulting in suitable conditions for plant
growth.

Vegetation is a major component of the ecosystem. It is important because of the following reasons.
1. Food – Some vegetation are a source of food for human beings and animals. Some insects also
feed on vegetation.
EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 45
 2. Habitat for wild animals – Forests and other vegetation provide a home for wild animals. Wild
animals attract tourists. They earn the country foreign exchange that aids in economic
development. Therefore, we should not destroy our vegetation.
3. Sources of medicine – Some parts of vegetation such as barks, roots, and leaves of trees are
used as medicine. They are used in curing different diseases in both animals and humans.
4. Prevent soil erosion – Vegetation holds soil together. This prevents erosion by water and
wind. Vegetation also reduces the speed of water when it is raining. Roots of vegetation hold
soil particles together. This helps to reduce soil erosion and conserve soil.
5. Purify the air – Vegetation purifies the air that we breathe. They utilise carbon (IV) oxide in
the atmosphere and release oxygen.
6. Improve soil fertility – Plant materials that fall from different vegetation decompose into
humus. This improves the fertility of the soil. The decaying material increases the organic
matter content in the soil.
7. Source of timber – Trees are a source of timber. This is used in making furniture and building.
Trees are also a source of fuel. However, trees should not be cut carelessly. Whenever one
tree is cut, two more trees should be planted.
8. Source of raw materials – Vegetation are also a source of raw materials for industries. For
example, trees are used in the manufacture of paper, plywood, and rubber.
9. Windbreaks – Vegetation such as trees act as windbreakers. They help in reducing the speed
of wind. This reduces the effects of wind such as blowing away rooftops or soil erosion.
10. Conserve soil and water – The roots of vegetation help in conserving soil and water. They hold
the soils together and conserve moisture in the soil.

1. Vegetation type and distribution have a great influence on human activities and occupation
over the earth’s surface. For example, the availability of grass has led to livestock keeping
due to the availability of pasture.
2. Overdependence on vegetation by human beings for their needs has had a negative impact
on vegetation. It has led to a reduction in the area under natural vegetation. Such human
activities include overstocking leading to overgrazing, pollution, and deforestation.
3. The human population is growing. There is a need for land for settlement. Human beings are
destroying vegetation to create more land for settlement. This has had an effect on the
distribution of vegetation.
4. Human activities such as pollution lead to climate change. This leads to global warming and
causes a decrease in vegetation.

NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE WORLD

- Vegetation is important to man in various ways and it acts as a habitat place for wild animals.
- There is a need to conserve it due to its significance.
- Different countries have come up with environmental campaigns aimed at protecting the
natural vegetation for the environment and sustainability.

WHAT IS VEGETATION?
- Vegetation refers to a community of plants that grow in an area and give it a distinct character.
- Vegetation in biological terms is known as “flora,” that is, all vegetation types growing on land
and in water.
- The world vegetation communities are categorized into forests and grasslands.
- They are distributed according to the vegetation zones and include tropical, temperate,
tundra, desert, mountain, and aquatic/marsh or mangrove vegetation.

- Tropical vegetation develops within the tropics.

- It can be subdivided into three related groups: equatorial rainforests, tropical monsoon
forests, and tropical mountain forests.

EQUATORIAL FORESTS
EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 46
 - The equatorial rainforests grow within the tropics between 10°N and 10°S of the equator.
- They are sometimes called “rainforests.” Equatorial rainforests cover about 6% of the earth’s
surface.
- They are situated in the Amazon basin in South and Central America, the Congo basin in
Central Africa, Malaysia, Burma, and the West African coastal belt (Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory
Coast, Liberia, and Central Africa Republic).
Conditions necessary for the growth of equatorial rainforests:
- Equatorial rainforests receive rainfall throughout the year, about 2000 mm per year.
- They grow in areas with fertile, well-drained soil.
- They require much sunshine to support their dense growth.
- They require temperatures of about 23-24°C.
Characteristics of equatorial rainforests:
- They are evergreen, with no distinct seasons.
- Trees grow buttress roots to support their enormous sizes.
- Major tree species have a long gestation period.
- The vegetation is comprised of four vertical layers.
- Dominant tree species include mahogany, ebony, green heart, and redwood.
- The forest floor receives only 2% of sunlight, leading to little undergrowth.
- Trees are very tall (35-40 m) with a dense canopy.
- Trees grow tall in search of light.
- The forest has broad-leaved evergreen trees with dense flora and fauna.
- Trees do not grow in pure stands.
- Undergrowth is dense, limiting light to the forest floor.
Economic activities associated with equatorial rainforests:
- Lumbering
- Provision of local materials for the craft industry
- Fuel, research, herbal medicine, and agriculture support.

II. TROPICAL MONSOON FORESTS

- Tropical Monsoon Forests are found beyond the equatorial region, between 10° and 25°
North and South of the equator.
- They are found in areas such as Burma, Thailand, the Indo-China region, parts of India, East
Java, parts of Northern Australia, and small parts along the Southwestern coastal areas of
West Africa.
Conditions necessary for the growth of tropical monsoon forests:
- They receive heavy rainfall, around 2000 mm per year, mostly in summer.
- In cooler seasons, such as winter, very little rainfall is received.
- They require temperatures of about 27°C.
Characteristics of tropical monsoon forests:
- Trees have trunks that store water during dry seasons.
- Trees can grow up to 30 meters in height.
- Trees have long taproots to access groundwater.
- Trees shed leaves during dry seasons to minimize water loss.
- Trees have broad leaves due to sufficient rainfall.
- Temperatures can reach 28°C in summer.
- Valuable hardwood tree species include teak and sandalwood.
Economic activities associated with tropical monsoon forests:
- Lumbering
- Agriculture
- Craft industry
- Settlement patterns
- Herbal medicine

III. MOUNTAIN TROPICAL FORESTS

- Tropical mountain forests are located at high altitudes in mountains.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 47

 - They are found along the slopes of the Himalayas, East African mountain peaks (Rwenzori,
Mt. Kenya), Cameroon Mountains, and Ethiopia Highlands.
- Trees grow between altitudes of 1,500 and 3,500 meters.
Conditions necessary for the growth of mountain forests:
- They require reliable rainfall.
- They need adequate temperatures for tree growth.
- They require deep, fertile soil.
Characteristics of mountain forests:
- Trees have broad leaves and are evergreen.
- Forests have thick undergrowth.
- Giant evergreen trees grow on windward slopes.
- Tree species have a long gestation period.
Economic activities associated with mountain forests:
- Lumbering
- Provision of local materials
- Hunting
- Herbal medicine

- Temperate forests occur in Eastern North America, Northeastern Asia, Western and Central
Europe.
- They are divided into three categories: deciduous forests, Mediterranean forests, and
coniferous forests.
- Temperate forests are categorized into three types:
A. Mediterranean forests
B. Deciduous forests
C. Coniferous forests
Conditions necessary for the growth of temperate forests:
- They need little sunshine for successful growth.
- They require fertile soil and availability of water.
- They require about 750 mm of rainfall in dry periods.
Characteristics of temperate forests:
- High levels of precipitation, humidity, and deciduous trees.
- Trees lose leaves in winter and bud new leaves in spring.
- Tall evergreen trees dominate the regions.
- Redwood trees are the tallest in the world (about 360 feet high).
- Douglas fir is the most prominent tree type, growing up to 280 feet tall.
- Cedar and spruce trees typically exceed 200 feet in height.
- Epiphytes such as mosses and ferns live on tree branches.
- Large ferns occupy shady forest floors.
- Precipitation ranges from 60 to 200 inches annually.
Economic activities associated with temperate forests:
- Tourism (attracts birds such as broad-winged hawks, cardinals, snowy owls, and pileated
woodpeckers).
- Hunting (animals such as white-tailed deer, raccoons, opossums, porcupines, and red foxes).

A. MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS
- Mediterranean forests are located in Southwest America, Spain, Italy, France, Australia,
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Central Chile.
Characteristics of Mediterranean forests:
- Tree species are deciduous.
- Vegetation is characterized by open and evergreen woodlands.
- Trees have thin, waxy leaves.
- There is inadequate undergrowth.
- Broadleaf trees such as oak and mixed sclerophyll forests are common.
- Trees are often stunted.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 48

 - Plants have long taproots to reach underground water (Xerophytic Plants).
- Trees adapt to dry summers with thick barks and wax-coated leaves.
Economic activities associated with Mediterranean forests:
- Mining of oil
- Tourism
- Limited population settlement
- Rearing of sheep and growing of crops such as wheat, oats, and chestnuts.

B. CONIFEROUS FORESTS / TAIGA FOREST

- Coniferous forests are located across North America, Europe, and Asia, between 50° and 60°N.
- They cover about 17% of Earth’s land area.
Conditions necessary for the growth of coniferous forests:
- They require inadequate sunlight.
- They need medium fertile soil with availability of water.
- They grow well with an average temperature below 43°F during winter.
Characteristics of coniferous forests:
- Tall, softwood evergreen trees.
- Limited species of trees, growing in pure stands.
- Trees are conical-shaped with needle-like leaves (firs, pine, cedar).
- Trees grow shallow roots to absorb nutrients and water from topsoil.
- Leaves are small, narrow, and needle-like to reduce transpiration.
Economic activities associated with coniferous forests:
- Lumbering
- Tourism
- Apiculture (bee-keeping)
- Hunting
- Herbal medicines
- Fruit gathering
- Research and study

C. DECIDUOUS FORESTS
- Deciduous forests grow between 40°N and 60°N and 30°S and 50°S of the equator.
- They are found in Eastern North America, Europe, Asia, and South America.
Conditions necessary for the growth of deciduous forests:
- They require moderately distributed rainfall.
- They need low sunshine supply.
Characteristics of deciduous forests:
- Trees shed leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
- Epiphytes such as mosses are common.
- Common trees include sandalwood, teak, ebony, and bamboo.
- Trees have a short growing gestation.
- Hardwood tree species include maple, oak, beech, and hazel.
Economic activities associated with deciduous forests:
- Lumbering
- Tourism
- Hunting
- Herbal medicines
- Fruit gathering

- Tropical grasslands are commonly known as savannah vegetation.

- They grow between 5°N and 15°N and 5°S and 15°S of the equator.
- They are found in Africa, South America (Campos in Brazil), Guyana, Australia, Eastern
Madagascar, and India.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 49

SAVANNAH HUMID VEGETATION
- Savannah humid forests grow in regions with an average rainfall of 1000 mm per year.
- Examples include the Miombo woodlands of Central Tanzania, Madagascar, the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea.
Conditions necessary for the growth of Savannah humid vegetation:
- Temperatures range between 25°C and 32°C.
- Rainfall is about 750-1000 mm per annum.
- Maximum sunshine and light are necessary for chlorophyll production.
Characteristics of Savannah humid vegetation:
- Tree species are deciduous and shed leaves during dry periods.
- Vegetation is mostly composed of shrubs and short grass.
- Common tree species include baobab and acacia.
- Grass can grow very tall (3-4 meters high).
- Near riverbanks, deciduous trees such as acacia and baobab grow.
- Trees form small umbrella-like tops.
- Shrubs have yellow or white flowers and can grow over six feet tall.
Economic activities associated with Savannah humid vegetation:
- Hunting
- Herbal medicine collection
- Fruit gathering
- Rearing of animals
- Subsistence farming
- Settlement
- Mining
- National parks and game reserves

STEPPE / SAVANNAH DRY VEGETATION

Savannah dry vegetation covers almost half of Central Africa and large areas of Australia, South
America, and India.
Conditions necessary for the growth of Savannah dry vegetation:
- Dry, porous soil with rapid water infiltration.
- Dry climatic conditions with disparities in rainfall and soil conditions.
- Average annual rainfall of 762-1016 mm.
- Thin soils with termite mounds for tree growth.
Characteristics of Savannah dry vegetation:
- Trees and grass compete for water, light, and nutrients.
- Open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground.
- Annual herbaceous plants die at the end of the growing season.
- Vegetation consists of tall grasses and scattered trees.
- Grasses are usually two meters high or more.
- Trees are mainly found near watercourses (e.g., acacia).
- Some trees lose leaves in the dry season.
- Some plants have thick barks and thorny leaves to reduce water loss.
Economic activities associated with Savannah dry vegetation:
- Hunting
- Fruit gathering
- Rearing of animals
- Settlement
- Agriculture
- National parks and game reserves

Temperate grasslands are known by different names in various regions:

- Prairies in North America
- Pampas in South America (Argentina)
- Downs in Australia

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 50

 - Velds in South Africa
- Steppes in Europe
They are found in mid-latitudinal zones and the interior part of continents.
Conditions necessary for the growth of temperate grasslands:
- Minimum light for photosynthesis.
- Moderate fertile, well-drained, and humid soil.
- Average sunshine in dry and cool winter.
- Moderate rainfall of about 500-750 mm.
Characteristics of temperate grasslands:
- Grasslands are short and juicy, suitable for cattle feed.
- The region is known for growing maize and wheat in large amounts (the “bread basket” of the
world).
- Perennial grasses belong to the family of “Gramineae.”
- Steppes are divided into forest steppes, meadow steppes, and grass steppes.
- American Prairies are divided into tall grass prairie, mixed grass prairie, and short grass
prairie.
Economic activities associated with temperate grasslands:
- Hunting
- Fruit gathering
- Rearing of animals
- Settlement
- Agriculture
- National parks and game reserves

- Desert vegetation grows in the Western margins of continents between 15°-30° North and
South of the equator.
- The biggest deserts include the Sahara and Kalahari in Africa, the Thar in India, the Arabian
desert, the Atacama Desert (Peru and Chile), Southern California in the USA, Sonora in Mexico,
and Victoria in Australia.

HOT DESERT VEGETATION

- Hot deserts are located between 15°-30° North and South of the equator.
- They are found in North America, South Asia, South and Central America, Africa, and Australia.
Conditions necessary for the growth of hot desert vegetation:
- Poor quality and infertile soils.
- Total rainfall of about 250 mm or less per year.
- High temperatures ranging between 29°C and 31°C.
Characteristics of hot desert vegetation:
- Plants have small leaves with sunken or restricted openings.
- Some plants have succulent stems, long roots, and leaves.
- Trees shed leaves occasionally to minimize water loss.
- Trees grow long taproots to access deep underground water.
- Main vegetation includes thorny acacia, bushes, euphorbia, and coarse grasses.

COLD DESERT VEGETATION

- Cold desert vegetation is located in high flat areas called plateaus and mountainous areas in
temperate regions.
Conditions necessary for the growth of cold desert vegetation:
- Low sunshine.
- Freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and sunlight.
- High soil salinity.
- Very little rainfall (about 250 mm) in summer and snowfall in winter.
- Frost conditions.
Characteristics of cold desert vegetation:
- Plants are widely scattered.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 51

 - Main plants are deciduous with spiny leaves.
- Vegetation grows in areas with large amounts of snowfall in winter.
- Short and wet moderately warm summers.
- Mean winter temperature ranges from -2°C to 4°C.
- Mean annual precipitation ranges from 90 mm to 260 mm.
- Good drainage facilitates the leaching of salts.
Economic activities associated with cold desert vegetation:
- Tourism
- Mining
- Small-scale agriculture
- National parks and game reserves

- Tundra vegetation is found in the coldest regions of the world. It is derived from the Finnish
word “tunturi,” meaning “treeless plain.”
- It is found in the Arctic region, Alaska, parts of Russia, Northern Scandinavian countries, and
parts of Canada.
Conditions necessary for the growth of tundra vegetation:
- Cold, long, and dark winters.
- 6 to 10 months with temperatures below 32°F or 0°C.
- Limited precipitation and strong, dry winds.
- Snowfall conditions that support plant and animal life.
Characteristics of tundra vegetation:
- Limited variety of trees.
- Simple vegetation arrangement.
- Short growing and reproduction season.
- Limited drainage system.
- Nutrients and energy are in the form of dead and organic material.
Economic activities associated with tundra vegetation:
- Tourism (attracts birds such as ravens, falcons, snowy owls, and snow geese, and animals
such as foxes, wolves, lemmings, and snowshoe rabbits).
- Hunting
- Oil exploitation
- Research and study

- Mountain vegetation is categorized into tropical mountain vegetation and temperate

mountain vegetation.

TROPICAL MOUNTAIN VEGETATION

- Tropical mountain vegetation has a variety of vegetation ranging from tropical to temperate
types.
- It is found in areas such as Mt. Kenya, Mt. Aberdares, Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru, Mt. Elgon, Mt.
Cameroon, Mt. Ruwenzori, Mt. Virunga, Mt. Simien, and Mt. Bale.
Conditions necessary for the growth of mountain vegetation:
- Steep gradient.
- Well-distributed rainfall with humid conditions.
- Strong seasonal differences.
- Temperature ranges of about 20°C at 900 m and 4°C at the summit.
- Annual precipitation of around 900 mm on the foothills, 2000 mm at 1500 m, and above 3000
mm between 2000 and 2300 m on the windward side.
- Fertile, well-developed soils with moderately acidic pH values.
Characteristics of mountain vegetation:
- Vegetation grows in clearly demarcated zones from the foothills to the summit.
- Dominated by tussock grasses and giant rosettes.
- Mountain heath and moorlands grow between bamboo forests and the snowline.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 52

 - Tree species include wild olive.
- Soils are young and fertile, favoring tree growth.
- Above the snowline, plant life is impossible due to low temperatures and eroded bare rocks.
- Temperature decreases with altitude, leading to changes in vegetation.
- Wet temperate forests are found between 1000 and 2000 mm.
- Coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, and cedar are found between 1500 and
3000 mm.
Economic activities associated with mountain vegetation:
- National parks and game reserves
- Tourism

TEMPERATE MOUNTAIN VEGETATION

- Temperate mountain vegetation grows in high mountains of temperate regions, between
35°N and 60°N of the equator.
- It is found in the Alps, Western Europe, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Rocky Mountains,
British Columbia, and the Andes.
Characteristics of temperate mountain vegetation:
- Contains both deciduous and coniferous plant species (poplar, birch, oak, elm).
- Vegetation arranges itself in clear demarcated zones on the slope.
- Some tree species grow thick bark to store water for winter.
- Trees shed leaves in winter when temperatures drop below 6°C.
- Coniferous trees adapt by growing tiny needle-like leaves.
- Trees become shorter and more dispersed towards meadow zones.

AQUATIC, MARSH, AND SWAMP VEGETATION

(1) MANGROVE VEGETATION
- Mangrove vegetation grows in marshy and swampy areas along the coast of East Africa, the
Ganga delta, Mahanadi, and Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in India.
Conditions necessary for the growth of mangrove forests:
- Average temperatures of the coldest month higher than 20°C.
- Large tidal range with limited erosion and deposition of sediments.
- Fine-grained substrate.
- Shores free from strong wave action and tidal currents.
- Swampy and marshy areas with deep, salty soils.
- High temperatures necessary for chlorophyll production.
Characteristics of mangrove forests:
- Broad branches and leaves, evergreen.
- Associated with saline soils and poor drainage.
- Dominated by trees with buttress roots.
- Long gestation period.
- Grow in waterlogged, hypoxic (oxygen-deficient) soil strata.
- Survive under temperatures above 66°F (19°C).
(2) AQUATIC PLANTS
- Aquatic plants, or hydrophytes, require special adaptations for living submerged in water or
at the water’s surface.
Characteristics of aquatic plants:
- Reduced and shallow roots for anchoring.
- Flowers raised above the water surface.
- Some plants float on the water surface with no attachment to the mud or bottom.
- Plants rooted in mud have immersed leaves with photosynthetic stems.
- Real roots link with underground roots for gaseous exchange.
- Structures anchor seaweeds to the substratum.
(3) MARSH VEGETATION

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 53

 - Marsh vegetation is dominated by herbaceous plants and is found at the edges of lakes and
streams.
Characteristics of marsh vegetation:
- Grows in poorly drained water.
- Common in wetland areas.
- Found along rivers and lakes.
- Dominated by grasses, rushes, or reeds (e.g., cattails, sedges, papyrus, sawgrass).
(4) SWAMP VEGETATION
- Swamp vegetation occurs along large rivers and is critically dependent on natural water level
fluctuations.
Characteristics of swamp vegetation:
- Poorly drained soils dominated by trees.
- Distinguished from marshes by the presence of trees.
- Grows in waterlogged areas with sufficient water supply.
- Often found in lowlands associated with rivers.
- Limited number of plant species.
Economic activities associated with swamp vegetation:
- Tourism
- Hunting of large invertebrates and waterfowl
- Fishing of crayfish and mudfish
- Research and study
- Art and craft making

THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE NATURAL VEGETATION

Factors influencing the growth and distribution of natural vegetation include:
- Rainfall: Equatorial rainforests have dense vegetation, while deserts have scattered
vegetation.
- Temperature: Forests in cool areas have fewer tree species, while hot areas have more
species.
- Relief and altitude: With increasing altitude, plant growth becomes stunted.
- Slopes: Steep slopes have more runoff, while gentle slopes allow water to sink into the soil.
- Soil types: Sandy soils support cactus and thorny bushes, while wet soils support mangroves.
- Human activities: Settlement, mining, farming, and livestock keeping affect vegetation.
- Drainage: Some plants grow best in well-drained areas, while others grow in swampy
conditions.

Importance of vegetation to man:

- Food source: Plants provide vegetables, fruits, grains, and cereals.
- Construction materials: Trees are used for building houses, bridges, and poles.
- Regulation of biogeochemical cycles: Vegetation regulates water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.
- Primary producers: Plants manufacture their own food through photosynthesis.
- Products for human needs: Plants provide flowers, stems, roots, and oils for perfumes,
cosmetics, and aesthetics.
- Food for animals: Vegetation provides food for domestic and wild animals.
- Economic contribution: Fossil fuels, biomass, and biogas are derived from vegetation.
- Timber: Trees provide timber for furniture and construction.
- Soil formation: Plant roots facilitate weathering, and dead vegetation becomes humus.
- Medicinal uses: Herbs are used to treat diseases.
- Textiles: Cotton is used in textiles and fabrics.
- Tourism: Forests and grasslands attract tourists.
- Air purification: Trees harvest carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.
- Water catchment areas: Forests act as sources of rivers.
- Employment: People are employed as researchers, forest guards, and forest officers.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 54

 - Landscape beauty: Vegetation makes the landscape beautiful.
- Soil protection: Tree and plant roots hold soil together, preventing erosion.
Negative influences of vegetation:
- Some plants are associated with pests such as tsetse flies and ticks.
- Thorny-leaved plants can harm humans and animals.
- Vegetation is a habitat for dangerous animals.
- Some plants are poisonous and can kill humans and animals if eaten.

END LESSON ASSESSMENT

1. Discuss the distribution of natural vegetation in the world.
2. Describe the relationship between vegetation and land use.
3. How do the following factors influence the distribution of vegetation in Africa?
- Variation in temperature
- Variation in relief

TEST YOUR COMPETENCE

:
For each of the questions 1-7, circle the most correct answer from the options given.
1. Which of the following is an example of a major fold mountain in the world?
(a) The Himalayas in Asia
(b) Ruwenzori in East Africa
(c) Vosges and Black Forest in Europe
(d) Sekenke in Tanzania
(e) Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
2. From the following pairs of mountains, which one represents block mountains:
(a) Himalaya and Vosges
(b) Alps and Usambara
(c) Alps and Andes
(d) Uluguru and Usambara
(e) Kilimanjaro and Vesuvius
3. Which of the following is an example of residual mountains?
(a) Sekenke hills in Singida
(b) Kibo in Kilimanjaro
(c) Uluguru in Morogoro
(d) Usambara in Tanga
(e) Meru in Arusha
4. Dormant volcanic mountains are those which:
(a) Have never experienced eruptions
(b) Have erupted once but are no longer active
(c) Continue to erupt occasionally
(d) Erupt only when there is an earthquake
(e) Erupt every year
5. What is the primary force contribution to the formation of fold mountains?
(a) Volcanic activity
(b) Earthquakes
(c) Compressional forces
(d) Erosion
(e) Tensional force
6. Which of the following factors is crucial for the formation of block mountains?
(a) Hotspot activity
(b) Erosion

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 55

 (c) On-going volcanic eruptions
(d) Tensional forces
(e) Compressional force
7. Rocks in the earth’s crust often have alternating layers of different types. What is the name of these
layers?
(a) Isostasy
(b) Strata
(c) Shear zones
(d) Escarpments
(e) Strato volcanoes

:
Answer the following questions.

8. With examples, state the importance of having large continents.

9. Give the economic importance of the following:

(a) Lakes
(b) Rivers
(c) Plains and plateaus
(d) Continental shelf and continental slope

10. Give two examples of:

(a) Residual Mountain in the world.
(b) Fold Mountains in the world.

11. Explain why continental shelves are rich fishing grounds.

SECTION C:
12. Match the description of land mass given in Column A with its corresponding responses in
Column B.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
(a) Plains, plateaus, mountains, basins and valleys (i) Gulf
(b) A continent not inhabited by humans
(c) Water inlets to the land (ii) Asia
(d) Good Hope, Horn and Leeuwin (iii) Straits
(e) A major landmass rising from the ocean floor (iv) South America
(f) A tract of land entering into a body of water
(g) Narrow water paths that separate landmasses (v) Capes
(h) The boundary between one drainage and the next (vi) Peninsula
(vii) Continent
(viii) Relief features
(ix) Antarctica
(x) Australia
(xi) Africa
(xii) Watershed

:
Read carefully the following statements and write T for a TRUE statement and F for a FALSE
statement. Give reason for your response:

13. The Antarctica is the warmest continent on earth.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 56
14. Ocean ridges and residual mountains are features of the ocean floor.
15. Ocean floors have relief features such as plains, ridges, slopes and basins.
16. Kilimanjaro Mountain is an example of an extinct volcano.
17. Block Mountains are also known as residual mountains.
18. The ocean water is distributed equally between the northern and southern hemispheres.
19. The formation of residual mountains is associated with the erosion process.
20. The Great African Rift Valley is the longest valley in the world.
21. Zanzibar and the Comoros are archipelagos.
22. Sea water is saline in nature.

:
Answer the following questions

23. Which vegetation type is commonly found on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, and
what are its main characteristics?
24. Describe the dominant vegetation type prevalent in the Serengeti National Park of Tanzania, and
its significance for wildlife conservation.
25. Which vegetation zone can be found in the coastal regions of Tanzania, and how does it adapt to
the marine environment?
26. Name the vegetation zone found in the Ngorongoro Crater, and explains how its significance to
livelihood of the Maasai community in the area.
27. What are the primary vegetation types in the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania, and what makes
this region biologically important?
28. Describe the vegetation types present in the Selous Game Reserve, and discuss the challenges it
faces due to human activities.
29. Which vegetation types can be observed in the Mahale Mountains?
30. What vegetation type is prevalent in the southern highlands of Tanzania, and how does it support
the agriculture in Tanzania?
31. What kind of vegetation is found around Lake Victoria, and how does it contribute to the lake’s
ecological balance?
32. Discuss the unique characteristics of the Udzungwa Mountains vegetation type in Tanzania, and
its role in species conservation.

SECTION A
Multiple Choice Questions (Questions 1-7)
1. (a) The Himalayas in Asia

The Himalayas are a major example of fold mountains formed by compressional forces.

2. (d) Uluguru and Usambara

Block mountains are formed by tensional forces, and Uluguru and Usambara are examples of block
mountains in East Africa.

3. (a) Sekenke hills in Singida

Residual mountains are formed by erosion, and Sekenke hills are an example of residual mountains
in Tanzania.

4. (b) Have erupted once but are no longer active

Dormant volcanoes are those that have erupted in the past but are not currently active.
5. (c) Compressional forces

Fold mountains are primarily formed by compressional forces pushing tectonic plates together.

6. (d) Tensional forces

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 57

 Block mountains are formed by tensional forces that cause the Earth's crust to fracture and create
fault blocks.

7. (b) Strata

Rocks in the Earth's crust often have alternating layers called strata.

SECTION B: Short Answer Questions (Questions 8-11)

8. Importance of having large continents:

Large continents support diverse ecosystems, provide vast resources (e.g., minerals, forests), and
influence global climate patterns. For example, Asia's large landmass supports a wide range of
climates and biodiversity.

9. Economic importance of:

(a) Lakes: Provide water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use; support fishing and tourism.

(b) Rivers: Used for transportation, hydroelectric power generation, and irrigation.

(c) Plains and plateaus: Ideal for agriculture, settlement, and infrastructure development.

(d) Continental shelf and slope: Rich in fish and mineral resources, including oil and gas.
10. Examples of:

(a) Residual Mountains: Appalachian Mountains (USA), Deccan Plateau (India).

(b) Fold Mountains: Himalayas (Asia), Andes (South America).

11. Why continental shelves are rich fishing grounds:

Continental shelves are shallow, allowing sunlight to penetrate and support plankton growth, which
forms the base of the marine food chain. They also receive nutrient-rich runoff from rivers, making
them ideal for fish breeding and feeding.

SECTION C: Matching (Question 12)

(a) Plains, plateaus, mountains, basins and valleys = (viii) Relief features

(b) A continent not inhabited by humans = (ix) Antarctica

(c) Water inlets to the land = (i) Gulf

(d) Good Hope, Horn and Leeuwin = (v) Capes

(e) A major landmass rising from the ocean floor = (vii) Continent

(f) A tract of land entering into a body of water = (vi) Peninsula

(g) Narrow water paths that separate landmasses = (iii) Straits (h) The boundary between one
drainage and the next = (xii) Watershed

SECTION D: True/False with Reasons (Questions 13-22)

13. F: Antarctica is the coldest continent, not the warmest.

14. F: Ocean ridges are features of the ocean floor, but residual mountains are found on land.

15. T: Ocean floors have relief features such as plains, ridges, slopes, and basins.

16. F: Kilimanjaro is a dormant volcano, not extinct.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 58

17. F: Block mountains are formed by faulting, while residual mountains are formed by erosion.

18. F: The ocean water is not equally distributed; the southern hemisphere has more water.

19. T: Residual mountains are formed by the erosion of softer rock, leaving harder rock exposed.

20. T: The Great African Rift Valley is the longest valley in the world.

21. T: Zanzibar and the Comoros are archipelagos (groups of islands).

22. T: Sea water is saline due to dissolved salts.

SECTION E: Long Answer Questions (Questions 23-32)

23. Vegetation on Mount Kilimanjaro:

The slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro have montane forests at lower elevations, characterized by dense
trees like camphor and olive. Higher up, heath and moorland vegetation dominate, with giant lobelias
and groundsels adapted to cold temperatures.

24. Vegetation in Serengeti National Park:

The Serengeti is dominated by savanna grasslands, with scattered acacia trees. This vegetation
supports large herds of herbivores (e.g., wildebeest, zebras) and predators (e.g., lions, cheetahs),
making it crucial for wildlife conservation.

25. Coastal vegetation in Tanzania:

The coastal regions have mangrove forests, which adapt to saline conditions by filtering salt and
stabilizing shorelines. They also provide breeding grounds for fish and protect against coastal
erosion.

26. Vegetation in Ngorongoro Crater:

The crater has grasslands and montane forests, which support grazing animals like wildebeest and
zebras. The Maasai community relies on this vegetation for livestock grazing and traditional
livelihoods.

27. Vegetation in Eastern Arc Mountains:

The Eastern Arc Mountains have tropical montane forests with high biodiversity, including many
endemic species. This region is biologically important due to its unique flora and fauna.

28. Vegetation in Selous Game Reserve:

The reserve has miombo woodlands and savanna grasslands. Human activities like poaching and
deforestation threaten this vegetation and the wildlife it supports.

29. Vegetation in Mahale Mountains:

The Mahale Mountains have tropical rainforests and montane forests, home to chimpanzees and
other primates.

30. Vegetation in southern highlands of Tanzania:

The southern highlands have montane grasslands and forests, which support agriculture (e.g., tea,
coffee) due to fertile soils and favorable climate.
31. Vegetation around Lake Victoria:

The lake is surrounded by swamps and grasslands, which filter pollutants and provide habitat for
fish and birds, contributing to the lake’s ecological balance.

EDWIN B. MASSAI 2025 59

32. Udzungwa Mountains vegetation and species conservation:

Characteristics of Udzungwa Mountains vegetation:

1. Dense montane forests.

2. Evergreen forests due to high rainfall.

3. Endemic plant species.

4. Layered vegetation structure.

5. Rich in mosses, ferns, and epiphytes.

6. Transitional zones between lowland and montane forests.

7. High altitude grasslands.

8. Rare tree species.

9. Thick undergrowth.

10. Adaptation to steep slopes.

Role in species conservation:

The Udzungwa Mountains are a biodiversity hotspot, home to many endemic species like the
Udzungwa red colobus monkey. The forests provide critical habitat for endangered species, acting
as a natural refuge from habitat loss in surrounding areas. The vegetation supports ecological
balance by maintaining water cycles and soil stability, which are crucial for species survival.
Conservation efforts in the Udzungwa Mountains protect genetic diversity and contribute to global
climate regulation through carbon sequestration. The area is also vital for scientific research, helping
to understand species evolution and ecological processes.

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