1.

6 Urban settlements

Key questions
H What are the characteristics of urban land use?
H How does urban land use vary between countries at different levels of
development?
H What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban growth?

▲ Figure 1.72 Downtown Seoul

Urban land use Interesting note

The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early Hong Kong is the only city in the world with more
twentieth centuries produced a form of city that was completed skyscrapers than New York City.
easily recognisable by its urban land use. It included
a central commercial area, a surrounding industrial
zone with densely packed housing, and outer zones Land value
of suburban expansion and development. Geographers The value of land (bid rent) varies with different
have spent a lot of time modelling these cities to land uses. For example, it varies for retail, office and
explain ‘how they work’. residential land uses (Figure 1.73a). Retail land uses
Every model is a simplification. No city will ‘fit’ are attracted to more expensive central areas. Land at
these models perfectly, but there are parts of every the centre of a city is the most expensive for two main
model that can be applied to most cities in the reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport,
developed world. All models are useful because and there is only a small amount available. Land prices
they focus our attention on one or two key factors. generally decrease away from the central area, although
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 Urban land use

there are secondary peaks at the intersections of main sector is best able to afford the high land prices, and
roads and ring roads (Figure 1.73a). Change in levels requires highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth
of accessibility, due to private transport as opposed to century, public transport made the central city the
public transport, explains why areas on the edge of town most accessible part of town. Beyond the centre is a
are often now more accessible than inner areas. manufacturing zone that also includes high-density,
low-quality housing to accommodate the workers.
Burgess’s concentric model (1925) As the city grows and the central business district
This is the basic model (Figure 1.73b). Burgess (CBD) expands, the concentric rings of land use are
assumed that new migrants to a city moved into pushed further out. The area of immediate change
inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it next to the expanding CBD is known as the zone in
was closest to the sources of employment. Over time transition (usually from residential to commercial).
residents move out of the inner city area as they
become wealthier. In his model, housing quality and Hoyt’s sector model (1939)
social class increase with distance from the city centre. Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasises the importance
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as this of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain
a
O = city centre b Concentric zone model (Burgess, 1925)
Retail A = changeover from retail
• model based on Chicago in
to office 4
Offer price

the 1920s
B = changeover from office 3
• the city is growing spatially
to residential
due to immigration and 2
Office natural increase
• the area around the CBD has 1
the lowest status and highest
Residential density housing
• residents move outwards with
increasing social class and their
i homes are taken by new migrants
O A B Distance Key to diagrams b and c
1 CBD (central business district)
Retail 2 Zone in transition/light
Office Residential
manufacturing
ii 3 Low-class residential
Offer prices of retail, office and residential 4 Medium-class residential
uses with distance from the city centre: 5 High-class residential
i section across the urban value surface 6 Heavy manufacturing
ii plan of the urban value surface

c Sector model (Hoyt, 1939) d Latin American city structure

Zone of peripheral
squatter settlements
3
Zone of active
6
improvement of
4 housing
CBD

2 Zone of better
residences
3 1 5 (upgraded/self-built)
2
Upper class
4

3
6

▲ Figure 1.73 Bid rent theory and urban land use models
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 1.6 Urban settlements

land uses (Figure 1.73c). Sectors develop along

important routeways, while certain land uses, such Activities
as high-class residential and manufacturing industry, N
deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or
physical features.
Naucalpan Ecatapec
Urban land use in developing
countries City Centre
Netzahualcoyoti
There are a number of models of cities in
developing countries. One of the most common is
the model of a Latin American city (Figure 1.73d).
The CBD has developed around the colonial core,
0 5
and there is a commercial avenue extending
km
from it. This has become the spine of a sector
containing open areas and parks, and homes for Rich Commercial and industrial areas

the upper- and middle-income classes. These areas Middle-class Ciudades perdidas ( ’slums of despair’)

have good-quality streets, schools and public Poor Main roads

services. Further out are the more recent suburbs,
with more haphazard housing and fewer services. ▲ Figure 1.74 Urban land use in Mexico City
More recent squatter housing is found at the edge Study Figure 1.74.
of the city. Older and more established squatter 1 Describe the pattern of land use in Mexico City.
housing is found along some sectors that extend 2 To what extent does the pattern of land use in
in towards the city centre. Conditions in these Figure 1.74 conform to:
areas near the city centre are better than in the a the model of land use in Figure 1.73(d)
more recent areas at the edge. In addition, those b any of the characteristics described in
living in the central areas are closer to centres Figures 1.73(a)–(c)?
of employment and are more likely to find work.
Industrial areas are found scattered along major
transport routes, with the latest developments at
Internal structure of towns
the edge. and cities
Land use zoning in developing The central business district
countries The central business district (CBD) is the commercial
A number of models describe and explain the and economic core of the city (Figure 1.75), the
development of cities in developing countries. area that is most accessible to public transport and
These include several key points: the location with the highest land values. It has a
number of characteristic features:
» The rich generally live close to the city centre
whereas the very poor are more likely to be » Multistorey development — high land values force
found on the periphery. buildings to grow upwards, so the total floor space
» Better-quality land is occupied by the wealthy. of the CBD is much greater than the ground space.
» Segregation by wealth, race and ethnicity is » Concentration of retailing — high levels of
evident. accessibility attract shops with high range and
» Manufacturing is scattered throughout threshold characteristics, such as department
the city. stores in the most central areas, while specialist
shops are found in less accessible areas.

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 Internal structure of towns and cities

CBD core and the frame are closely connected and

the CBD core may advance into the frame, just as the
frame may advance into the core as parts of the CBD
become run down.

Residential zones
In most developed countries, as a general rule,
residential densities decrease with distance from the
CBD. This is due to a number of reasons:
» Historically, more central areas developed first and
supported high population densities.
▲ Figure 1.75 Singapore’s CBD » Large numbers of workers were densely packed into
inner city areas to be close to manufacturing jobs
» Concentration of public transport — there is a (Figures 1.77a and b).
convergence of bus routes on the CBD. » There is greater availability of land with increased
» Concentration of offices — centrality favours office distance from the CBD.
development. » Improvements in transport and technology allow
» Vertical zoning — shops occupy the lower floors people to live further away from their place of
for better accessibility, while offices occupy upper work in lower-density areas (Figure 1.77c).
floors. » Wealthy households may be able to afford to live
» Functional grouping — similar shops and similar in more attractive areas, such as close to rivers,
functions tend to locate together (increasing their high ground and open spaces/parks.
thresholds). » Some communities might desire to live away from
» Low residential population — high bid rents can other communities — this may be based on levels
only be met by luxury apartments. of wealth, ethnicity or government policy.
» Highest pedestrian flows — due to the attractions » Some communities may have to locate in areas
of a variety of commercial outlets and service where building may be difficult (Figure 1.77d).
facilities.
» Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD — However, this pattern can be disrupted by:
pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars since » low densities in the CBD, as residential land use
the 1960s. cannot compete with commercial land use to meet
» The CBD changes over time — there is an the high bid rents
assimilation zone (the direction in which the CBD » the location of high-rise peripheral estates,
is expanding) and there is a discard zone (the increasing densities at the margins of the urban
direction from which it is moving away). area (Figure 1.77e)
There are, however, many problems in the CBD, such » ‘green-belt’ restrictions, which artificially raise
as a lack of space, the high cost of land, congestion, population densities in the suburbs.
pollution, a lack of sites, planning restrictions and Population densities tend to change over time, with
strict government controls. peak densities decreasing and average densities
increasing.
The core–frame concept The pattern of population density declining with
The core-frame concept suggests that the CBD can be distance can be observed in many cities, but this pattern
divided into two — an inner core where most of the also changes over time. After a period of expansion,
department stores and specialist shops are found, and city centres start to decline following suburbanisation.
an outer frame where coach and train stations, offices This is sometimes followed by a repopulation of the
and warehouses may be located (Figure 1.76). The inner city if the centre is redeveloped.

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 1.6 Urban settlements

Core and frame elements of the CBD

Concentration
of banks/businesses Absence of
Multistorey manufacturing
development industry
Multi-let
Transport
residences, often
terminals
old villas

FRAME
Office area, Concentration
Some e.g. solicitors of department
vertical stores, chain
zoning Parking stores, specialist
retail outlets
Small shops,
CORE PLVI
low-grade shops Car
Shops requiring
sales/service
large areas of
Specialist Parking land
services, e.g.
medical
Some derelict
Wholesalers, land
High density of Zo warehouses
ne Area of highest
pedestrians – zones of in
tra Limited light shopping quality
maximum accessibility, nsit
ion manufacturing
often pedestrianised and c
hange
areas and shopping
Low residential Functional zoning – similar
population activities concentrate and
cluster, e.g. banks/shoe shops

PLVI = peak land value intersection: the highest rated, busiest, most accessible part of a CBD

Factors influencing CBD decline

Rise in car ownership leads to
Investors and businesses
increased personal mobility and Planning policies can encourage
are attracted by peripheral
the rise of ‘leisure’ shopping urban expansion and provide
sites that have good access
and environments, and ‘out-of-town’ developments
often lower costs City councils, determined to
Costs of development and attract new industry/inward
upkeep of CBDs are high investment, offer greenfield
Factors influencing
(business rates, rents, and sites for development
CBD decline
land costs) Companies find peripheral
locations cheaper, and nearer
Investment in city centres customers and staff who live
often lack a coordinated plan in the leafy suburbs
Progressive suburbanisation City centres are perceived as
Congestion reduces leads to urban sprawl; the city dirty, unsafe, with an ageing
accessibility of CBDs centre may be many miles away environment and poor
infrastructure
▲ Figure 1.76 The core–frame model

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 Internal structure of towns and cities

a b

c d

▶ Figure 1.77 Contrasting residential

patterns: (a) inner city housing, Stratford,
London; (b) inner city housing, Little India,
Singapore; (c) suburban housing, Oxford;
(d) water village, Bandar Seri Bagawan,
Brunei; (e) high-density, suburban housing,
Singapore

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 1.6 Urban settlements

Activity
1 Outline the advantages of the industrial sites shown in Figure 1.82.

a b

▲ Figure 1.82 Industrial location in cities: (a) Hyundai car works, Busan; (b) the port of Barcelona

Large cities are attractive for industries for many as private transport is the main form of transport,
reasons: the volume of traffic for the roads is too great. In
» many capital cities, such as Paris and Moscow, are contrast, towards the edge of town there are larger
the major manufacturing centres of their country motorways and ring roads. These take advantage of
» cities are large markets the space available. Natural routeways, such as river
» port cities have excellent access to overseas valleys, are important for the orientation of roads.
markets and goods However, given that many cities are in lowland areas,
» cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and constraints of the natural environment are generally
fashion not great.
» a variety of labour is already available, including
skilled and unskilled workers, decision makers, The rural–urban fringe
politicians and innovators. The rural–urban fringe is the area at the edge of a
city where it meets the countryside. There are many
Open spaces pressures on the rural–urban fringe. These include:
In general, the amount of open space increases » urban sprawl
towards the edge of town. This is because the value » more housing
of land is lower towards the edge, and there is more » industrial growth
land available. Nevertheless, there are important » recreational pressures for golf courses and sports
areas of open space in many urban areas. Central stadia
Park in New York is a good example. In the centre, » transport
any areas of open land tend to be small. Many of » agricultural developments.
the open spaces are related to areas that are next to
The nature of the pressure depends on the type
rivers or formerly belonged to wealthy landowners.
of urban fringe (Table 1.15). For example, an area
Transport routes of growth, such as Barra de Tijuca outside Rio de
Janeiro, can be contrasted with an area of decline,
Most city centres are characterised by small,
such as some parts of Detroit.
congested roads. As the roads were built when the
cities were still small, they are quite small. Now,

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 Internal structure of towns and cities

Table 1.15 Issues in the urban fringe

Land use Positive aspects Negative aspects

Agriculture Some areas have Farms often suffer
well-managed litter, trespass and
farms and vandalism; some land is
smallholdings. left derelict in the hope
that planning permission
for development will be
granted.
Development Some Some developments,
developments such as out-of-town
are well sited and shopping areas, cause
landscaped, such serious pollution.
as business and Many businesses are
science parks. unregulated, e.g. scrap
metal/caravan storage.
Urban services Some, such as Mineral workings, sewage
reservoirs or works, landfill sites and
cemeteries, may Sunday markets (car boot
be attractive. sales) can be unattractive
and polluting.
Transport Some cycleways Motorways destroy
infrastructure improve access countryside, especially
and promote new near junctions.
development.
Recreation and Country parks, Stock car racing and
sport sports fields scrambling erode
and golf courses ecosystems and create
can lead to localised litter and
conservation. pollution.
Landscape Conservation There may be degraded ▲ Figure 1.83 An out-of-town shopping centre in Bandar Seri
and nature areas may be land, e.g. land ruined Begawan, Brunei
conservation included at the by fly-tipping; many
edge of the city. conservation areas are
under threat.

The growth of out-of-town The changes in retailing have been brought about by:
shopping centres » suburbanisation of more affluent households
Shopping in many more developed countries has » technological change, for example more families
changed from an industry dominated by small firms own a deep-freezer
to one being led by large companies. The retailing » economic change, with higher standards of living,
revolution has focused on superstores, hypermarkets especially including car ownership
and out-of-town shopping centres (Figure 1.83 and » traffic congestion and inflated land prices in city
Table 1.16). These are located on ‘greenfield’ suburban centres
sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for » social changes, such as more working women.
parking and future expansion. The increasing use of The initial out-of-town developments came in the
out-of-town shopping centres, and the trend for less late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20 per
frequent shopping, has led to the closure of many cent of shopping expenditure in developed countries
small shops that relied on regular sales of daily items. takes place in out-of-town stores.

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 1.6 Urban settlements

Table 1.16 The advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres

Advantages Disadvantages
There is plenty of free parking They destroy large amounts of undeveloped greenfield sites
There is lots of space, so shops are not cramped They destroy valuable habitats
They are new developments, so are usually quite attractive They lead to pollution and environmental problems at the edge
of town
They are easily accessible by car An increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car parks, roads
etc.) may lead to an increase in flooding and a decrease in water
quality
Being large means the shops can sell large volumes of goods They only help those with cars (or those lucky enough to live
and often at slightly lower prices on the route of a courtesy bus) — people who do not benefit
might include the elderly and those without a car or who
cannot drive
Individual shops are larger, so can offer a greater range of Successful out-of-town developments may take trade away from
goods than smaller shops city centres and lead to a decline in sales in the CBD
Being on the edge of town means the land price is lower, so Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete
the cost of development is kept down with the large multinational companies that dominate out-
of-town developments — there may be a loss of the ‘personal
touch’
Developments on the edge of town reduce the environmental They cause congestion in out-of-town areas
pressures and problems in city centres
Many new jobs may be created both in the short term Many of the jobs created are unskilled
(construction industry) and in the long term (retail industry
and linked industries such as transport, warehousing,
storage, catering etc.)

Activities
Study Figure 1.84.
1 What are the advantages of this site for the
supermarket?
2 Which population groups benefit from out-of-town
developments such as the one shown in the
photograph? Give reasons for your choice.
3 Describe the land uses shown in Figure 1.85a–d, which
show contrasting areas in Bandar Seri Begawan,
Brunei. Identify each of the main land uses and their
likely location in the city.

▲ Figure 1.84 An out-of-town shopping centre near

Oxford, UK

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 1.6 Urban settlements

1 a Using the data in Table 1.18, draw a pie chart to

show land uses in Seoul.
b Comment on the results you have drawn.
2 Refer to Figures 1.87 and 1.88.
a Describe the distribution of industrial land use on
the map and the photo.
b Describe, and suggest reasons for, the distribution
of open space (green, parks and green belt).
c Describe the distribution of commercial land use.

▲ Figure 1.88 Land-use in downtown Seoul

Problems associated with industrialising countries (NICs) are thought to be at

risk of high levels of indoor air pollution, especially
urban growth those living in slums.
LICs and NICs have weaker economies and so
A number of problems are associated with the growth investment in pollution control is minimal. Instead,
of urban areas. These include: such countries favour industrialisation and the
» pollution (air, noise, water, light) use of cheap, inefficient energy resources, such as
» inequality lignite and low-grade coal, as a source of energy. By
» housing issues contrast, HICs — which may have gone through the
» traffic congestion process of deindustrialisation — have the capital and
» conflicts over land-use change. the technology to tackle air pollution.
One of the major sources of pollution is motor
These problems are found in most large cities vehicles. At present, LICs/NICs account for about
worldwide. Cities in developing countries have the 10 per cent of the world’s motor vehicles and
added problems of shanty housing and squatter about 20 per cent of the world’s cars, but some
settlements. countries, such as India and China, are expanding
Air pollution their car industries as a key part of their economic
development. Cars and other vehicles in LICs tend
Poor air quality affects half the world’s urban to be less fuel-efficient and produce more pollution
population. Each year thousands of people die because they are older, poorly serviced and lack
because of poor air quality, and many more are clean, environmentally friendly technology.
seriously affected. The problem is increasing as
population growth increases in urban areas, with Noise pollution
industrial development and the increase in the Road traffic noise is related to traffic volume,
number of vehicles worldwide. The world’s population traffic composition, speed, reflection of noise from
is growing by about 90 million people each year. This barriers, retaining walls or mitigation techniques,
increases the demand for energy, transport, heating weather conditions, terrain and road surface. Noise
and so on. More and more people are living in urban disturbance may cause people in urban areas to move
areas. In low-income countries (LICs) population or consider moving from cities of high population
growth is very rapid, and cities have fewer resources density to quieter environments. Noise from road
to cope than cities in high-income countries (HICs). traffic and other sources has been associated with
In many LICs, indoor air pollution is high due to raised blood pressure, coronary heart disease,
the burning of fuelwood and paraffin for cooking and psychological stress and annoyance, and sleep
heating. Up to 700 million people in LICs and newly disturbance.
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 Problems associated with urban growth

Water pollution Inequality

Water pollution is a major problem in many cities as In all cities there is inequality. There are contrasts between
a result of the large number of people, industries and the rich and the poor. In most HICs, the poor are located
vehicles that might discharge pollutants into rivers. in inner-city areas, edge-of-town estates and high-rise
Some rivers and lakes have become so polluted that flats, whereas, in LICs, the poor tend to be located in
they have even caught fire. The most famous case is shanty towns or informal settlements. There are important
the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, USA, which caught variations in terms of educational achievements, access
fire in 1969, but there have been recent cases in to healthcare, employment opportunities and so on. One
China in 2014, for example when a river in Wenzhou, way of showing inequality is a Lorenz curve. This shows
Zhejiang Province caught fire, and in 2017 when the the proportion of income that the rich and the poor
Bellandur Lake in Banglalore, India caught fire. It have. Figure 1.91 shows a Lorenz curve for inequality in
regularly forms a froth due to the amount of pollution Brazil. It shows that the top 10 per cent of households
in it (Figure 1.89). have 40 per cent of the wealth and that the bottom
25 per cent have less than 5 per cent of the wealth.
100
Key
90
Perfect equality diagonal
80
Percentage of wealth 70
Wealth

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of total households
▲ Figure 1.89 Toxic froth from Bellandur Lake, Bangalore
▲ Figure 1.91 Lorenz curve to show inequality in Rio de Janeiro

Light pollution Housing issues

Light pollution (Figure 1.90) refers to excessive artificial Provision of enough quality housing is also a major
lighting. It is common in large urban and industrial problem in LICs. There are at least four aspects to the
areas, and can have an impact on human health, management of housing stock:
leading to loss of sleep and headaches, and is disruptive
» quality of housing — with proper water,
to nocturnal animals. It is also a waste of energy.
sanitation, electricity and space
» quantity of housing — having enough units to
meet demand
» availability and affordability of housing
» housing tenure (ownership or rental).
Increased demand for housing is generated by:
» people moving to urban areas in search of work
and a higher standard of living
» longer life expectancy
» young people leaving home earlier
» more families splitting up and moving into
separate homes
» more people preferring modern houses with good
▲ Figure 1.90 Light pollution in Singapore’s CBD facilities.

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 1.6 Urban settlements

Greenfield and brownfield sites Traffic congestion

A greenfield site is a site that has not previously Traffic congestion has many impacts. It can
been developed. Most greenfield sites are on the delay journeys and make people late for work,
edge of town, although not necessarily so. A appointments, school etc. It increases fuel
brownfield site is a site that has previously been consumption and adds to vehicular emissions of
used, and has become derelict. It has to be made greenhouse gases and other pollutants. It may lead
safe before it can be used for housing or other to frustration and ‘road rage’, and it can have a
development (Figure 1.92). negative impact on people’s health (stress and poor
air quality). In 2013 the World Health Organization
announced that air pollution could cause cancer.
Diesel fumes are carcinogenic, and air pollution has
a causal link with respiratory diseases.

Conflicts over land-use change

The Dharavi slum in Mumbai is a prime site for
development. The Indian property developer Mukesh
Mehta wants to develop Dharavi into an international
business destination. However, to do this would
displace up to 1 million people to the edge of the
city, in places that offer few economic prospects.
Dharavi is home to thousands of small-scale, informal
industries, which generate around $650 million annually.
For many people, working in Dharavi is a means of
escaping poverty. The informal economy accounts for
▲ Figure 1.92 A brownfield site: Stratford, London before the the overwhelming majority of India’s economic growth
2012 Olympic Games and as much as 90 per cent of employment.

Table 1.19 Greenfield and brownfield sites compared

Greenfield sites Brownfield sites

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Land may be accessible Habitat destruction Redevelopment of Land may be contaminated
disused land
Cheaper land Reduction in biodiversity Widespread air and water
Does not harm the pollution
People prefer more space and Increased pollution
environment
pleasant environments Congestion
Increased impermeability leads to
Creates jobs locally
Allows planners a free rein flooding Overcrowding
Provides a boost to
Easier to plan for Increased traffic on the roads and Land is expensive
local economies
infrastructural developments cross-city commuting
May use existing
infrastructure

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