Lecture 10 nd 11

1. Definition of Sensation
 Sensation is the process of receiving and detecting raw
data from the environment through our sensory organs.
o Sensory receptors in our body
(e.g., eyes, ears, skin) respond to
physical stimuli such as light,
sound, and pressure.
o For example, vision starts when
light enters our eyes, hearing
begins with sound waves, and
touch involves the pressure or temperature we feel
on our skin.
Key Points:
o Stimuli: Sensory receptors respond to physical
energy (e.g., light, sound waves, chemicals in the
air).
o Raw Data: This stage involves detection of stimuli
but does not involve interpretation. Our senses
simply send signals to the brain.
2. Definition of Perception
 Perception is the process by which our brain
organizes and interprets the sensory information
received from the
environment.
o This is how we make sense
of the raw data gathered
by our sensory receptors.
For example, we don’t just
see colors, we interpret
them as objects, shapes, and
meanings.
o Perception involves higher cognitive processes like
memory, attention, and expectations that shape
how we understand the sensory input.
Key Points:
o It is the mental process of creating meaning from
the sensory data, including things like recognition
(e.g., recognizing a friend in a crowd) and
interpretation (e.g., understanding a color as red,
not just a wavelength of light).
o Perception varies from person to person based on
experience, culture, and mental state.
3. Key Difference Between Sensation and Perception
 Sensation refers to the raw data that we receive
through our senses. It is the detection of stimuli.
o Example: The light waves hitting your eyes or the
sound waves entering your ears.
 Perception is the interpretation and organization
of that data. It is how our brain gives meaning to
what we sense.
o Example: Recognizing a red apple or interpreting a
sound as music rather than noise.
II. The Five Senses
1. Vision (Seeing)
 How it works:
Vision begins when light enters through the pupil,
the opening in the center of the eye. The cornea (the
transparent outer layer) and the lens work together to
focus the light on the retina at the back of the eye.
The retina, which contains special cells called rods
(for low light) and cones (for color vision), converts
the light into neural signals that are sent to the brain
via the optic nerve.
 Key Structures:
o Cornea: Protective
outer layer that
bends light to direct
it toward the retina.
o Pupil: Regulates
how much light
enters the eye.
o Lens: Focuses light
onto the retina.
o Retina: Contains
photoreceptor cells
(rods and cones) that
convert light into
electrical signals.
o Optic Nerve: Transmits signals from the retina to the
brain, specifically to the occipital lobe.
 Color Vision:
Cones in the retina are responsible for detecting
different colors. There are three types of cones
sensitive to red, green, and blue light. The brain
processes these signals to create a perception of color.
2. Audition (Hearing)
How it works:
Sound waves travel through the outer ear, hitting the
eardrum (tympanic membrane), causing it to vibrate.
These vibrations are transmitted through the ossicles
(small bones in the middle ear) to the cochlea in the inner
ear. The cochlea, filled with fluid, converts these
vibrations into neural signals that are sent to the brain
through the auditory nerve.
 Key Structures:

o Outer Ear (Pinna): Collects sound waves and directs

them into the ear canal.
o Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane): Vibrates in
response to sound waves.
o Cochlea: A spiral-shaped organ that converts
vibrations into electrical signals.
 o Auditory Nerve: Carries auditory information to the
temporal lobe of the brain for processing.
3. Smell (Olfaction)
 How it works:
When you inhale, odor molecules in the air bind to
olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity. These
receptors send signals directly to the olfactory bulb at
the base of the brain. The signals are then relayed to
other parts of the brain, including the limbic system,
which is involved in emotions and memory.
 Key Structures:
o Nasal Cavity: Where odor molecules are detected.
o Olfactory Receptors: Specialized nerve cells that
detect smells.
o Olfactory Bulb: The brain's first processing station
for smells.
 Connection to Memory:
Smell is closely tied to
emotional memory
because the olfactory
bulb is located near the
limbic system, which
handles emotions and
memories. This is why
certain smells can
trigger strong emotional
responses and vivid
memories.
4. Taste (Gustation)
How it works:
Taste buds on the tongue
detect chemicals in food and drinks. When these
chemicals come in contact with the taste buds, they send
signals to the brain through the facial nerve and the
glossopharyngeal nerve. The brain processes these
signals, allowing us to perceive flavors.
 Key Structures:
o Taste Buds: Located on the tongue, roof of the mouth,
and throat; contain receptors for different taste
sensations.
 o Tongue: The organ where taste buds are located.
o Facial and Glossopharyngeal Nerves: Transmit taste
signals to the brain.

 Taste Sensations:
o Sweet: Indicates the presence of sugars.
o Salty: Indicates the presence of salts.
o Sour: Indicates acidity.
o Bitter: Often signals toxins or poisons.
o Umami: The taste of glutamate,
associated with protein-rich foods (e.g.,
meat, cheese).
5. Kinesthetic Sense
 How it works:
The kinesthetic sense allows us to perceive the
position, movement, and orientation of our body
parts. Receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints
provide the brain with information about the body’s
position in space. This sense helps us coordinate
movements, balance, and posture.
 Key Structures:
o Proprioceptors:
Specialized sensory
receptors in muscles,
tendons, and joints.
o Muscles and Joints:
Detect stretch and
movement.
o Brain: The
somatosensory cortex
in the parietal lobe
processes information
from proprioceptors.
 Importance:
The kinesthetic sense is crucial for motor
coordination, balance, and body awareness. It helps
us perform activities like walking, writing, or playing
sports without constantly looking at our body parts.
III. Introduction to Perception
1. What is Perception?
Definition of Perception:
Perception is the process by which the brain organizes
and interprets sensory information to create meaningful
experiences of the world around us. It goes beyond
merely receiving sensory data (sensation) by adding
context, meaning, and understanding to what we sense.
 Bottom-Up
Processing:
This refers to the
process where
sensory input
(such as light,
sound, or touch) is
received by the
sensory receptors and is then transmitted to the
brain for processing and interpretation. It is data-
driven and begins with raw sensory information.
Example: Recognizing a face – The brain takes in
visual information (eyes, nose, mouth, etc.) and uses
this to build a perception of the individual.
 Top-Down Processing:
This is when the brain uses prior knowledge,
 expectations, and context to interpret sensory
information. It is driven by cognitive factors
(previous experiences, memories, and expectations)
rather than just raw data.
Example: Reading a blurry word – Even if a word
is unclear, we use context to predict the meaning
based on the surrounding text, helping us "fill in the
blanks."
2. Factors Influencing Perception
Attention:
What we perceive is influenced by where we direct our
attention. For example, focusing on a particular object or
sound can make other stimuli less noticeable. The brain
filters out irrelevant information to focus on what's
important or interesting to us at the moment.
o Example: The Cocktail Party
Effect – The ability to focus on a
single conversation in a noisy
environment (like a party), while
ignoring other conversations.
 Motivation:
Our goals and desires can affect
what we perceive. When we are
motivated to find something, we might perceive it
 more easily or even interpret ambiguous stimuli in
a way that satisfies our needs.
o Example: If you're hungry, you might be more likely
to notice the smell of food in the air, even if it's faint.
 Context:
Perception is often shaped by the environment or
situation in which we encounter a stimulus. The
same sensory information might be interpreted
differently depending on the context.
o Example: The same gesture can be seen as friendly in
one context and threatening in another, depending on
factors such as tone of voice, body language, and
social setting.
 Individual Differences:
Perception can vary based on an individual's
experiences, cultural background, personality, and
even age. People perceive the same stimulus
differently due to these factors.
o Example: People from different cultures may
interpret the same facial expression or gesture in
different ways.
  Perceptual Set:
A perceptual set refers to a tendency to perceive
stimuli in a particular way due to expectations,
prior experiences, and cultural influences. This
mental framework helps us make sense of the world,
but it can also cause us to overlook or misinterpret
information.
o Example: If you're expecting to see a friend at a
party, you might mistakenly think you see them even
in a crowded room, influenced by your expectations.
IV. Gestalt Principles of Perception
1. Introduction to Gestalt Psychology
 What is Gestalt Psychology?
Gestalt psychology is a theory of perception that
emphasizes how humans tend to organize visual
elements into patterns or wholes, rather than merely
perceiving individual components.
o The central idea is that "the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts." This means that
when we perceive something, we don't just focus
on individual elements but interpret them as part
of a unified, complete whole.
o This approach contrasts with the idea that
perception is simply the accumulation of sensory
 data; instead, Gestalt psychology suggests that
our minds are actively involved in organizing
and structuring the information we perceive.
 Key Concept:
Gestalt psychologists argue that perception is
holistic — it goes beyond recognizing individual
pieces and looks at how those pieces fit together to
form a meaningful whole.
2. Gestalt Principles
Gestalt psychologists identified several
principles that describe how we organize
visual information. Here are the key
principles:
1. Figure-Ground
o Definition: The ability to
distinguish an object (the figure) from its
background (the ground).
o Example: When you read text on a page, the text
is the figure, and the white background is the
ground. Similarly, in an image, what stands out
as the focal object is the figure, and everything
else becomes the background.
 2. Proximity
Definition: Objects
that are close to each
other are perceived as
a group.
Example: When you
see a series of dots
that are arranged
closely together, you
perceive them as a cluster, even if they are not explicitly
connected.
3. Similarity
Definition: Items that are similar in
color, shape, size, or other visual
characteristics are perceived as
belonging to the same group.
Example: A series of circles and
squares arranged together will be grouped into two sets
based on their similarity in shape.
4. Closure
Definition: The tendency to fill in gaps in incomplete
shapes or objects to perceive a whole.
Example: If you see a circle with a
small gap in it, you will likely
perceive it as a complete circle,
even though the shape is
technically incomplete.
5. Continuity
Definition: The tendency to
perceive lines and shapes as
continuous, even when they are
interrupted.
Example: If you see a broken
line, your brain will tend to
interpret it as a continuous line,
following the direction of the
visible segments.
V. Depth Perception: Binocular and Monocular Cues
1. Binocular Cues
(Requires both eyes)
Binocular cues involve both
eyes working together to
help us perceive depth and
distance. These cues are
particularly effective when objects are close to us.
 1. Convergence
o Definition: Convergence refers to the inward turning of
both eyes when focusing on an object that is close to us.
The brain uses the amount of inward rotation of the
eyes to judge how near or far an object is.
o How it works: The more the eyes converge (turn
inward), the closer the object is. If the object is farther
away, the eyes remain more parallel.
o Example: When you look at a pencil held very close to
your face, your eyes will turn inward more than if the
pencil is farther away.
2. Retinal Disparity
o Definition: Retinal disparity refers to the slight
difference in the images that each eye sees due to their
different positions on the face. Each eye views the
world from a slightly different angle, and the brain
combines the two images to create depth perception.
o How it works: The greater the difference between the
two images, the closer the object is. As the object
moves farther away, the disparity between the images
decreases.
o Example: When you hold your finger in front of your
face and close one eye, then the other, you'll notice that
 the position of your finger seems to shift slightly
against the background. This shift is the result of retinal
disparity.
3. Monocular Cues (Can be
perceived with one eye)
Monocular cues are depth cues
that can be perceived with only
one eye and help us perceive
depth even when we’re
looking at objects from a
distance.
1. Relative Size
o Definition: If two objects are
known to be of similar size, the one
that appears larger is perceived as
closer, and the smaller one is
perceived as farther away.
o Example: A car on the road will
appear larger if it is closer to you, while a distant car
will appear smaller, even if both cars are the same size
in reality.
o

2. Interposition
o Definition: When one object blocks another, the object
being blocked is perceived as farther away.
o Example: If a tree is in front of a mountain, the
mountain is perceived as farther away, even though
both are in the same scene.
3. Linear Perspective
o Definition: Parallel lines
appear to converge as they
recede into the distance.
The greater the distance,
the more the lines appear to
meet at a single point on
the horizon.
o Example: When you look at a long road or railway
tracks, the tracks appear to get closer together the
farther they extend, ultimately meeting at the horizon.
4. Texture Gradient
o Definition: The texture of an
object appears more detailed
and coarse when it is closer,
while objects that are farther
away appear smoother and
finer in texture.
o Example: If you're standing on a sandy beach, the
grains of sand near you will be larger and more distinct,
while the sand farther away will look smoother and less
detailed.

5. Light and Shadow

o Definition: Shading and the
way light hits an object can
create the illusion of depth.
Light and shadow give objects
a three-dimensional
appearance by showing how
they protrude or recede in
space.
o Example: A sphere will look like it is round (3D) when
illuminated from one side, with the shadow on the
opposite side indicating its depth. Without the shadow,
it might appear flat.
VI. Illusions
1. Visual Illusions
Visual illusions demonstrate how our perception can be
tricked by misleading sensory information, highlighting
the difference between sensation (raw data) and
perception (interpretation).
1. Müller-Lyer Illusion
o Description: Two lines of the
same length appear to be
different due to arrow-like
markings at the ends (one
pointing outward and the other
inward).
o How it works: The brain interprets the angles as depth
cues, causing one line to appear longer than the other.
o Example: This illusion challenges our depth perception
and demonstrates how context influences perception.
2. The Café Wall Illusion
o Description: Horizontal lines
appear slanted or wavy when
surrounded by alternating black
and white tiles arranged in
staggered rows.
o How it works: The brain’s attempt to organize visual
patterns creates the illusion of slanted lines, even
though they are parallel.
o Significance: Highlights the brain's tendency to group
patterns and shapes, sometimes leading to perceptual
errors.