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 Chapter 1: Introduction to Data Structures
What are we studying in this chapter?
 Introduction to data structures
 Classification of data structures: Primitive and non-primitive data structures
 Data structure operations
 Inserting, deleting
 Traversing, searching, sorting and merging

1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, let us discuss about the definition of data structures and see how the
data structures are classified. Basic terminology and concepts are defined along with
examples. The way the data is represented, organized, managed and structured is
crucial part of the data structures. The data to be manipulated can be used
individually or in a group under one common name and data can be of different types.

1.2 Basic terminology

First, let us see “What is data? What is information?”

Definition: The word data is the plural of datum. Data is a representation of facts or
concepts in an organized manner. The data may be stored, communicated, interpreted,
or processed. In short, we can say that data is a piece of information or simply set of
values and data as such may not convey any meaning.
For example, numbers, names, marks etc are the data. Consider the two data
items “Rama” and 10. The data “Rama” and 10 does not convey any meaning to the
reader.
Definition: Information is defined as a collection of data from which conclusions may
be drawn. So, information is subset of data which when interpreted conveys meaning
so that the people can understand. Hence, Information can be considered as a message
that is received and understood.
Ex 1: The output of the computer may be “Rama scored 10 marks”. This sentence is
an information. Because, it conveys meaning to the reader.
Ex 2: The instructions given to a person or commands issued to the computer are
considered as information.
1.2  Introduction to data structures and arrays
Now, let us see “What are the differences between data and information?”
Data Information
1. Data is collection of facts and figures 1. Information is the result of
(may be numbers). Facts are the processing the data. So, information
things done or things existing. is collection of data from which we
can draw conclusions.
2. Data do not convey any meaning 2. Information conveys meaning
3. Computers work with data 3. Computers do not work with
information
4. Data is unstructured, lacks context 4. When data is correctly organized,
and may not be relevant to the processed, filtered and presented
recipient. with context, it can become
information because it then has
meaning to the recipient
5. Data is the representation of 5. Information is the things that we
information. So, data representation know. So, even though data
may change representation changes, information
do not change

Note: Let us take an example relating to the last difference. Consider the statement
“My daughter is seven years old”. I can represent may daughter’s age as “seven in
words” or “7 in figures” or “VII in roman” or “111 in binary” or “1111111 in unary”
and so on. All these representations we call as data. Even though representation
changes, my daughter’s age has not changed. So, we say that information does not
change and data representation may change.

Note: Even though normally we use data and information interchangeably, they are
totally different and they are not synonyms.

Now, let us see “How computers represent data?”

The data are represented by the state of electronic switches. A switch with ON state
represents 1 and a switch with OFF state represents 0 (zero). Thus, all digital
computers use binary number system to represent the data. So, the data that we input
to the computer is converted into 0’s and 1’s. The letters, digits, punctuation marks,
sound and even pictures are represented using 1’s and 0’s. Thus, computers represent
data using binary digits 0 and 1 i.e., in binary number system.
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 1.3
For example, consider the string “ABC01” that we type from the keyboard. This data
can be represented in the computer as shown below.

Characters typed: A B C 0 1

ASCII values 41 42 43 30 31
(Binary values) 0100 0001 0100 0010 0100 0011 0011 0000 0011 0001

Note: In general, any data whether numerical or non-numerical is represented

using 1’s and 0’s.

All the quantities are measured in some units. For example, length may be measured
in meters or feet. On similar lines, to measure computer memory, we require units.
Now, let us see “How does the data represented using 1’s and 0’s can be grouped or
measured?” The data represented can be grouped or measured using following units:

Bit = 0 or 1
Nibble = 4 bits
Byte = 8 bits
Units of data
Kilobyte = 1024 bytes
Megabyte = 1024 Kilobytes
Gigabyte = 1024 Megabytes
Terabyte = 1024 Gigabytes

Now, let us see “What is an entity and what is an attribute?”

Definition: An entity can be defined as a person, place, thing or concept about which
data can be collected and stored. An entity is made up of a number of attributes which
represent that entity. An attribute is the one which describes the facts, details or
characteristics of an entity.

For example, if we collect name, usn, phone number, branch of engineering of a

particular student, then student is treated as an entity whereas name, usn, phone
number, branch are the attributes. The entity student and its attributes are pictorially
represented as shown below:
1.4  Introduction to data structures and arrays

attributes
entity
student Name Usn Phone_no branch
MONALIKA 101 9900170827 CSE

Attribute values

Now, let us see “What is an entity set?”

Definition: A collection of entities with similar attributes is an entity set. For
example, all the students in a college represent entity set. The entity set of students
can be pictorially represented as shown below:

Name Usn Phone_no branch

Entity set
MONALIKA 101 9900170827 CSE
KRISHNA 102 999999999 MECH
NARENDRA 103 9845070827 CIVIL
MITHIL 104 9844010200 ISE
PADMA 105 9844012222 EC

Now, let us see “In what way the attributes, entities and entity sets are related to
fields, records and files?” The way the data are organized into the hierarchy of fields,
records and files reflect the relationship between attributes, entities and entity sets.
Now, let us see “What is a field? What is a record? What is a file”
Definition: A field is a single elementary unit of information representing an attribute
of an entity. A record is a collection of field values of a given entity. A file is a
collection of records of the entities in a given entity set.

1.3 Data Structures

In this section, we shall “Define data structures?”
Definition: The study of how the data is collected and stored in the memory, how
efficiently the data is organized in the memory, how efficiently the data can be
retrieved and manipulated, and the possible ways in which different data items are
logically related is called data structures. The data structures are mainly classified as
shown below:
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 1.5

Primitive data structures

Types of data structures
Non-primitive data structures
1.3.1 Primitive Data Structures
Now, let us see “What are primitive data structures?”

Definition: The data structures that can be manipulated directly by machine

instructions are called primitive data structures. Thus, the primitive data structures
are fundamental data types that are supported by a programming language. The
primitive data structures are also called simple data structures.
For example, in C language, the different primitive data structures are defined
using the data types such as int, float, char, double and pointers.

Integers: An integer is a whole number without any decimal point or a fraction part.
No extra characters are allowed other than ‘+’ and ‘–‘ sign. If ‘+’ and ‘–‘ are present,
they should precede the number. The integers are normally represented in binary or
hexadecimal. All negative numbers are represented using 2’s complement. Based on
the sign, the integers are classified into:
 Unsigned integer
 Signed integer

Floating point number: The floating point constants are base 10 numbers with
fraction part such as 10.5. All negative numbers should have a prefix ‘–‘. A positive
number can have an optional ‘+’ sign. No other extra characters are allowed. The
floating point constants can be represented using two forms as shown below:
Fractional form
Floating point
notations Scientific notation
(Exponent notation)
Fractional form: A floating point number represented using fractional form has an
integer part followed by a dot and a fractional part. We can omit the digits before the
decimal point or after the decimal point. For example, 0.5, -0.99, -.6, -9., +.9 etc
are all valid floating point numbers.

Exponent form (Scientific notation): The floating point number represented using
scientific notation (also called exponential notation) has three parts namely:
mantissa e/E exponent.
1.6  Introduction to data structures and arrays
Ex1: 9.86 E 3 imply 9.86x103
Ex2: 9.86 e -3 imply 9.86x10-3
where
 The mantissa can be an integer or a floating point number represented using
fractional notation.
 The letter e or E should follow mantissa.
 The exponent should follow e or E. The exponent has to be an integer with
optional ‘+’ or ‘–‘ sign.

For example,
6.698274e2 means 6.698274 x 102
-0.36e-54 means -0.36 x 10-54

Character: A character data is a primitive data structure. A wide variety of character

sets (also called alphabets) are handled by computers. The two widely used character
sets are:
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
 EBCDIC(Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)
Note: ASCII (pronounced as as-key) code is a 7-bit code to represent various
characters such as letters, digits, punctuation marks and other symbols. ASCII stands
for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII Table is shown
below.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 NUL SOH STX ETX EOT ENQ ACK BEL BS HT LF VT FF CR SO SI
1 DLE DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 NAK SYN ETB CAN EM SUB ESC FS GS RS US
2 SP ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . /
3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
4 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
5 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
6 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
7 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~ DEL

Observe from the table that character ‘A’ has an ASCII value 41, the character ‘B’
has an ASCII value 42 and character ‘C’ has an ASCII value 43. So, if we type the
text “ABC” from the keyboard, to the computer, it appears as shown below:
A B C (Characters)

41 42 43 (ASCII values)
0100 0001 0100 0010 0100 0011 (Binary values )
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 1.7
Pointer: A pointer is a special variable which contains address of a memory location.
Using this pointer, the data can be accessed.
For example, assume that a program contains four occurrences of a constant 3.1459.
During the compilation process, four copies of 3.1459 can be created as shown below:

3.1459 3.1459 3.1459 3.1459

a b c d
However, it is more efficient to use one copy of 3.1459 and three pointers referencing
a single copy, since less space is required for a pointer when compared to floating
point number. This can be represented pictorially as shown below:

c 3.1459 a

The variables b, c and d are called pointers since they contain address of variable a.

1.3.2 Non-primitive Data Structures

Now, let us see “What are non-primitive data structures? What are the different types
of non-primitive data structures?”
Definition: The data structures that cannot be manipulated directly by machine
instructions are called non-primitive data structures. Thus, the non-primitive data
structures are created or constructed using primitive data structures. The non-
primitive data structures are also called compound data structures.

For example, arrays, structures, stacks, queues, linked lists, trees, graphs, files
etc., are some of the non- primitive data structures.
Now, let us see “What are the different types of non-primitive data structures?” The
non-primitive data structures are classified as shown below:

Linear data structures Ex: Arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists

Non-linear data structures Ex: Trees, graphs, files etc.

1.8  Introduction to data structures and arrays
Now, let us see “What are linear data structures?”
Definition: The data structure where its values or elements are stored in a sequential
or linear order is called linear data structure. The elements can be accessed
sequentially one after the other in a linear order and hence the name. The linear
relationship between the elements is maintained:
 by means of sequential memory locations as in arrays: Here, one or more elements
are stored one after the other sequentially.
 by means of links as in linked list: Here, each element is stored in a node. One or
more nodes are logically adjacent and the logical adjacency is maintained using
links. In linked lists, even though the nodes are not physically adjacent, they seem
to be adjacent logically because of links. The logical adjacency is maintained
using pointers.
For example, arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists etc., are all linear data structures.

Now, let us see “What are non-linear data structures?”

Definition: The data structure where its values or elements are not stored in a
sequential or linear order is called non-linear data structures. Unlike linear data
structures, here, the logical adjacency between the elements is not maintained and
hence elements cannot be accessed if we go in sequential order. In non-linear data
structures, a data item (or an element) could be attached to several other data items.

For example, graphs, trees, files are all non-linear data structures.
Now, let us “Explain non-linear data structures?” All the non-linear data structures
such as arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists, graphs, trees and files are discussed below:
 Arrays: Definition: An array is a special and very powerful data structure in C
language. An array is a collection of similar data items. All elements of the array
share a common name. Each element in the array can be accessed by the subscript
(or index). Array is used to store, process and print large amount of data using a
single variable.

Ex 1: Set of integers, set of characters, set of students, set of pens etc. are
examples of various arrays.

Ex 2: An array of 5 integers is pictorially represented as shown below:

10 15 20 25 30
A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4]
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 1.9
Ex 3: An array of 5 characters is pictorially represented as shown below:

‘A’ ‘B’ ‘C’ ‘D’ ‘E’

A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4]

 Stack: A stack is a special type of data structure (linear data structure) where
elements are inserted from one end and elements are deleted from the same end.
Using this approach, the Last element Inserted is the First element to be deleted
Out, and hence, stack is also called Last In First Out (LIFO) data structure.
The stack s={a0, a1, a2,……an-1) is pictorially represented as shown below:
Insert Delete The elements are inserted into the
stack in the order a0, a1, a2,……an-1.
That is, we insert a0 first, a1 next and
so on. The item an-1 is inserted at the
an-1 Top of stack end. Since, it is on top of the stack, it
is the first item to be delted. The
various operations performed on
a2 stack are:
 Insert: An element is inserted
a1
from top end. Insertion operation
a0 Bottom of stack is called push operation
 Delete: An element is deleted from top end only. Deletion operation is called pop
operation.
 Overflow: Check whether the stack is full or not.
 Underflow: Check whether the stack is empty or not.

 Queue: A queue is a special type of data structure (linear data structure) where
elements are inserted from one end and elements are deleted from the other end.
The end at which new elements are added is called the rear and the end from
which elements are deleted is called the front. Using this approach, the First
element Inserted is the First element to be deleted Out, and hence, queue is also
called First In First Out (FIFO) data structure.
For example, consider the queue shown below having the elements 10, 50 and 20:
q
10 50 20
0 1 2 3 4
front rear
 The items are inserted into queue in the order 10, 50 and 20. The variable q is
used as an array to hold these elements
1.10  Introduction to data structures and arrays
 Item 10 is the first element inserted. So, the variable front is used as index to
the first element
 Item 20 is the last element inserted. So, the variable rear is used as index to
the last element
 Linked lists: A linked list is a data structure which is collection of zero or more
nodes where each node is connected to the next node. If each node in the list has
only one link, it is called singly linked list. If it has two links one containing the
address of the next node and other link containing the address of the previous
node it is called doubly linked list. Each node in the singly list has two fields
namely:
 info – This field is used to store the data or information to be manipulated
 link – This field contains address of the next node.

The pictorial representation of a singly linked list where each node is connected to
the next node is shown below:

first

20 30 10 60 \0

The above list consists of four nodes with info fields containing the data items 20,
30, 10 and 60.
 Graphs: A graph is a non-linear data structure which is a collection of vertices
called nodes and the edges that connect these vertices. Formally, a graph G is
defined as a pair of two sets V and E denoted by
G = (V, E)
where V is set of vertices and E is set of edges. For example, consider the graph
shown below:

1 6 Here, graph G = (V, E) where

0  V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is set of vertices

5
4  E = { (1, 6), (1, 2), (2, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (5, 6), (6, 4) }
2 0 is set of edges
Note:|V| = |{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}| = 6 represent the number of
3 vertices in the graph.

 |E| = |{(1, 6), (1, 2), (2, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (5, 6), (6, 4) }| = 7 represent the
number of edges in the graph.
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 1.11
 Trees: A tree is a set of finite set of one or more nodes that shows parent-child
relation such that:
 There is a special node called the root node
 The remaining nodes are partitioned into disjoint subsets T1, T2, ……Tn, n ≥ 0
where T1, T2, T3 ……Tn which are all children of root node are themselves
trees called subtrees.
Ex1 : Consider the following tree. Let us identify the root node and various
subtrees:
 The tree has 8 nodes : A, B, C, D, E,
root A
F, G and H.
subtrees  The node A is the root of the tree
 We normally draw the trees with root
B C D at the top
 The node B, C and D are the children
E F G H of node A and hence there are 3
subtrees identified by B, C and D
 The node A is the parent of B, C and D whereas D is the parent of G and H

 Binary tree: A binary tree is a tree which is collection of zero or more nodes and
finite set of directed lines called branches that connect the nodes. A tree can be
empty or partitioned into three subgroups namely root, left subtree and right
subtree.
 Root – If tree is not empty, the A
first node is called root node.
 left subtree – It is a tree which is
connected to the left of root. B D
Since this tree comes under root,
it is called left subtree.
 right subtree – It is a tree which C E F I
is connected to the right of root.
Since this tree comes under the H J
root, it is called right subtree.

1.4 Data structure operations

In this section, let us see “What are the operations performed on various data
structures?” The operations performed on various data structures are:
 Creating: The process of repatedly adding various data items into the list is called
creating a list. For example, we can create a student records consisting of names,
1.12  Introduction to data structures and arrays
marks, address, phone number etc., by repeatedly adding or inserting data items
into the list.
 Inserting: The process of adding a data item into the list is called inserting. For
example, a student record consisting of name, marks and address can be added
whenever a student joins a course. It is called inserting student record into the list.
 Deleting: The process of removing a data item from a list is called deleting. For
example, removing a student record from the list whenever the student leaves the
course in the middle.
 Searching: The process of informing whether a particular item is present in a list
or it is not present in a list is called searching. We can also find a set of elements
based on some criteria. For example, display student names who have passed in
all subjects or who have scored more than 90%.
 Sorting: The process of arranging various data items either in ascending order or
descending order is called sorting. For example, in a student record consisting of
names, marks, phone number etc., we can arrange student records based on
alphabetical order of names or based on ascending order of marks etc.
 Merging: Given two sorted lists we can combine those two lists into a single
sorted list. This process is called merging. For example, two sorted arrays can be
combined into a single sorted array. This process is called simple merge.
 Traversing: The process of accessing each data item exactly once so that it can be
processed and manipulated is called traversal. For example, to print all array
elements, to display all student names in a class, to display each item in a list etc.

Each of the operations can be performed one after the other. For example, given an
item, we may have to traverse the list and during this process we can search for the
item in the list. If the item is present in the list, we may delete that item and insert
another item in that place. Then we may have to sort the resulting list and display the
sorted list.

Exercises
1) What is data? What is information?
2) What are the differences between data and information?
3) Define the terms: entity, attribute, entity set, field, record, file
4) Define data structures and types of data structures
5) What are primitive data structures? Explain
6) What are non-primitive data structures? Explain
7) Explain the different types of non-primitive data structures
8) What are the different types of number systems that are commonly used?
9) What are linear data structures? What are non-linear data structures? Explain
10) What are the operations performed on various data structures?
 Chapter 2: Arrays
What are we studying in this chapter?
 Arrays: Definition and representation of linear arrays in memory
 Dynamically allocated arrays (Discussed in chapter 3)
 Array operations
 Traversing, Inserting and deleting
 Searching and sorting
 Multi-dimensional arrays
 Application of arrays:
 Polynomials (discussed in structures and unions – chapter 5)
 sparse matrices (discussed in structures and unions – chapter 5)

2.1 Introduction
In this section, let us see array concepts in detail. First, let us see “What is an array?”

Definition: An array is a special and very powerful data structure in C language. An

array is a collection of similar data items. All elements of the array share a common
name. Each element in the array can be accessed by the subscript (or index). Array is
used to store, process and print large amount of data using a single variable.

Ex 1: Set of integers, set of characters, set of students, set of pens etc. are examples of
various arrays.

Ex 2: Marks of all students in a class is an array of marks

The pictorial representation of an array of 5 integers, an array of 5 floating point

numbers and an array of 5 characters is shown below:

A[0] 10 B[0] 5.5 C[0] ‘A’

A[1] 20 B[1] 6.5 C[1] ‘B’
A[2] 30 B[2] 7.5 C[2] ‘C’
A[3] 40 B[3] 8.5 C[3] ‘D’
A[4] 50 B[4] 9.5 C[4] ‘E’
Array of 5 Array of 5 Array of 5
integers floats characters
2.2  Arrays
Now, let us see “What is a single-dimensional array?” A single-dimensional array
(also called one-dimensional array) is a linear list consisting of related data items of
same type. In memory, all the data items are stored in contiguous memory locations
one after the other. For example, a single dimensional array consisting of 5 integer
elements is shown below:

10 15 20 25 30
A[0] A[1] A[2] A[3] A[4]

Now, the question is “How to access these elements?” Since an array is identified by
a common name, any element in the array can be accessed by specifying the subscript
(or an index). For example,
 0th item 10 can be accessed by specifying A[0]
 1st item 20 can be accessed by specifying A[1]
 2nd item 30 can be accessed by specifying A[2]
 3rd item 40 can be accessed by specifying A[3]
 4th item 50 can be accessed by specifying A[4]
Now, let us see “How to declare and define a single dimensional array?” As we
declare and define variables before they are used in a program, an array also must be
declared and defined before it is used. The declaration and definition informs the
compiler about the:
 Type of each element of the array
 Name of the array
 Number of elements (i.e., size of the array)
The compiler uses this size to reserve the appropriate number of memory locations so
that data can be stored, accessed and manipulated when the program is executed. A
single dimensional array can be declared and defined using the following syntax:
data type such as int, float, char etc.
name of the array
expression must be evaluated to integer
type array_name [ int_expression ]; // semicolon is must at the end

Ex 1: int marks [5]; /* marks is an array of 5 integers */

5 memory locations
marks [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] with 2 bytes each.
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.3
2.2 Representation of Linear arrays in memory

Consider the following declaration:

C Syntax Pascal Syntax Pictorial representation

int a[5]; a : array[0..4] of integer
lower bound = 0 a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
upper bound = 4
Number of items = 5
= 4– 0 +1
= ub – lb + 1
Where ub is upper bound = 4
lb is lower bound = 0

not possible a : array[5..9] of integer

a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8] a[9]

Number of items = ub – lb + 1
=9 -5 +1
=5

Observe that in C language, array index always starts from 0 whereas in Pascal
language, array index can start from any integer (even negative indexing is possible in
Pascal). Now, let us see “How to obtain the location of a[j] in a single dimensional
array?” Let us take the following array declaration in Pascal language:
a : array[5..9] of integer; // Here, lower bound : LB = 5
// upper bound : UB = 9

The storage representation for the above single a[5] 3000

dimensional matrix assuming base address as 3000 can be a[6] 3002
written as shown in figure on the right hand side. a[7] 3004
a[8] 3006
The location of a[j] is given by:
a[9] 3008
Loc A[j] = base address + x ………………………….(1)

where
 x is the distance from base address upto jth row
2.4  Arrays
Calculation of x: Given the base address, the distance from base address can be
obtained as shown below:
Expressing in
terms of index
Address of each row

a[5] 3000 = 3000 + 0 = 3000 + 2 * 0 = 3000 + 2 * (5 – 5)

a[6] 3002 = 3000 + 2 = 3000 + 2 * 1 = 3000 + 2 * (6 – 5)
a[7] 3004 = 3000 + 4 = 3000 + 2 * 2 = 3000 + 2 * (7 – 5)
a[8] 3006 = 3000 + 6 = 3000 + 2 * 3 = 3000 + 2 * (8 – 5)
a[9] 3008 = 3000 + 8 = 3000 + 2 * 4 = 3000 + 2 * (9 – 5)
distance from base address 3000 = 2 * (j - 5)

So, distance from base address 3000 = 2 * ( j – 5 )

x = w * (j – lb )
where
 2 represent size of integer i.e., w in general
 5 represent the lower bound lb of the array
Substituting x in relation (1) we get:

Loc A[j] = base address(a) + w * (j – lb)

where
 w is the word length. w = 2 for integer values
w = 4 for floating point values
w = 8 for double values
 j is the index of the array
 lb is the lower bound of the array
Note: Observe the following points:

 Given any element a[j], its address can be calculated using the above relation and
the time taken to calculate location is same. So, the time taken to access a[5], a[6],
a[7], a[8] and a[9] remains same.
 The time taken to locate any element a[j] is independent of j. That is, irrespective
of j, the time taken to locate an array element a[j] remains same.
 This is very important property of linear arrays. (Linked lists discussed in chapters
8 and 9 do not have this property.
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.5
Example 2.1: A car manufacturing company uses an array car to record number of
cars sold each year starting from 1965 to 2015. Rather than beginning the array index
from 0 or 1, it is more useful to begin the array index from 1965 as shown below:
500 504 508 512 516 …….. 700

car[1965] car[1966] car[1967] car[1968] car[1969] ………. car[2015]

(a) Find the total number of years

(b) Suppose base address = 500, word length w = 4, find address of
car[1967], car[1969] and car[2015]
Solution:
(a) It is given that lower bound = lb = 1965
Upper bound = ub = 2015
So, total number of years = ub – lb + 1
= 2015 – 1965 + 1
= 51 years
(b) We know that Loc(a[j]) = Base(a) + w *(j – lb)
Loc(car[1967]) = 500 + 4 * (1967 – 1965] = 508
Loc(car[1969]) = 500 + 4 * (1969 – 1965] = 516
Loc(car[2015]) = 500 + 4 * (2015 – 1965] = 700

Example 2.2: Consider the linear arrays AAA(5:50), BBB(-5:10) and CCC(1:18)
(a) Find the number of elements in each array
(b) Suppose Base(AAA) = 300 and w = 4 words per memory cell for AAA. Find
the address of AAA[15], AAA[35] and AAA[55]
Solution:
(a) The number of elements in each array can be calculated using the following
relation:
Number of elements = ub – lb + 1
So, number of elements of array AAA = 50 – 5 + 1 = 46
Number of elements of array BBB = 10 – (-5) + 1 = 16
Number of elements of array CCC = 18 – 1 + 1 = 18
(b) It is given that Base(AAA) = 300, w = 4, lb = 5
We know that Loc(a[i]) = Base(a) + w *(i – lb)
Loc(AAA[15]) = 300 + 4 * (15 – 5) = 340
Loc(AAA[35]) = 300 + 4 * (35 – 5) = 420
Loc(AAA[55]) cannot be computed since 55 exceeds ub = 50
2.6  Arrays

2.3 Operations on arrays

Now, let us see “What are the various operations that can be performed on arrays?”

The various operations that can be performed on arrays are shown below:

Traversing
Inserting
Deleting
searching
sorting
2.3.1 Traversing

Now, let us see “What is traversing an array?” Visiting or accessing each item in the
array is called traversing the array. Here, each element is accessed in linear order
either from left to right or from right to left.

In this section, let us see “How to read the data from the keyboard and how to display
data items stored in the array?”

We can easily read, write or process the array items using appropriate programming
constructs such as for-loop, while-loop, do-while, if-statement, switch-statement etc.
Consider the declaration shown below:

int a[5];

Here, memory for 5 integers is reserved and each item in the array can be accessed by
specifying the index as shown below:
Using a[0] through a[4] we can access 5 integers.

Note: In general, Using a[0] through a[n-1] we can access n data items.

Once we know how to access each location in the memory, next question is “How to
store the data items in these locations which are read from the keyboard?”

This is achieved by reading n data items from the keyboard using scanf() function
which is available in C library as shown below:
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.7
scanf(“%d”, &a[0]);
scanf(“%d”, &a[1]);
scanf(“%d”, &a[2]);
………………
………………
scanf(“%d”,&a[n-1]);

In general, scanf(“%d”,&a[i]) where i = 0, 1, 2, 3,……n-1.

So, in C language, if we want to read n data items from the keyboard, the following
statement can be used:

for (i = 0; i <= n-1; i++) for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

{ {
scanf(“%d”, &a[i]); or scanf(“%d”, &a[i]);
} }

Similarly to display n data items stored in the array, replace scanf() by printf()
statement as shown below:
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
printf(“%d”, a[i]);
}
Now, the function to create an array by reading n elements can be written as shown
below:
Example 2.3: Functions to read n items into an array

void create_array(int a[], int n)

{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) i=0 1 2 3 4
{ a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
scanf(“%d”, &a[i]); 10 20 30 40 50
}
}
Now, the function to display n elements of the array can be written as shown below:
2.8  Arrays
Example 2.4: Functions to display n elements of array

void display_array(int a[], int n)

{
int i;

for (i = 0; i < n; i++) i=0 1 2 3 4

{ a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
printf(“%d ”, a[i]); 10 20 30 40 50
}
}

2.3.2 Inserting an item into an array (based on the position)

Now, let us see “How to insert an item into an unsorted array based on the position?”

Problem statement: Given an array a consisting of n elements, it is required to insert

an item at the specified position say pos.

Design: An item can be inserted into the array by considering various situations as
shown below:

Step 1: Elements are present (Invalid position): This case can be pictorially
represented as shown below:
Item = 60
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 1
pos
Can you insert an item at 8th position onwards in the above array? No, we cannot
insert since, it is invalid position. That is, if pos is greater than 7 or if pos is less than
0, the position is invalid. The code for this case can be written as shown below:
if (pos > n || pos < 0) // When pos is greater than number of items
{
1 printf (“Invalid position\n”);
return n; // No insertion and return number of items
}
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.9
Step 2: Make room for the item to be inserted at the specified position: Consider
the following list with 7 elements and item 60 to be inserted at position 3.
Item = 60
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos
We have to make room for the item to be inserted at position 3. This can be done by
moving all the elements 30, 80, 70 and 90 from positions 6, 5, 4, 3 into new positons
7, 6, 5, 4 respectively towards right by one position as shown below:

2
Item = 60
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos
This is possible using the following assignment statements in the order specified:
a[7] = a[6];
a[6] = a[5];
a[5] = a[4];
a[4] = a[3]
In general, a[i+1] = a[i] for i = 6 down to 3
for i = n-1 down to pos
Now, the code for above activity can be written as shown below:
for (i = n-1; i >= pos; i--)
{
2 a[i+1] = a[i];
}
After executing, the above statement, the array contents can be pictorially represented
as shown below:
Item = 60
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos
2.10  Arrays
Step 3: Insert item at the specified position: The code for this case can be written as
shown below:
3 a[pos] = item;
Now, the contents of array can be written as shown below:
Item = 60 3
a 50 40 20 60 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos

Thus, item 60 is inserted at position 3.

Step 4: Update number of elements in above array: The code for this case can be
written as shown below:
4 return n + 1;

Now, the complete function to insert an item at the specified position can be written
as shown below:
Example 2.5: Function to insert an item at the specified position in the array

int insert_at_pos (int item, int a[], int n, int pos)

{
int i;
if (pos > n || pos < 0) // When pos is greater than number of items
{
printf (“Invalid position\n”);
1
return n; // No insertion and return number of items
}
for (i = n-1; i >= pos; i--) /* Create space for item to insert at pos*/
{
2 a[i+1] = a[i];
}
3 a[pos] = item; /* Insert item at the specified position */

4 return n + 1; /* Update number of items in the array */

}
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.11
2.3.3 Deleting an item from an array (based on the position)
Now, let us see “How to delete an item from an unsorted array based on the
position?”

Problem statement: Given an array a consisting of n elements, it is required to delete

an item at the specified position say pos.

Design: An item can be deleted from the array by considering various situations as
shown below:

Step 1: Elements are present (Invalid position): This case can be pictorially
represented as shown below:
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 1
pos
Can you delete an item from 7th position onwards in the above array? No, we cannot
delete since, it is invalid position. That is, if pos is greater than or equal to 7 or if pos
is less than 0, the position is invalid. The code for this case can be written as shown
below:
if (pos >= n || pos < 0 ) // When pos >= number of items
{
1 printf (“Invalid position\n”);
return n; // No deletion and return number of items
}
Step 2: Display the item to be deleted: Consider the following list with 7 elements
and let the position pos is 3.

a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos
The item at position pos can be accessed by writing a[pos] and it can be displayed
using the printf() function as as shown below:

2 printf(“Item deleted = %d\n”, a[pos]);

2.12  Arrays
Step 3: Remove the item from the array: Removing an element at the given
position can be illustrated using the following figure:
3
a 50 40 20 90 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=7 pos i
As shown in above figure, move all the elements from 4th position onwards towards
left by one position using the following statements:
a[3] = a[4];
3 a[4] = a[5];
a[5] = a[6];
In general, a[i - 1] = a[i] for i = 4 to 6
for i = pos+1 to n-1
Now, the code for above activity can be written as shown below:
for (i = pos + 1; i < n; i++)
{
3 a[i - 1] = a[i];
}
After executing the above statement, the array contents can be pictorially represented
as shown below:

a 50 40 20 70 80 30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n=6
Step 4: Update number of elements in above array: After deleting an item, the
number of items in the array should be decremented by 1. It can be done using the
following statement:
4 return n - 1;
Now, the complete function to delete an item from the specified position can be
written as shown below:
Example 2.6: Function to delete an item from the specified position in the array
  Systematic Approach to Data Structures using C - 2.13
int delete_at_pos (int a[], int n, int pos)
{
int i;
if (pos >= n || pos < 0) // When pos >= number of items
{
1 printf (“Invalid position\n”);
return n; // No deletion and return number of items
}
2 printf(“Item deleted = %d\n”, a[pos]);
for (i = pos + 1; i < n; i++) // Move elements towards left
{
3 a[i - 1] = a[i];
}
4 return n - 1; // Decrement the number of items in array
}

Example 2.7: Design, Develop and Implement a menu driven Program in C for the
following Array operations
1. Creating an Array of N Integer Elements
2. Display of Array Elements with Suitable Headings
3. Inserting an Element (ELEM) at a given valid Position (POS)
4. Deleting an Element at a given valid Position(POS)
5. Exit.
Support the program with functions for each of the above operations.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <process.h>

/* Insert: Example 2.3: function to create an array of N elements */

/* Insert: Example 2.4: function display an array of N elements */
/* Insert: Example 2.5: function to insert an item at a given position */
/* Insert: Example 2.6: function to delete an item at a given position */

void main()
{
int choice, a[10], n, item, pos;
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Bunny, watching him, marvelled that the kindling flame revealed
only the resolute face and steady eyes of the man he knew. For it
seemed to him that another man had spoken in the darkness.

CHAPTER XXV
MISADVENTURE

Lord Saltash had the satisfaction of seeing one of his own animals a
winner at the Graydown meeting on the following day, a
circumstance which plainly gave him the keenest pleasure. He joined
his trainer at the conclusion of the event and warmly congratulated
him.
Jake was himself well-pleased. He had worked hard for the
victory, and the horse was a particular favourite with him. But he did
not betray any especial gratification at his patron's openly expressed
approval, receiving it with the reticence that Maud had remarked in
him the day before.
Lord Saltash, however, seemed bent upon breaking down all
reserve. He treated him with easy familiarity, chatted upon a
thousand subjects, received suggestions with cordiality, and finally,
when the races were over, insisted upon motoring him home in the
open car which he invariably drove himself when at Burchester, and
which was the terror of the countryside.
The evening was chill and mist-laden. "With your permission
we'll go steady," Jake said, as they left the teeming race-course
behind.
 "What! Nervous?" laughed Saltash.
"I have a wife to think of," was Jake's unmoved reply.
"Oh, to be sure!" A hint of mockery ran through the words.
"What an artful fox you were to go and get married on the sly like
that! If I'd known, I'd have come to the wedding."
"It wasn't much of an affair," said Jake. "And it had to take place
at short notice, or I should have told you about it."
"Perhaps it wouldn't have taken place at all if you had," laughed
Lord Saltash. "You know the legend of Young Lochinvar. And--" his
dark face screwed up into a comic grimace--"I presume you know
my reputation."
"Almost as well as I know you, my lord," said Jake drily.
Saltash sent him a sharp glance through the gathering twilight.
He was driving swiftly but well. "Nobody ever really knows anybody
in this world of noughts and crosses," he observed lightly after a
moment. "It's a queer place, Bolton. And it isn't always the fellows
that gather the fruit that enjoy the eating thereof. Ever reflected on
that truism?"
"I reckon it couldn't apply to me in any case," drawled Jake,
turning up his collar and settling into it with square deliberation.
"Because you're one of the favoured few?" questioned Saltash.
There was an unmistakably jeering note in his voice this time. A
faint smile came into Jake's face. His eyes stared straight before
him.
"Maybe so," he said. "But my opinion is, if a man can't hold his
own,--well, he deserves to lose it."
Saltash laughed aloud. "It isn't always brute force that counts,
most worthy cow-puncher. There is such a thing as brains."
 "You don't say!" said Jake in a tone of gentle incredulity and, in
a moment: "Do you mind reining in a bit? We're coming to a cross-
roads."
"You're mighty nervous!" gibed Saltash.
"It's safer," said Jake imperturbably.
They dropped into silence with one consent.
Saltash was obviously inclined to recklessness though he
seemed for awhile to be trying to restrain the impulse. They shot
through the gathering darkness with ever-increasing speed.
Jake made no further protest. He sat sphinx-like, gazing straight
ahead through the misty wind-screen. The distance from Graydown
to Fairharbour was scarcely ten miles. Lord Saltash chose the
shortest route, bumping through bye lanes, whizzing round
unexpected corners, shooting uphill like a rocket, dropping down
again like a thunderbolt.
He drove with a skill that was in its way magnificent, but the
entire run was a series of risks such as only the driver could enjoy.
It was evident that he speedily forgot the presence of his
companion, and Jake did not remind him of it. Perhaps he deemed it
inadvisable to divert his attention in any way from the task in hand.
For nearly a quarter of an hour of rapid travelling he spoke no
word. Saltash was humming to himself an old tune with a waltz
refrain which seemed to give him considerable pleasure.
They were drawing near the outskirts of Burchester Park when
abruptly he broke off, and spoke. "I want you to come up to lunch
on Sunday, you and Maud and the boy."
He spoke jerkily, almost curtly. Jake turned his head.
"Have you put the proposition before--my wife?" he asked.
 "Oh, I asked her to come of course," said Saltash carelessly. "I
didn't mention any particular day. Why? Have you any reason to
suppose she would refuse?"
He laughed as he said it, but there was a challenging note in his
laugh.
Jake passed the question by. "It is real kind of your lordship to
think of it," he said. "I can't--of course--answer for my wife or the
lad; but I shall be very pleased to come."
Saltash made a curious sound half of ridicule, half of
exasperation. "If she doesn't come, I shall know whose doing it is,"
he said, with a touch of malice.
Jake was silent.
Impatiently Saltash turned towards him. "Look here, Bolton," he
said aggressively; "it's no manner of use your raising any objection
to the intimacy between us. It began long before you came on the
scene, and it's going to continue. Understand?"
"Look where you're going!" said Jake. "Or else jam on the
brake!"
He uttered the words with a sharpness so unexpected that
Saltash started. As a consequence, the car swerved and instantly
skidded in the mud, jerking the wheel from his hold. In a moment
they were half-way up a steep bank at the side of the road, and a
moment after with a crash of splintering glass they were over, flung
headlong into the roadway.
"Damn!" said Jake.
"Damnation!" cried Lord Saltash with violence. "It was your
fault! What the devil did you startle me like that for?";
 He sprang up with the agility of a monkey, unscathed and
furious.
Jake remained seated in the mud. He was panting a little but his
speech when it came was unhurried.
"What the blazes did you want to drive at that preposterous
speed for, you all-fired fool?" he said.
"Eh? What?" Saltash stamped in the mud to relieve his feelings.
"Do you dare to say it was my fault?"
"I say you're an all-fired fool," said Jake, with the deliberation of
one who has come to an unalterable decision. "You can draw your
own conclusions from that."
He proceeded to get up with an effort so obvious that Saltash's
attention was caught. "Hullo! You're hurt, are you? Where?"
"I reckon that's what I've got to find out," said Jake. "Maybe it's
no worse than a broken head. What about you?"
"Oh, I'm all right," Saltash declared impatiently. "I say, are you
really hurt, man? Curse this dark! Wait while I strike a match!"
"Curse everything!" said Jake whole-heartedly. "I wonder if
there's a lamp not smashed."
Saltash struck a match and regarded him by its flare. "Great
Scott!" he ejaculated in dismay.
For the illumination had revealed to him that which he had
certainly not expected to see; one side of Jake's face streaming with
blood.
Jake strove ineffectually to staunch the flow with a
handkerchief. "I don't know where the mischief is exactly," he said.
"Somewhere above the temple, I fancy. Don't alarm yourself, my
lord. I always bleed like a pig. It's my nature to."
 A faint grim smile drew his mouth with the words. He looked at
Saltash with eyes of steady mastery. "Let me hold that match!" he
said. "P'raps you wouldn't mind locating the mischief."
Saltash, genuinely disturbed, complied with this suggestion, and
discovered a deep, jagged cut on Jake's forehead.
"I say, this is a bad business!" he said, as the match went out.
"Are you feeling bad?"
"Oh, not in the least," said Jake drily. "Sorry to give you so
much trouble."
"My dear fellow, I'm sorrier than you are," declared Saltash
impulsively. "I've driven for ten years and never had a smash before.
Here, strike another match and let me see what I can do!"
It was no easy matter to bandage adequately under sock
conditions, but Saltash was not without a certain rudimentary skill.
He went to work with business-like promptitude, and had succeeded
in securing a handkerchief round Jake's head with a firmness
calculated at least to check the flow of blood when the sound of
wheels warned them of the approach of some vehicle.
It proved to be the dog-cart of a farmer known to them both
who was himself returning from the races; and Saltash was relieved
beyond measure to bundle Jake into the cart and see him depart for
home. He remained with the overturned car till help should arrive
from the Stables.
Jake also was not sorry to find himself jogging homeward,
unpleasant though he found the jogging to be. He was nearer to
collapse than he would have allowed.
He sat with his head in his hands, struggling desperately against
a deadly sense of weakness that threatened every instant to
overcome him.
His companion was full of solicitude. "Whatever will your missus
say?" he said, as they drew near the Stables.
Jake roused himself. "Don't drive in!" he said. "Put me down at
the gates! I must make myself respectable before I go in."
"Lor' bless you man, if she's a woman of sense she'd sooner
know the worst at once," declared the old farmer. "Don't ever try to
hide anything from your wife! It don't pay. I've been married three
times, so I ought to know."
But Jake adhered firmly to his intention of descending at the
gates, resolutely declining all further help; and there his friend left
him, driving away with the reflection that there was sure to be
someone about to give him a hand.
As it chanced, there was no one in the stable-yard when Jake
entered it. He staggered forward over the stones like a drunken
man, his cap pulled forward over his face, feeling vaguely out before
him with his hands. His brain was reeling, and he did not know how
he covered the ground or maintained his balance. So dazed was he
that he did not even realize that he reached the white railings before
his home, and only awoke to the fact when he had been leaning
upon them for some time.
With an immense effort he pulled himself together and made his
way to the door. Here the thought of Maud made him pause. She
must not see him like this. Then, reflecting that she would almost
certainly be safe upstairs with Bunny who had not left his room that
day, he fumbled with the door, opened it, and entered.
All was quiet within with the quiet of a well-ordered household.
The passage was dimly lit. Slowly he made his halting way along it,
reached the stairs and stopped at the foot, leaning on the banisters
while he summoned his strength. At last, heavily, like a man in a
trance, he began to mount.
The stairs seemed endless. Once or twice he stumbled. At the
top he slipped and came down upon his knees.
"Oh damn!" he ejaculated, with weary vehemence.
At the same moment Bunny's door opened, and he heard the
light tread of a woman's feet close to him.
She was coming towards him, moving swiftly, when suddenly
something seemed to strike her. She stopped dead, recoiling as from
a thing unclean.
"Jake!" she said.
He heard the frozen horror in her voice and thrust out a groping
hand. "It's all right, my girl. Don't be scared! I didn't mean you to
see me--like this."
She drew back from him sharply, speaking no word, gazing at
him in the dim light with eyes of wide abhorrence.
"It's--all right," he said again, and with a labouring effort
managed to blunder to his feet.
She drew back still further. He saw her slim white figure
standing before him erect and rigid against the wall. He caught the
blazing scorn of her blue eyes.
"Say, Maud," he said in confused apology, "you're looking kind
of vexed. It wasn't--any fault of mine. It was--it was--that fool--
Saltash." He spoke the name with difficulty. His tongue felt dry and
powerless. "Guess I want a drink," he said.
She spoke then, briefly and witheringly. "You had better go to
bed and stay there till you feel better. There is plenty of water in
your room if you want it."
Her words were icy. He felt as if she had flung the water of
which she spoke full in his face. And then suddenly the truth flashed
upon him, and he uttered a laugh.
"Columbus!" he said. "I believe you think I'm tipsy!"
She did not attempt to contradict him. "You had better go to
bed," she reiterated.
He put up a trembling hand, but it was only to draw the cap
down further still over his face. "I reckon I'd better," he said, and
staggered past her to his room.
The door closed behind him, and Maud turned, white and
quivering, from the scene.
"O God!" she whispered passionately. "What have I done? What
have I done?"
 CHAPTER XXVI
THE WORD UNSPOKEN

It was late that night when Mrs. Lovelace called Maud out of Bunny's
room with a white, scared face to tell her that Lord Saltash was
below asking for her.
"He wanted Mr. Bolton first," she said, "but I told him as I didn't
know if he was back, and then he said something about a slight
motor accident and seemed surprised like that Mr. Bolton hadn't
come home."
"It's all right. He is home," Maud said. "There is no need to be
anxious about him." She hesitated a moment; then: "Tell Lord
Saltash so!" she said. "I think I won't come down now. He will
understand."
Nevertheless, after she had dismissed the old woman,
something prompted her to go and listen at Jake's door. She was
convinced in her own mind that there had been no accident. Charlie
had seen her husband's condition and was anxious to know if he had
returned home safely. That was the explanation, doubtless, and she
felt she could not face him.
She listened intently, but she heard no sound. Jake was sleeping
no doubt, sleeping heavily. An overwhelming disgust came upon her.
She turned shuddering away.
Mrs. Lovelace came wheezing back. Lord Saltash had gone. Was
Mr. Bolton all right? Should she fetch him anything?
 No, Maud was quite sure he wanted nothing. He was asleep and
Mrs. Lovelace had better go to bed.
But she herself remained up till long after, in dread of a
summons for Jake from Sam Vickers or some other of the men at
the Stables. Probably they all suspected what had happened, but
she felt that at all costs she must prevent the shameful certainty
reaching them. It was too horrible, too lowering to her own personal
pride. Very strangely it was that overpowering sense of shame that
first made her realize the man as her husband. He had dragged her
into the mire, and though her whole soul revolted she felt with a
sinking despair that she could never be clean again. She was bound
to him for better for worse, and nothing could ever set her free. She
was, as it were, identified with him, and the evil of his nature must
lie upon her like a taint. There could be no escape for her, loathe
him as she might.
She lay down at last sick at heart and full of a great bitterness.
Life was horrible, life was repulsive. Whichever way she turned some
evil monster crouched across her path.
Bunny was restless and querulous throughout the night. He was
deeply hurt by Jake's desertion, and, though he forebore to say so,
he plainly regarded his sister as a very poor substitute.
"I shan't get up till Jake comes to see me," he announced in the
morning.
And Maud went down to fetch his breakfast with a reluctant
promise to inform Jake of this intention if she saw him.
She hoped very earnestly that she would not see him, but her
hope was not to be fulfilled. Coming from the kitchen with Bunny's
breakfast-tray, she almost ran into him. He had evidently just
entered the house, and was hanging up his cap on the rack that
stood in the darkest corner of the passage.
He stood back for her to pass him. "Good morning!" he said.
Her face was burning. So great was her agitation for the
moment that she thought she must drop the tray she held.
Jake evidently thought so too, for he reached out and steadily
took it from her. "I'll take up this," he said. "I want to see the little
chap. Do you mind going into the parlour? I shall be down directly."
He spoke in his customary slightly sing-song drawl. She longed
to refuse, but could not. With an inarticulate murmur she turned
aside.
In the parlour the fire burned brightly. She went and stood
before it, striving desperately for composure. She would have given
all she had to escape the coming interview. But she knew she could
not, knew she must face it, listen to semi-humorous excuses,
possibly a good-natured apology for an offence which she regarded
as inexcusable, hideous.
With all her strength she fought for self-control. She must make
it clear to him, must somehow make him understand that this thing
had raised up a barrier between them that could never be broken
down, an immovable obstacle to all intimacy, a perpetual stumbling-
block to friendship. He had brought it on himself and never--never--
never could it now be otherwise. They had never been very near, but
now they were as far asunder as the poles. No kindness from him
could ever make her forget.
She heard him descending the stairs, and braced herself with a
throbbing heart to meet him. But she was trembling in every limb.
 She did not turn to greet him as he entered, but kept her face
resolutely averted.
He came in, closed the door with evident purpose, and drew
near to her. She shrank at his coming. A quick involuntary shudder
went through her. She stiffened herself instinctively.
He spoke, in his voice a soft, half-wheedling note of
remonstrance. "Say, Maud, it ain't--altogether--reasonable to
condemn a man unheard."
Her breath came short. She would not look at him. With a
quivering effort she spoke. "I don't see any point in discussing the
obvious. I am bound to believe the evidence of my own eyes."
"Without doubt," conceded Jake. "And they testified to my being
screwed last night?"
"You can't--with truth--assert that you were sober," she said.
Jake did not make the assertion. He stood considering. After a
moment: "Do you object so strongly to the sight of me that you
can't bear to look at me?" he asked.
His tone was faintly humorous. She resented it on the instant,
hotly, almost fiercely. It was so exactly the attitude that she had
anticipated.
"I do object--yes," she said, her voice low and vehement. "I
can't think how you can have the effrontery to speak to me until I
give you leave."
"That so?" he said.
There was insolence in his tone this time. She turned and faced
him. Then she saw a large cross of strapping-plaster across his
temple. She looked at it a moment ere defiantly she met his eyes.
"I suppose you are going to make that your excuse," she said.
 "I was," said Jake imperturbably.
She bit her lip. His utter lack of shame made her pitiless. "If I
hadn't met you on the stairs last night, I might believe you," she
said.
"You're real kind," he rejoined. "As a matter of fact I didn't cut
my head open tumbling upstairs, but I reckon that detail won't
interest you. You'll think what you want to think, whatever I say. And
p'raps, as you say, there's not much point in discussing the obvious.
Shall we have some breakfast?"
His eyes shone with a mocking gleam into hers. She was sure
he was laughing inwardly, though his mouth was grim.
"I shall breakfast upstairs," she said coldly.
He made a slight movement that passed unexplained. "Oh, I
think not," he said suavely. "It won't hurt you any to sit at table with
me. I am a very ordinary sinner, I assure you."
Something in his tone made her flinch. The colour went out of
her face. She turned without a word to the table.
They sat down, and he helped her to food, she knew not what.
There followed a silence that she felt to be terrible, a silence through
which it came to her for the first time in her experience that Jake
was angry. She looked at him no longer, but she felt as if his eyes
were upon her unceasingly.
"What about coffee, Mrs. Bolton?" he said suddenly.
She gave a great start. The coffee-urn was in front of her. She
proceeded to pour out for him, the cup clattering in the saucer she
held.
He did not move to take it; she rose, as if compelled, and
carried it to him.
 As she set it down, his hand suddenly descended upon hers. He
looked up into her face, faintly smiling.
"Maud, my girl, don't be such a fool!" he said. "Can't you see
you're making a mistake?"
She froze in his grasp. "Don't touch me, please!" she said. "You-
-I--see things from a different standpoint. It may seem a small
matter to you, but to me--to me--" She stopped. "Let me go!" she
said, with a nervous effort to free herself.
But he held her still. "Say, now, do you think you're wise to treat
me like this?" he said. "You've got to put up with me, remember.
Wouldn't it be to your own interest to give me the benefit of the
doubt?"
"There is no doubt," she said, speaking quickly, breathlessly.
"You haven't tried to deny it. As to--to--putting up with you--" the
hand he held clenched convulsively--"I have a little self-respect----"
"Call it pride!" interjected Jake softly.
She looked at him with eyes of burning revolt. "Very well. Call it
pride! And understand that if this shameful thing ever occurs again,
neither Bunny nor I can stay with you any longer!"
Quiveringly the words rushed out. He had goaded her into
uttering an ultimatum that she had never contemplated addressing
to him at the commencement of the interview and the moment that
she had uttered it she knew that she had done wrong. The red-
brown eyes uplifted to hers suddenly kindled. He looked at her with
a fiery intensity that sent the blood to her heart in a wave of wild
dismay.
His hand closed like a steel spring upon her wrist. "So, you think
you'll make a fool of me!" he said, and in his voice there sounded a
deep note that was like the menace of an angry beast. "All right, my
girl! You just try it! You'll find it an interesting experiment if a bit
costly."
"Are you--coward enough--to threaten me?" she said, through
panting lips.
"Reckon you've done all the threatening this journey," Jake
rejoined, with a smile that made her shiver. "It wasn't exactly a wise
move on your part, but p'raps you'll think better of it presently."
He let her go, with the words, and she went back to her place,
outwardly calm, inwardly shaking.
Jake proceeded with his breakfast in a silence so absorbed that
it was almost as if he had forgotten her presence altogether. It was
never a lengthy meal with him. He ate and drank with business-like
rapidity, not noticing that she did neither.
Finally he rose. "I shall come in presently to see if Bunny wants
to come down," he said. "But the little chap doesn't look up to much
this morning. He'll have to take it easy."
Maud did not respond. She sat rigidly gazing towards the
window.
Jake stood a moment, waiting for her to turn, but she made no
movement. He came quietly round to her, bent over her chair.
"Say, Maud, you aren't going to keep it up? That's not like you.
I'll tell you all that happened last night if you'll listen."
She made a slight gesture of distaste. Her face was white and
cold as marble. "I would rather not hear, thank you," she said,
without looking at him. "I would rather you went away."
Jake stood up. There was no longer any suggestion of anger or
any other emotion about him. His eyes glittered like red quartz in the
sun; but his brow was absolutely unruffled.
"Well," he said, in a very pronounced drawl, "I should have
some breakfast if I were you, and see how I felt then. It's wonderful
what a difference breakfast makes."
He turned away with the words; she heard him go with relief.
On the other side of the door was the red setter, Chops. He
pushed his way in with a passing smile at his master, who had
conferred the freedom of the house upon him since Bunny's advent,
to Mrs. Lovelace's prim disgust.
Jake made no attempt to hinder his entrance. He knew that
Chops possessed privileges of friendship denied to himself. He closed
the door upon him and departed.
Chops, after a cursory glance round for Bunny, came to the feet
of his mistress. He looked at her with soft, questioning eyes, then,
as she made no response, sat gravely down before her and rested
his red, silken head upon her lap.
She looked down at him then. Her hand went forth to caress.
He snuggled closer, sensing trouble, and breathed wistful greetings
through his nose. His eyes, clear brown and full of love, looked up to
hers.
The rigidity went out of her attitude. She bent suddenly over
him and kissed him, touched by the honest devotion and sympathy
of those eyes. By the simple method of offering all he had, Chops
had managed to convey a little comfort to her soul.

CHAPTER XXVII
THE TOKEN
"Why wouldn't you see me last night?" said Saltash.
He sat on the corner of the table, swinging a careless leg the
while under quizzical brows he watched Maud arrange a great bunch
of violets in a bowl. The violets were straight from the Burchester
frames, and he had ridden over to present them.
Maud was plainly in a reticent mood. She had accepted the gift
indeed, but with somewhat distant courtesy.
"It was late," she said. "And I was attending to Bunny."
"Bunny!" He echoed the name with half-mocking surprise. "Does
he still engross the whole of your energies? I thought you would
have been more occupied with Jake."
She stiffened ever so slightly at his words. "I only saw him for a
few moments," she said.
"What! Didn't he come to you to tie up his broken head?" said
Saltash. "I nearly killed him, you know. But it was his own fault."
"I am aware of that," Maud said coldly.
"What!" ejaculated Saltash again. "Did he have the impertinence
to tell you so?"
She raised her eyes momentarily; they shone almost black. "He
told me--nothing," she said, her voice deep with a concentrated
bitterness that made him stare. "He was not in a condition to do so."
Saltash continued to stare. "He was talkative enough when he
left me," he remarked.
Her eyes gazed full into his. "Why should you try to deceive
me?" she said. "Really, you needn't take the trouble."
Comprehension dawned on his face. He laughed a little in an
amused fashion as if to himself. "What! Wasn't the rascal sober
when he got back?"
"You know he was not," she said.
"I know he tumbled out of the car and cracked his head," said
Saltash. "I daresay he'd been celebrating the Mascot's victory. They
all do, you know. But, my dear girl, what of it? Don't look so tragic!
You'll get used to it."
"Don't!" Maud said suddenly in a voice that shook. "You make
me--sick."
She bent her face swiftly to the violets, and there was a silence.
Saltash continued to swing his leg, his lips pursed to am
inaudible whistle. Suddenly he spoke. "Please remember that this is
quite unofficial! I don't want a row with Jake!"
"You needn't be afraid," she said, putting the bowl of violets
steadily from her. "No more will be said on the subject by either of
us."
"I'm not afraid." Saltash was looking at her hard, with a certain
curiosity. "But with my best friend tied to him for life, it wouldn't--
naturally--be to my interest to quarrel with him."
She flashed him a sudden glance. "I think you had better not
call me that, Charlie," she said.
He laughed carelessly. "I'll call you my dearest enemy, if you
like. It would be almost as near the mark."
She was silent.
He bent suddenly towards her, the laugh gone from his face.
"Maud," he said, and there was a note of urgency in his voice,
"you're not wanting to throw me over?"
She shook her head very slightly. "I can't be on really intimate
terms with you any more," she said. "You must see it's impossible."
 "No, I don't," he said. "Why is it impossible?"
She did not answer.
"Come," he said. "That's unreasonable. What have I done to
forfeit your friendship?"
She leaned slowly back in her chair, and met his eyes. "I am
quite willing to be friends," she said. "But--now that I am married--
you mustn't try to flirt with me. I detest married women's
flirtations."
He made a wry grimace. "My precious prude, you don't even
know the meaning of the word. Did you ever flirt with anyone in all
your pure, sweet life? The bare idea is ludicrous."
Maud's eyes held his with severity. "No, I never flirted with you,
Charlie," she said. "But I gave you privileges which I can never give
again, which you must never again expect of me. Is that quite
clear?"
He stooped towards her, his hands upon her shoulders; his dark
face deeply glowing. "O Maud, the sincere!" he said, in a voice that
vibrated with an odd intensity, half-fierce, half-feigned. "Dare you
look me in the face and tell me that in marrying you have not done
violence to your soul?"
She looked him in the face with absolute steadiness. "I have
nothing whatever to tell you," she said.
He released as suddenly as he had taken her. "There is no
need," he said. "I can read you like a book. I know that if I had been
at hand when your mother brought you down here--as heaven
knows I would have been if I had known--if I had guessed--you
would have been ready enough to marry even me." He stopped, and
over his ugly, comic face there came a strangely tragic look. "You
could have dictated your own terms too," he said. "I'm not hard to
please."
"Charlie, hush!" Sharply she broke in upon him. "That is a
forbidden subject. I told you definitely long ago that I could never
marry you. You know as well as I do that it wouldn't have answered.
You would have tired very quickly of my prim ways--just as you did
tire in the old days when you fancied you cared for me. I couldn't
have satisfied you. I am not the kind of woman you crave for."
"No?" He laughed whimsically. "Yet, you know, you are unjust to
me--always were. I don't know that you can help it, being what you
are. But--if it had been my good luck to marry you--I would have
been faithful to you. It's in my bones to be faithful to one woman.
However, since she is denied me--" he snapped his fingers with an
airy gesture--"je m'amuse autrement. By the way, are you coming
up to lunch at the Castle on Sunday?"
"I?" She raised her brows momentarily. "No, I don't think so,"
she said.
"What! You won't? Jake's coming."
She lowered her eyes. "No, Charlie," she said firmly. "Bunny has
had one of his bad attacks. He won't be well enough for any
excitement, and of course I couldn't dream of leaving him."
"How you do worship that boy!" said Saltash, with a touch of
impatience.
Maud was silent.
"Look here!" he said abruptly. "Why don't you have a proper
opinion for Bunny? I'll lend you the wherewithal. I'm quite well off
just now."
 She looked up then with eyes of frank gratitude. "Charlie, that's
more than kind of you! But as a matter of fact--Jake has the matter
in hand. He knows an American surgeon--a very clever man--a Dr.
Capper, who is coming to England soon. And he is going to get him
to come and examine Bunny. He--it is really very good of Jake."
She spoke haltingly, with flushed cheeks. Saltash was watching
her with critical eyes.
"Oh, so the worthy Jake has the matter in hand, has he?" he
said, as she paused. "Wise man! I suppose it is no part of his plans
to be hampered with a helpless brother-in-law all his days."
She broke in upon him swiftly. "Charlie! That is ungenerous!"
He laughed. "My dear girl, it is the obvious. Were I in Jake's
position, my first thought would be to relieve you of the all-
engrossing care of Bunny. You don't suppose he married you just to
make a home for Bunny, do you?"
She rose quickly and turned from him. "Why do you try to make
things harder for me?" she said in a voice of passionate protest.
Saltash remained seated, still swinging an idle leg. "On the
contrary, I am anxious to make everything as pleasant as possible,"
he said.
But there was a slightly malicious twist to his smile and his voice
was suavely mocking, notwithstanding.
Maud moved from him to the window and stood before it very
still, with a queenly pose of bearing wholly unconscious,
unapproachably aloof.
He watched her for a space, an odd, dancing gleam in his
strange eyes. At length, as she made no movement, he spoke again,
not wholly lightly.
 "See here, Maud! As a proof of my goodness of heart where you
are concerned, I am going to make you an offer. This doctor man
will probably want to perform an operation on Bunny, and it couldn't
possibly take place here. So if it comes to that, will you let it be done
at the Castle? There's room for an army of nurses there. The whole
place is at your disposal--and Bunny's. And I'll undertake not to get
in the way. Come, be friends with me! You know I am as harmless
as a dove in your sweet company."
He stood up with the words, came impulsively to her, took her
hand and, bending with a careless grace, kissed it.
She started at his touch, seemed as it were to emerge from an
evil dream. She met his laughing eyes, and smiled as though in spite
of herself.
"You are going to be friends with me," said Saltash, with
pleased conviction.
She left her hand in his. "If you don't suggest--impossible
things," she said.
He laughed carelessly, satisfied that he had scored a point.
"Nonsense! Why should I? Is life so hard?"
"I think it is," she said sadly.
"It's only your point of view," he said. "Don't take things too
seriously! And above all, stick to your friends!"
She looked at him very earnestly. "Will you be a true friend to
me, Charlie?"
He bent, pressing her hand to his heart. "None so true as I!" he
said.
She caught back a sigh. "I want a friend--terribly," she said.
"Behold me!" said Saltash.
 She drew her hand slowly from him. "But don't make love to
me!" she urged pleadingly. "Not even in jest! Let me trust you! Let
me lean on you! Don't--don't trifle with me! I can't bear it!"
Her voice trembled suddenly. Her eyes filled with tears.
Saltash made a quick gesture as if something had hurt him. "I
am not always trifling when I jest," he said. "That is the mistake you
always made."
Maud was silent, struggling for self-command. Yet after a
moment she gave him her hand again in mute response to his
protest.
He took it, held it a moment or two, then let it go.
"And you will consider my suggestion with regard to Bunny," he
said.
She replied with an effort, "Yes, I will consider it."
"Good!" he said. "Talk it over with Jake! If he doesn't view it
reasonably, send him to me! But I think he will, you know. I think he
will."
He turned as if to go; but paused and after a moment turned
back. With an air half-imperious, half-whimsical, he held out upon
the palm of his hand the sapphire and diamond ring which till that
moment he had worn.
"As a token of the friendship between us," he said, "will you
take this back? No, don't shake your head! It means nothing. But I
wish you to have it, and--if ever the need should arise--the need of a
friend, remember!--send it to me!"
She looked at him with serious eyes. "Charlie, I would rather
not."
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