Information technology

Unit i: Information and computer-based Technology and Business.

Concepts of data- Data is a collection of facts in raw form that can become information after
proper organization or processing. Data is considered the raw material for information. Data
processing is the transformation of raw data into meaningful information. This is analogous to a
manufacturing process that turns raw materials into finished goods​. Data is organized
hierarchically for easy manageability, consisting of levels:

●​ Bits: The smallest unit of data.

●​ Characters: A group of related bits.
●​ Fields: A collection of related characters.
●​ Records: A collection of related fields.
●​ Files: A collection of related records.
●​ Database: A collection of related files​.

Concepts of information- Information is data that has been organized and processed to have
meaning, relevance, and utility. It is created by interpreting and presenting data in a meaningful
context​.

Difference Between Data and Information: Data refers to raw facts, while information is derived
from data through processing. For example, marks scored by students (data) can be processed
into class averages and performance analyses (information)​.

Characteristics of Information:

●​ Accuracy: Information must be correct and free of errors.

●​ Relevance: It must be applicable to the problem or context.
●​ Timeliness: Information should be provided when needed to make decisions.
●​ Completeness: It should include all the necessary details to be useful.
●​ Conciseness: It should be precise, avoiding unnecessary details​.

Information is a valuable resource that supports decision-making, problem-solving, and

strategic planning. Organizations use information to monitor operations, predict outcomes, and
allocate resources efficiently​.

Computer-based information system: A computer-based information system refers to a

collection of various systems, such as office automation systems, transaction processing
systems, management information systems, and management support systems, that utilize
computers to process and manipulate data to achieve specific objectives. These systems are
categorized based on management levels and involve varying degrees of human-computer
interaction. Computer-based Information Systems (CBIS) are information systems in which the
computer plays a major role. Such a system consists of the following elements:

●​ Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the computer
itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), and all of its
support equipment. Among the support equipment are input and output devices, storage
devices, and communications devices.
●​ Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that
support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the
circuitry within the hardware parts of the Computer Based Information System (CBIS) to
function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally
stored on some input/output medium a disk or tape.
●​ Data: Data are facts that are used by program to produce useful information. Like
programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the
computer needs them.
●​ Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer
system. “Procedures are to people what software is to hardware” is a common analogy
that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a CBIS.
●​ People: Every Computer Based Information System (CBIS) needs people if it is to be
useful. Often the most overlooked element of the CBIS is the people: probably the
components that most influence the success or failure of information systems.

Impact of information technology on business- Information Technology (IT) is among the

relevant factor assisting the business to penetrate in a new market for being innovative and
generating new product and services which help the growth of the business and company. The
revolution of IT and internet facilitates the outstanding performance of the economy in business
sector, through the exchanges of information by using the internet and electronic devices facilitate
accessibility of doing business between companies globally. There are several ways information
technology has impacted businesses. The following list is just a few ways that IT has impacted
businesses across the globe.
1. Automation- With the help of information technology, businesses can automate certain
processes and tasks including customer support, data entry, and bookkeeping. This reduces the
need for manual labor and frees up time for employees to focus on their core competencies.

Automation can help businesses become more efficient and save time, money, and resources.

2. Artificial Intelligence

Information technology has enabled businesses to streamline operations with Artificial

Intelligence (AI). AI can analyze data quickly and accurately, making it easier for businesses to
make well-informed decisions quickly. It also helps reduce the need for manual labor and the
associated costs. This is especially helpful when large amounts of data must be analyzed and
processed.

3. Improved Productivity

Information technology helps businesses increase their productivity by allowing them to access
data quickly and accurately, which can help improve decision-making processes. In addition, it
enables businesses to communicate more effectively with customers and staff, helping ensure
that projects are completed on time and within budget. Improved productivity can lead to
increased profits, as businesses will be able to produce more products or services in less time.

4. Improved Customer Service

Information technology helps businesses interact with customers in real time, thus providing
them with better customer service. Businesses can also use AI to handle complex customer
queries and provide personalized experiences to customers. This helps build customer loyalty
and improves brand reputation.

5. Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is another way that information technology has revolutionized businesses. By
using cloud-based applications, businesses can store and access data from any device or
location. This can help businesses save resources and time by eliminating the need to install
software on individual devices or maintain server hardware. In addition, it makes collaboration
between employees easier as they can access the same data from anywhere.
6. Remote Working

Information technology enables businesses to provide their employees with the option of
remote working. This can help reduce costs associated with office space and increase
productivity by allowing employees to work from anywhere in the world. In addition, it helps
businesses become more flexible as they can hire employees without having to worry about
geographical boundaries. it equips employees with the ability to get the work done even if they
are not physically present at the workplace.

7. CyberSecurity

The use of information technology has created a need for businesses to secure their networks
from cyber threats. Businesses are now investing more in cyber security solutions such as
firewalls and antivirus software to protect their data from hackers and malware. In addition,
businesses are also taking steps to educate their employees on the importance of cyber
security and how to stay safe online. This is crucial as cyber-attacks can have a devastating
effect on businesses, resulting in financial losses and damage to their reputation.

Therefore, it is essential for businesses to invest in cybersecurity solutions to ensure the safety
of their data.

8. Management of Resources

Information technology has enabled businesses to better manage their resources. This includes
the ability to monitor and track employee performance, inventory levels, customer data, and
financial information in real time. Businesses can also use software applications such as
enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems to manage their operations more efficiently. ERP
systems enable businesses to manage their resources in a more cost-effective way. Information
technology is at the core of such software. The implementation of ERP is progressing at a rapid
rate with more and more businesses implementing this efficient technology to make certain
business processes hassle-free.

Business data processing- Business data processing is used to convert business data into
useful information. A large volume of data can be stored in the database which can be further
analyzed using various application tools such as data mining. For example, banks contain the
complete information of bank accounts, loans, fixed deposits, recurring deposit of all customer
and from time to time give information to the customer. Similarly using spreadsheets various
operations including graphical view can be used to analyze the data.

Some of the major areas where IT is extensively used are as follows:

Finance and Accounting: IT is used to analyze investments and perform audits, determine the
best sources of funds, manage cash and other financial resources

Sales and Marketing: It is used to determine the best location for production and distribution
facilities. Operational data has been analyzed to determine the best advertising and sales
approach.

Manufacturing: One of the important applications of IT is computer-aided design and Computer

Aided manufacturing to design and manufacturing. It is extensively used for controlling
inventory levels, developing schedules, processing customer orders, and monitoring the quality
of products.

Human Resource Management: It is used to automatically screen applications, automate

employee payroll, etc.

Intra-organizational and inter-organizational communication by using network technology:

Intra and inter-organizational Communication using Network Technology is a critical aspect of
modern business operations. Network technology facilitates the seamless flow of information
within an organization (intra-organizational) and between different organizations
(inter-organizational), enhancing collaboration, decision-making, and overall efficiency. Network
technology serves as the backbone for both intra and inter-organizational communication,
playing a pivotal role in enhancing collaboration, productivity, and overall business success.
Organizations that strategically leverage these technologies can achieve streamlined
communication processes and gain a competitive edge in today's dynamic business
environment.

Intra-Organizational Communication:

• Internal Communication Systems:

Organizations utilize network technology to establish internal communication systems.
Intranets, internal email systems, and collaboration platforms enable employees to share
information, documents, and updates efficiently.

• Instant Messaging and Chat Applications:

Real-time communication tools like Slack or Microsoft Teams enhance intra-organizational

communication by providing instant messaging, group chats, and channels for specific projects
or teams.

• Video Conferencing:

With the rise of remote work and global teams, video conferencing tools like Zoom or Microsoft
Teams enable face-to-face communication, fostering a sense of connection among
geographically dispersed teams.

• Collaboration Platforms:

Platforms like Microsoft SharePoint or Google Workspace allow teams to collaborate on

documents, projects, and tasks in real time. This facilitates seamless collaboration, version
control, and document sharing.

• Company Intranet:

An intranet serves as a centralized hub for company-wide information, policies, and

announcements. It provides employees with a single source of truth and promotes consistent
communication across the organization.

• Workflow Automation:

Network technology supports workflow automation tools that streamline

communication-intensive processes. Automated notifications, approvals, and updates enhance
the efficiency of intra-organizational workflows.

• Internal Social Networks:

Some organizations use internal social networks to encourage informal communication, idea
sharing, and collaboration among employees. These platforms promote a sense of community
within the organization.

Inter-Organizational Communication:

• Electronic Data Interchange (EDI):

EDI systems facilitate the electronic exchange of business documents (such as invoices and
purchase orders) between different organizations. This streamlines supply chain processes and
reduces manual data entry.

• Extranets:

Extranets extend the capabilities of intranets to external partners, allowing secure

communication and collaboration between an organization and its suppliers, distributors, or
clients.

• Supplier Portals:

Organizations often use network technology to establish portals that connect them with
suppliers. These portals enable efficient communication regarding orders, inventory levels, and
other supply chain-related information.

• Electronic Collaboration Platforms:

Cloud-based collaboration platforms enable inter-organizational teams to work together

seamlessly. Shared documents, project management tools, and communication channels
enhance collaboration between partners.

Web Conferencing:

Web conferencing tools play a crucial role in inter-organizational communication. Virtual

meetings, webinars, and online conferences allow organizations to connect with external
partners, clients, and stakeholders.

• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs):

VPNs provide a secure and encrypted connection between organizations, facilitating the secure
transfer of sensitive information over the internet. This is particularly important for industries
where data privacy and security are paramount.

• Interconnected Systems:

Interconnected IT systems between organizations allow for seamless data exchange. This is
common in industries like finance, where banks need to communicate securely with each other
for transactions and information sharing.

• Electronic Communication Standards:

Standardized communication protocols and formats ensure interoperability between different

organizations. These standards, such as those in healthcare (HL7) or finance (SWIFT), facilitate
smooth information exchange.

Challenges and Considerations:

●​ Security Concerns: Both intra and inter-organizational communication require robust

security measures to protect sensitive information from unauthorized access or data
breaches.
●​ Integration Complexity: Integrating diverse communication tools and platforms can be
complex. Organizations need to ensure seamless interoperability for efficient
communication.
●​ Data Privacy and Compliance: Adherence to data privacy regulations is crucial,
especially in inter-organizational communication. Organizations must comply with
relevant laws and standards governing data protection.
●​ Scalability: Scalability is a consideration, particularly for rapidly growing organizations.
The communication infrastructure needs to accommodate increased data flow and user
interactions.
Business process outsourcing and knowledge process outsourcing

Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)

Business process outsourcing is a strategy for cost-reducing measurement of big industries.
When BPO service is outsourced at another country is called offshore BPO whereas if the
service available in the same country is called onshore outsourcing. BPO consists of front office
customer service (tech support) as well as backend business process (billing). Business
Process Outsourcing (BPO) is the fastest growing segment of the ITES (Information Technology
Enabled Services) industry in India. The success story of BPO industry in India is that it has
cheap labor costs and huge talent pool of skilled, English-speaking professionals. According to
the National Association of Software Services and Companies (NASSCOM), the popularity of
Indian BPO services among the world are India's unique geographic location, 24X7 services and
has revealed that quality orientation among leading BPO companies, 24/7 services and friendly
tax structure in India. NASSCOM recently conducted a survey and evaluated the leading BPO
service providers across India. Few of top business process outsourcing companies in India are
Wipro, HCL Technologiess, Spectramind, Daksh e-ervices etc.
• Services offered by BPO industries
BPO companies offer various services in various areas as follows :
▸ Customer support services: Customer queries and concerns is handle by 24X7 customer
support service through phone, email and live chat.
▸ Technical support services: Installation of product, troubleshooting for computer software,
hardware, peripherals and internet infrastructure.
▸ Insurance processing: New insurance policy, claims processing, policy maintenance and policy
management.
▸ Telemarketing services: Interacting with potential customers and creating interest for the
customer's services/products. Promoting new products and encourage cross-selling and
up-selling of the product to the potential customers.
▸ Data entry and data processing: Data entry from paper, books, images, e-books, yellow pages,
web sites, business cards, printed documents, software applications, receipts, bills, catalogs
and mailing lists, payroll processing.
▸ Online research: Internet search, product research, market research, surveys, analysis, web
research and mailing list research.
• Advantages of BPO
▸ Efficiency of business process is enhanced.
▸ Without using capital resources and asset expenditure, organizational growth increases.
▸ BPO companies are experienced in different fields and perform at the highest level. They also
Adopt best practices and use the latest technology. It naturally results in higher efficiency and
greater productivity.
• Drawbacks of BPO
▸ There is the possibility of a security breach while working with a BPO company as sensitive
data needs to be shared and processed.
▸ When work is outsourced to a BPO company for a long period, an organization can become
accustomed to the way they work and tend to get overdependent on them. It leads to the
organization paying higher than the usual costs if demanded.

Knowledge process outsourcing (KNO)

Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) is a higher version of BPO which focuses on the
knowledge intensive activities to an outside organization or different group within the same
organization. KPO is typically integrated with organization's core competencies encompass the
process of gathering. managing, analyzing and delivering objective insights into businesses.
Unlike BPO, job involve in KPO requires higher degree or certification. Auditing, computer aided
simulation, engineering design and development, financial services market and legal research
are examples of KPO. Basically BPO is outsourcing of some of the business functions to a third
party in order to save money. The KPO typically consists of BPO, Research Process Outsourcing
(RPO) and Analysis Proves Outsourcing (APO). KPO emphasis on its strength from the depth of
knowledge, experience and judgment factors KPO services are broadly categorizes into four
kinds of services:
▸ Data Analytics: Addressing business problems across industries and domains to allow
organizations to take decision, draw conclusion through the process of inspecting, transforming
and modeling data
▸ Data Management: Main objective of data management is to create and implement a
well-planned approach in managing an organizations' data asset. An efficient solutions for quick
retrieval of data, data storage and analytics as required by various stakeholders are also
provided by the data management.
▸ Market Research/ Business Research: Providing research services and strategy consulting for
accurate and concise answers to the most business related quierirs.
▸ Global Reporting and Performance Management: Providing efficient reporting and
performance measurement across industries to achieve operational excellence and productivity.
Advantages of KPO
●​ Reduced cost.
●​ Shortage of eligible workers.
●​ Offers most graduates at quite minimal prices.
●​ KPO helps to minimise unemployment and support their economy, and high-end services are
delivered at a reduced cost.
●​ Offer flexibility to time management skill and HRM.

Limitations of KPO

●​ Safety- labelled business details can be lost.

●​ The employee’s integrity and the quality of his work can not be guaranteed.
 ●​ KPO is time-consuming, so it fails to offer the client requiring instant results with a rapid fix.
●​ Lack of coordination among partners may lead to complications due to language, legal and
cultural barriers.

Types of information systems(TPS):

Transaction Processing Systems

The most fundamental computer-based system in an organization pertains to the processing of

business transactions. A transaction processing system can be defined as a computer-based
system that captures, classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves transaction data for
record keeping and for input to other types of CBIS. Transaction Processing Systems are aimed
at improving the routine business activities on which all organizations depend. A transaction is
any event or activity that affects the whole organization. Placing orders, billing customers, hiring
of employees and depositing cheques are some of the common transactions. The types of
transactions that occur vary from organization to organization. But this is true that all
organizations process transactions as a major part of their daily business activities. The most
successful organizations perform this work of transaction processing in a very systematic way.
Transaction processing systems provide speed and accuracy and can be programmed to follow
routines without any variance. A Transaction Processing System(TPS) is a sophisticated
information system that enables firms to manage real-time transactions. It captures,
processes, and stores every transaction within an organization, ensuring data integrity and
providing rapid responses. TPS can handle batch processing or real-time processing, offering
reliability, efficiency, and accurate transaction processing. It is pivotal for managing business
transactions securely and maintaining seamless operations.

Management information system(MIS)

Management Information System (MIS) is one of the five major Computer Based Information
Systems (CBIS). Its purpose is to meet the general information needs of the managers in firm or
organization. MIS is a computer-based system that makes information available to users with
similar needs. Management Information System (MIS) consists of following three pillars:
Management, Information, and System. These are explained as following below.
1.​ Management: art of getting things done through and with the people of in formally
organized groups. Managerial functions:
(i) Planning
(ii) Organizing
(iii) Staffing
(iv) Directing
(v) Controlling
2.Information: data that have a meaning with a context ,where data is raw facts about an
entity (entity is the object of interest).
3.System: set of inter-related components with a clearly defined boundary working
together to achieve a common goal.
A management information system (MIS) uses computer-based tools and software to collect
and store data about a company and distribute it to its management team. It is an information
system (IS) whose main goal is to give managers and other stakeholders the information they
require to make informed decisions.
The MIS can act as a database that houses all the company's financial information and
organizes it in such a way that it can be accessed to generate reports on operations at different
levels of the company.
An analysis of MIS data could reveal how to utilize internal and external information better. It
might help a business better implement a new social media strategy or better organize
employee benefits. Alternatively, it might highlight that a company's use of IT is outdated or
poorly applied.

Decision support system (DSS)

Decision Support System (DSS) is a real-time decision-making tool where data, models, and
software are used in partnership with individuals to generate efficient solutions. It combines
numerous data inputs and offers methodological approaches to evaluation, modelling and
display of the information to facilitate decision-making in case of the system’s challenging
issues. DSS facilitates semi-structured and unstructured decision-making and can improve the
quality, speed and efficiency of the decisions since new information. Prognoses that would be
hard to produce manually are available. DSS implementation varies at the managerial
levels—operational, tactical, and strategic—based on the nature of decisions at each level.
Here's how DSS supports decision-making at each level:

1. Operational Level

●​ Purpose: Focuses on day-to-day, routine decisions and processes to ensure efficient

operations.
●​ Characteristics of Decisions: Short-term, repetitive, structured (e.g., inventory
management, scheduling, and customer service).
●​ Role of DSS:
○​ Provides real-time data processing and reporting to monitor daily activities.
○​ Automates tasks like tracking inventory, processing orders, or handling customer
queries.
 ○​ Uses pre-defined algorithms or rules to analyze structured data for operational
decisions.
●​ Example of Implementation:
○​ Inventory DSS: Automatically restocks inventory when thresholds are reached.
○​ Customer Support DSS: Chatbots and systems that suggest responses based on
historical data.

2. Tactical Level

●​ Purpose: Focuses on mid-term decisions, resource allocation, and improving processes

to meet organizational goals.
●​ Characteristics of Decisions: Semi-structured, involving some uncertainty (e.g., resource
allocation, budget planning, and performance monitoring).
●​ Role of DSS:
○​ Combines structured data (e.g., sales figures) and unstructured data (e.g.,
customer feedback) to guide managers.
○​ Supports "what-if" analyses to evaluate alternative approaches.
○​ Provides trend analysis and predictive insights for performance optimization.
●​ Example of Implementation:
○​ Sales and Marketing DSS: Assists in setting regional sales targets and
monitoring progress.
○​ Financial DSS: Helps create budget forecasts and assess the impact of
cost-cutting measures.

3. Strategic Level

●​ Purpose: Focuses on long-term decisions, organizational direction, and achieving

competitive advantages.
●​ Characteristics of Decisions: Unstructured, complex, and non-routine (e.g., entering a
new market, mergers, or technological investments).
●​ Role of DSS:
○​ Facilitates data visualization for top executives to interpret patterns and trends.
○​ Integrates internal and external data (e.g., industry trends, economic indicators)
for comprehensive decision-making.
○​ Uses advanced technologies like AI, ML, and scenario simulations to predict
long-term outcomes.
●​ Example of Implementation:
○​ Strategic Planning DSS: Assists in evaluating potential investments and
forecasting their impact.
 ○​ Market Entry DSS: Analyzes market trends, competitor strategies, and regulatory
frameworks for expansion decisions.

Knowledge management system (KMS):

○​ analysis, innovation insights).

○​ Focus on gaining insights for competitive advantage and strategic growth.
●​ Role of KMS:
○​ Aggregates internal and external knowledge (e.g., industry reports, market
analysis).
○​ Enables knowledge-driven innovation by fostering collaboration across
departments and geographies.
○​ Uses advanced tools like AI, machine learning, and predictive analytics to derive
actionable insights.
●​ Example of Implementation:
○​ A strategic intelligence system that tracks market trends and competitor
activities.
○​ A thought leadership repository for C-level executives to share insights and
strategies.

Unit 2: data organization and database management system

(a)data organisation: Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in
computer systems form a hierarchy extending from a single bit to a database, the major
record-keeping entity of a firm. Each higher rung of this hierarchy is organized from the
components below it.

Data are logically organized into:

1. Bits (characters)

2. Fields

3. Records

4. Files

5. Databases

Bit (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be a 0 or 1).
Eight bits make a byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a character code.
Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a
characteristic or quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).

Record - a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity. A record
consists of fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity.

File - a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which they
are primarily used (employee file). A primary key in a file is the field (or fields) whose value
identifies a record among others in a data file.

Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database

consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that
provides data for many applications. The data is managed by systems software called database
management systems (DBMS). The data stored in a database is independent of the application
programs using it and of the types of secondary storage devices on which it is stored.

Types of data processing systems:

There are several ways in which a computer, under the influences of an operating
system is designed to process data.

Online processing:

●​ In online data processing data is processed immediately it is received. The computer is

connected directly to the data input unit via a communication link. The data input may be
a network terminal or online input devices attached to the computer.

Real-time processing:

●​ The computer processes the incoming data as soon as it occurs, updates the
transaction file, and gives an immediate response that would affect the events as they
happen.
●​ This is different from online in that for the latter an immediate response may not be
required.
●​ The main purpose of real-time processing is to provide accurate, up-to-date information
hence better services based on a true (real) situation.
●​ An example of real-time processing is making a reservation for airline seats. A customer
may request airline booking information through a remote terminal and the requested
information will be given out within no time by the reservation system. If a booking is
made, the system immediately updates the reservation file to avoid double booking and
sends the response back to the customer immediately.

Distributed data processing:

 A distributed database is basically a database that is not limited to one system, it is spread
over different sites, i.e, on multiple computers or over a network of computers. A distributed
database system is located on various sites that don’t share physical components. This may be
required when a particular database needs to be accessed by various users globally. It needs to
be managed such that for the users it looks like one single database. Distributed data
processing refers to dividing (distributing) processing tasks to two or more computer that are
located on physically separate sites but connected by data transmission media.

Batch processing
●​ Data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a specified period of time e.g. daily,
weekly or monthly. The batch is then processed at once.
●​ For example in payroll processing system, employees details concerning the
number of hours worked, rate of pay, and other details are collected for a period
of time say, one month. These details are then used to process the payment for
the duration worked. Most printing systems use the batch processing to print
documents.

Centralized processing:

Centralized processing refers to a data processing architecture in which all the data is
collected and processed in a single centralized storage area by a single computer. This
architecture is well-suited for small organizations with one location of service and
requires minimal resources.

Serial data processing:

Serial data processing is the process of sequentially transmitting data along a pathway. It can
refer to the processing of data in a computer system or in an instrument. such as in the
auditory system where information is processed step by step from the external ear to
higher cortical levels.

File organizations:Data files are organized so as to facilitate access to records and to ensure
their efficient storage. A tradeoff between these two requirements generally exists: if rapid
access is required, more storage is required to make it possible.

Sequential file organization is the simplest type of file organization, where files are stored one
after the other, rather than storing different files in rows and columns (in a tabular form), storing
data in rows. In sequential organization records are physically stored in a specified order
according to a key field in each record.

Advantages of sequential access:

 1. It is fast and efficient when dealing with large volumes of data that need to be
processed periodically (batch system).

2. Data and information can be stored relatively easily.

Disadvantages of sequential access:

1. Requires that all new transactions be sorted into the proper sequence for
sequential access processing.

2. Locating, storing, modifying, deleting, or adding records in the file requires

rearranging the file.

3. This method is too slow to handle applications requiring immediate updating or

responses.

Indexed-Sequential Organization

In the indexed-sequential files method, records are physically stored in sequential order on a
magnetic disk or other direct access storage device based on the key field of each record. Each
file contains an index that references one or more key fields of each data record to its storage
location address.

Benefits

●​ ISFO is efficient for data handling.

●​ It's suitable for environments that need frequent data access and modification.
●​ It's easy to use.

Direct Organization

Direct file organization provides the fastest direct access to records. When using direct access
methods, records do not have to be arranged in any particular sequence on storage media.
Characteristics of the direct access method include:

1. Computers must keep track of the storage location of each record using a variety
of direct organization methods so that data can be retrieved when needed.

2. New transactions' data do not have to be sorted.

3. Processing that requires immediate responses or updating is easily performed.

Relative file organization

A relative record file contains records ordered by their relative key, a record number that
represents the location of the record relative to where the file begins.

For example, the first record in a file has a relative record number of 1, the tenth record has a
relative record number of 10, and so forth. The records can have fixed length or variable length.

The record transmission modes for relative files are sequential, random, or dynamic. When
relative files are read or written sequentially, the sequence is that of the relative record number.

Traditional file organizations vs. database file organizations:

Basics Traditional File Database file

The file system is a way of

arranging the files in a DBMS is software for
Structure
storage medium within a managing the database.
computer.

Redundant data can be In DBMS there is no

Data Redundancy
present in a file system. redundant data.
 It doesn’t provide Inbuilt It provides in house tools
Backup and
mechanism for backup and for backup and recovery of
Recovery
recovery of data if it is lost. data even if it is lost.

There is no efficient query Efficient query processing is

Query processing
processing in the file system. there in DBMS.

There is more data

There is less data
Consistency consistency because of the
consistency in the file system.
process of normalization .

It has more complexity in

It is less complex as
Complexity handling as compared to
compared to DBMS.
the file system.

File systems provide less DBMS has more security

Security Constraints security in comparison to mechanisms as compared
DBMS. to file systems.
 It has a comparatively
It is less expensive than
Cost higher cost than a file
DBMS.
system.

In DBMS data
independence exists,
mainly of two types:

There is no data
Data Independence 1) Logical Data
independence.
Independence .

2)Physical Data
Independence.

Only one user can access Multiple users can access

User Access
data at a time. data at a time.

The user has to write

The users are not required to
Meaning procedures for managing
write procedures.
databases
 Data is distributed in many
Due to centralized nature
Sharing files. So, it is not easy to
data sharing is easy
share data.

It give details of storage and It hides the internal details

Data Abstraction
representation of data of Database

Integrity Constraints are Integrity constraints are

Integrity Constraints
difficult to implement easy to implement

To access data in a file , user

No such attributes are
Attribute s requires attributes such as
required.
file name, file location.

(b)database management system:

definition-A DBMS is a system that allows users to create, modify, and query databases while
ensuring data integrity, security, and efficient data access. Unlike traditional file systems, DBMS
minimizes data redundancy, prevents inconsistencies, and simplifies data management with
features like concurrent access and backup mechanisms. It organizes data into tables, views,
schemas, and reports, providing a structured approach to data management.

Importance-

1.​ Improved Data Security

Security is crucial for any organization that handles confidential data. A DBMS delivers strong
security features, including encryption, user authentication, and access controls. These features
mainly allow data administrator to outline who can delete data, access, or modify it.

2.​ Efficient Data Access

A DBMS enables well-organized data retrieval over SQL. The users can implement complex queries
to sort, filter, and analyze datasets. It helps to enhance the queries to minimize response times and
make it simpler for businesses.

3.​ Data Integrity

DBMS is mainly confirming that the data stays consistent and accurate. It imposes constraints
and rules like foreign and primary keys. Also, it helps avoid irregularities like invalid entries and
duplicated records. This Scalability

When the business grows, it is essential to manage the volume of the data. A DBMS is
developed to scale efficiently. Well, it accommodated the increasing number of data and users
without compromising performance. It helps with vertical scaling and horizontal scaling.

consistency is vital when multiple users are accessing the data.

4.Recovery and Backup:

Data loss or data inconsistency can have appalling consequences for businesses. A database
management system comes up with built-in backup and recovery mechanisms. It also ensures
that the data is backed up at regular intervals. It can be restored in the event of accidental
losses and system failures.

5.Data Independence
One of the essential benefits of DBMS is data independence. It means that you can alter the
database structure without affecting the application programs. You can achieve this by strongly
separating the physical data storage from the database schema.

6. Increased Speed and Efficiency

A DBMS systemizers many tasks in data management, such as data storage management,
query optimization, and indexing. These are the processes that help enhance the efficiency of
data operations. Also, expressively speeds up the data processing and retrieval.

The DBMS improves resource usage and minimizes the time required to implement complex
queries and reporting. This increased efficacy supports your businesses quickly to market
modifications.

Important terms in database:

Entity
An entity is a "thing" or "object" in the real world. An entity contains attributes, which describe
that entity. So anything about which we store information is called an entity. Entities are
recorded in the database and must be distinguishable, i.e., easily recognized from the group.

For example: A student, An employee, or bank a/c, etc. all are entities.

Attribute

Attributes are properties or characteristics of an entity. Attributes are used to describe the
entity. The attribute is nothing but a piece of data that gives more information about the entity.
Attributes are used to distinguish one entity from the other entity. Attributes help to categorize
the entity and the entity can be easily retrieved and manipulate the entity. Attributes can help the
database to be more structural and hierarchical. An entity with no attribute is of no use in the
database

Keys

We require keys in a DBMS to ensure that data is organized, accurate, and easily accessible.
Keys help to uniquely identify records in a table, which prevents duplication and ensures data
integrity.

Keys also establish relationships between different tables, allowing for efficient querying and
management of data. Without keys, it would be difficult to retrieve or update specific records,
and the database could become inconsistent or unreliable.

Primary key:The primary key refers to a column or a set of columns of a table that helps us
identify all the records uniquely present in that table. A table can consist of just one primary key.
Also, this primary key cannot consist of the same values reappearing/repeating for any of its
rows. All the values of a primary key have to be different, and there should be no repetitions.

The PK (PRIMARY KEY) constraint that we put on a column/set of columns won’t allow these to
have a null value or a duplicate. Any table can consist of only a single primary key constraint. A
foreign key (explained below) that refers to it can never change the values present in the primary
key.

Candidate Key: The candidate keys refer to those attributes that identify rows uniquely in a
table. In a table, we select the primary key from a candidate key. Thus, a candidate key has
similar properties as that of the primary keys that we have explained above. In a table, there can
be multiple candidate keys.

Foreign Key: We use a foreign key to establish relationships between two available tables. The
foreign key would require every value present in a column/set of columns to match the
referential table’s primary key. A foreign key helps us to maintain data as well as referential
integrity.

Referential integrity

Referential integrity refers to the relationship between tables. Because each table in a database
must have a primary key, this primary key can appear in other tables because of its relationship
to data within those tables. When a primary key from one table appears in another table, it is
called a foreign key. Referential integrity in a database management system (DBMS) ensures
that the relationships between tables are accurate and consistent. It prevents users from
accidentally breaking the mapping between related columns.

Table

A table is a collection of related data in an organized manner in the form of rows and columns.
It is an organized arrangement of data and information in tabular form containing rows and
columns, making it easier to understand and compare data.

Views

Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and columns. To
create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the database. A view
can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a table.

Data dictionary:

The data dictionary consists of two words, data, which represents data collected from several
sources, and dictionary, which represents where this data is available. The data dictionary is an
important part of the relational database because it provides additional information about the
relationship between several tables in the database. A data dictionary in a DBMS helps users
manage data in an orderly and orderly manner, thereby preventing data redundancy.

Types of database:

A database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed electronically. Databases

can store structured, semi-structured, or unstructured data, such as text, images, videos, and
files, making them indispensable for modern applications. They are managed using Database
Management Systems (DBMS), which provide tools for creating, retrieving, and modifying data.

1. Hierarchical Databases
Hierarchical databases organize data in a tree-like structure where data is arranged in levels or
ranks. Higher-level data serves as a common link for lower-level data, similar to a hierarchy. For
example, in a university, “University” is at the top level, while “Departments” and
“Administration” are at lower levels, even though they are distinct entities.

Hierarchical Database Example

This structure can also be viewed as a parent-child relationship, where each parent record can
have multiple child records, but a child record can only have one parent. As more data is added,
the structure expands like a tree. However, hierarchical databases have limitations, such as
being less flexible and harder to scale. Adding new data or elements often requires traversing
the hierarchy, which can be time-consuming.

2. Network Databases
A network database builds on the hierarchical model but allows child records to link to multiple
parent records, creating a web-like structure of interconnected data. For example, in a
university database, “Students,” “Faculty,” and “Resources” can be linked to both “Departments”
and “Clubs,” forming a flexible, two-directional relationship.

Network Database Example

This model is ideal for complex frameworks as it effectively represents many-to-many
relationships. Additionally, its structure simplifies the use of certain database management
languages. However, the downside is that network databases are highly dependent on their
predefined structure, making changes difficult and time-consuming due to their complexity.

3.Relational Databases
Considered the most mature of all databases, these databases lead in the production line along
with their management systems. In this database, every piece of information has a relationship
with every other piece of information. This is on account of every data value in the database
having a unique identity in the form of a record.

Note that all data is tabulated in this model. Therefore, every row of data in the database is
linked with another row using a primary key. Similarly, every table is linked with another table
using a foreign key. Refer to the diagram below and notice how the concept of ‘Keys‘ is used to
link two tables.

Relational Database Example

In Relational databases, scaling and traversing through data is quite a lightweight task in
comparison to Hierarchical Databases.

Data warehouse:

A data warehouse is a centralized system used for storing and managing large volumes
of data from various sources. It is designed to help businesses analyze historical data
and make informed decisions. Data from different operational systems is collected,
cleaned, and stored in a structured way, enabling efficient querying and reporting.

●​ Goal is to produce statistical results that may help in decision-making.

●​ Ensures fast data retrieval even with the vast datasets.

Advantages of a Data Warehouse

1.Delivers Enhanced Business Intelligence-A significant benefit of data warehouses is their

capacity to enhance business intelligence. They provide a unified view of data from
various sources, making it easier for organizations to access and analyze the
information they need for decision-making. By consolidating data in one place, data
warehouses simplify the often complex process of data integration.

2.Ensures Data Quality and Consistency-Data quality and consistency are very
important in data management. Data warehouses implement processes for data
cleansing and transformation, which help in eliminating duplicate or inconsistent data.
This ensures that the data stored in the warehouse is accurate and reliable. With high
data quality standards in place, organizations can have confidence in the insights
derived from their data warehouse.

3.Saves Time and Money-Data warehouse can is cost-effective in terms of time and
money. They enable organizations to process and analyze large volumes of data
efficiently. When data handling is streamlined and optimized, it reduces the need for
manual data preparation and management, allowing employees to focus on more
value-added tasks.

4.Tracks Historically Intelligent Data-Historical data is a goldmine for organizations.

Data warehouses store historical data, facilitating trend analysis and a deeper
understanding of business performance over time. By accessing and analyzing
historical data, organizations can identify patterns, forecast future trends, and make
informed strategic decisions. This historical perspective is invaluable for long-term
planning and growth.

5.Generates High ROI-Investing in a data warehouse can lead to a high return on

investment. By simplifying data integration, ensuring data quality, and providing
powerful analytical capabilities, data warehouses empower organizations to make
better decisions and gain a competitive edge. The insights derived from a data
warehouse can lead to increased revenue, cost savings, and improved operational
efficiency.

Disadvantages of a data warehouse:

Additional Reporting

Additional work is required for using data warehouses because data stored in a
warehouse is structured, meaning that to create reports, we must design and maintain
predefined queries and data models. This is time-consuming and delays in generating
essential reports.

Inflexibility and Homogenization of Data

Data warehouses depend on structured data, which is organized into predefined

formats. This can be a problem when handling unstructured data, such as social media
posts or multimedia content. Unstructured data doesn’t fit well within the structured
framework of a data warehouse. If the organization deals with a lot of unstructured
data, it will face problems in integrating the data effectively.

Ownership Concerns
Data warehousing systems often involve multiple departments and teams. This can
lead to ownership issues. Determining who is responsible for various aspects of the
data warehouse, including data governance and quality, can become a complex task.
Lack of clear ownership can result in inefficiencies and data management problems.

Demands for Large Amounts of Resources

Implementing and maintaining a data warehouse can be resource-intensive. The

organization has to invest in hardware, software, and skilled personnel to set up and
manage the system. This upfront investment can be substantial and may not be
feasible for small or resource-constrained organizations. The ongoing costs of
maintaining a data warehouse can also add up over time.

Hidden Issues Consume Time

Data warehouses are not immune to hidden problems. Issues related to data quality,
transformation errors, and data integration challenges can emerge, and uncovering
these problems can consume valuable time and resources. Such hidden issues can also
lead to inaccurate reports and analyses, affecting decision-making.

Importance: Data warehousing is an increasingly important business intelligence tool,

allowing organizations to:

1.​ Ensure consistency. Data warehouses are programmed to apply a uniform format
to all collected data, which makes it easier for corporate decision-makers to
analyze and share data insights with their colleagues around the globe.
Standardizing data from different sources also reduces the risk of error in
interpretation and improves overall accuracy.
2.​ Make better business decisions. Successful business leaders develop
data-driven strategies and rarely make decisions without consulting the facts.
Data warehousing improves the speed and efficiency of accessing different data
sets and makes it easier for corporate decision-makers to derive insights that will
guide the business and marketing strategies that set them apart from their
competitors.
 3.​ Improve their bottom line. Data warehouse platforms allow business leaders to
quickly access their organization's historical activities and evaluate initiatives
that have been successful — or unsuccessful — in the past. This allows
executives to see where they can adjust their strategy to decrease costs,
maximize efficiency and increase sales to improve their bottom line.

Data mining:

Data mining is the process of extracting knowledge or insights from large amounts of data
using various statistical and computational techniques. The data can be structured,
semi-structured or unstructured, and can be stored in various forms such as databases, data
warehouses, and data lakes. The primary goal of data mining is to discover hidden patterns and
relationships in the data that can be used to make informed decisions or predictions. This
involves exploring the data using various techniques such as clustering, classification,
regression analysis, association rule mining, and anomaly detection. Data mining has a wide
range of applications across various industries, including marketing, finance, healthcare, and
telecommunications. For example, in marketing, data mining can be used to identify customer
segments and target marketing campaigns, while in healthcare, it can be used to identify risk
factors for diseases and develop personalized treatment plans. However, data mining also
raises ethical and privacy concerns, particularly when it involves personal or sensitive data. It’s
important to ensure that data mining is conducted ethically and with appropriate safeguards in
place to protect the privacy of individuals and prevent misuse of their data.

Pros of Data Mining

●​ It drives profitability and efficiency

●​ It can be applied to any type of data and business problem
●​ It can reveal hidden information and trends

Cons of Data Mining

●​ It is complex
●​ Results and benefits are not guaranteed
●​ It can be expensive

Importance of data mining:

​ Customer service​
Data mining can help businesses understand their customers' needs and
 preferences. This can help them improve customer service and increase customer
loyalty.
​ Revenue​
Data mining can help businesses find new sources of revenue and improve their
marketing investments.
​ Fraud detection​
Data mining can help businesses identify patterns that indicate fraud and prevent
fraud attempts.
​ Risk assessment​
Data mining can help businesses assess risks and manage regulatory compliance
obligations.
​ Demand forecasting​
Data mining can help businesses understand demand and predict how changes in
products, pricing, or promotion will affect sales.
​ Product development​
Data mining can help businesses analyze the effectiveness of product changes and
identify causes of success or failure.
​ Supply chain management​
Data mining can help businesses align supply plans with demand forecasts and
anticipate maintenance.

Big data analysis- Big Data Analytics uses advanced analytical methods that can
extract important business insights from bulk datasets. Within these datasets lies both
structured (organized) and unstructured (unorganized) data. Its applications cover
different industries such as healthcare, education, insurance, AI, retail, and
manufacturing. Big Data Analytics is all about crunching massive amounts of
information to uncover hidden trends, patterns, and relationships. Here's a breakdown
of what it involves:

●​ Collecting Data: Such data is coming from various sources such as social media,
web traffic, sensors and customer reviews.
●​ Cleaning the Data: Imagine having to assess a pile of rocks that included some gold
pieces in it. You would have to clean the dirt and the debris first. When data is being
cleaned, mistakes must be fixed, duplicates must be removed and the data must be
formatted properly.
 ●​ Analyzing the Data: It is here that the wizardry takes place. Data analysts employ
powerful tools and techniques to discover patterns and trends. It is the same thing
as looking for a specific pattern in all those rocks that you sorted through.

Unit 3: internet and its application

Meaning of internet- The internet is defined as a global network of linked computers,

servers, phones, and smart appliances that communicate with each other using the
transmission control protocol (TCP) standard to enable the fast exchange of

information and files, along with other types of services.

IP address(IPv4)-The IPv4 address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a

network interface on a machine. An IPv4 address is typically written in decimal digits,
formatted as four 8-bit fields that are separated by periods. Each 8-bit field represents a
byte of the IPv4 address. This form of representing the bytes of an IPv4 address is often
referred to as the dotted-decimal format. The bytes of the IPv4 address are further
classified into two parts: the network part and the host part.

IPv6- An Internet Protocol version 6 address (IPv6 address) is a numeric label that is
used to identify and locate a network interface of a computer or a network node
participating in a computer network using IPv6. IP addresses are included in the packet
header to indicate the source and the destination of each packet.

URL- A URL or Uniform Resource Locator is a Unique identifier that is contained by all
the resources available on the internet. It can help to locate a particular resource due to
its uniqueness. It is also known as the web address. A URL consists of different parts
like protocol, domain name, etc. The users can access the URLs by simply typing them
inside the address bar or by clicking any button or link web page.
Domain name system-Domain Name System (DNS) is a system that translates
human-readable domain names, like www.google.com, into machine-readable IP
addresses, such as 142.250.190.14, enabling computers to locate and communicate
with each other on the internet. It operates as a distributed database, working through a
hierarchical structure of servers.

When a user requests a domain, the query passes through multiple levels—starting with
the Root server, then the Top-Level Domain (TLD) server and finally the authoritative
server that holds the specific IP address for the domain. This seamless process
ensures users can access websites using easy-to-remember names instead of
numerical IP addresses.

Internet protocols:

TCP/IP- The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It

stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over networks,
ensuring reliable communication between devices.

UDP- User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a communications protocol for time-sensitive

applications like gaming, playing videos, or Domain Name System (DNS) lookups. UDP
results in speedier communication because it does not spend time forming a firm
connection with the destination before transferring the data.

FTP-FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of
files from one host to another over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP
works by opening two connections that link the computers trying to communicate with
each other.

TELNET-TELNET stands for Teletype Network. It is a client/server application protocol that

provides access to virtual terminals of remote systems on local area networks or the
Internet. The local computer uses a telnet client program and the remote computers use a
telnet server program.

Characteristics:

○​ Enables text-based communication between devices.

○​ Typically used for remote administration of servers and network devices.
○​ Less secure as it transmits data in plain text (replaced by SSH for secure
connections).

HTML:

HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is the standard language used to
create and structure content on the web. It tells the web browser how to display text,
links, images, and other forms of multimedia on a webpage. HTML sets up the basic
structure of a website, and then CSS and JavaScript add style and interactivity to make
it look and function better.

DHTML:

DHTML, or Dynamic HTML, is a web-development technique combining HTML, CSS, and

JavaScript to create dynamic, interactive web pages and complex web applications. It
uses the Document Object Model (DOM) to manipulate content spontaneously and
respond to user interactions in real time without reloading the entire page.

DHTML also allows for the creation of complex visual effects and elements. Examples
include dropdown menus that appear when users hover over a navigation link,
slideshows that display images and captions in a loop, and interactive games or quizzes
that respond to user input.

With DHTML, designers and developers can create web applications that behave more
like desktop applications, providing users with a more intuitive, seamless experience.

XML:

XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a markup language similar to HTML, but without
predefined tags to use. Instead, you define your own tags designed specifically for your
needs. This is a powerful way to store data in a format that can be stored, searched, and
shared. Most importantly, since the fundamental format of XML is standardized, if you
share or transmit XML across systems or platforms, either locally or over the internet,
the recipient can still parse the data due to the standardized XML syntax.
Ethical hacking

Ethical hacking is the practice of using the same techniques as malicious hackers to test a
system for vulnerabilities and fix them, with the owner's permission. Ethical hackers are security
professionals, also known as white hat hackers, who use their skills to help organizations
improve their security posture.
Ethical hacking involves:
●​ Gaining access: Using the same techniques as malicious hackers to gain access to a
system or network
●​ Identifying vulnerabilities: Finding potential weaknesses that could be exploited by
malicious hackers
●​ Fixing vulnerabilities: Addressing and resolving any identified vulnerabilities before they
can be exploited
●​ Reporting: Reporting all weaknesses found to the organization and its vendors.

Cloud computing:

Cloud computing simply refers to the delivery of computing services over the internet, including
storage, databases, software, and analytics. Services​
Cloud computing provides services such as storage, servers, databases, networking, software,
analytics, and intelligence.
​ On-demand-Cloud computing provides resources on-demand, so users only pay for what
they use.
​ Pay-as-you-go-Cloud computing offers a pay-as-you-go model, so users don't need to
buy, own, or maintain physical servers and data centers.
​ Device and location independence-Users can access cloud services from any device or
location using a web browser.
Some benefits of cloud computing include:

1. Scalability

One of the best advantages of cloud computing is scalability. Cloud Computing

provides the opportunity to scale at your own speed. Organizations are savvy to have
their significant developments plotted out three to five years ahead of time, however, the
world can be unpredictable. Whether you need to develop forcefully or carefully or
downsize decisively during seasons of unrest, cloud computing is a business resource
you pay for just as and when you want it.

2.Faster time to market

You can spin up new instances or retire them in seconds, allowing developers to
accelerate development with quick deployments. Cloud computing supports new
innovations by making it easy to test new ideas and design new applications without
hardware limitations or slow procurement processes.

3. Cost savings

Whatever cloud service model you choose, you only pay for the resources you actually
use. This helps you avoid overbuilding and overprovisioning your data center and gives
your IT teams back valuable time to focus on more strategic work.

4. Advanced security

Despite popular perceptions, cloud computing can actually strengthen your security
posture because of the depth and breadth of security features, automatic maintenance,
and centralized management.

Reputable cloud providers also hire top security experts and employ the most advanced
solutions, providing more robust protection.

5. Data loss prevention

Cloud providers offer backup and disaster recovery features. Storing data in the cloud
rather than locally can help prevent data loss in the event of an emergency, such as
hardware malfunction, malicious threats, or even simple user error.

Other disadvantages of cloud computing include:

●​ risk of vendor lock-in

●​ less control over underlying cloud infrastructure
●​ concerns about security risks like data privacy and online threats
 ●​ integration complexity with existing systems
●​ unforeseen costs and unexpected expenses

Mobile Computing

Mobile computing is the ability to use a computer while it's in motion,

allowing users to access information and perform tasks without being tied to
a specific location:

Mobile computing involves the use of portable devices, such as

smartphones, tablets, or wearable technology, that are connected to wireless
networks. These devices can use wireless technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
or cellular networks to access the internet and communicate.

Mobile computing is used in many fields, including:

social media, healthcare, transportation, business, entertainment, and

education.

Some key principles of mobile computing include:

●​ Portability: Devices should be physically portable and have sufficient processing

capability.
●​ Connectivity: The network should be available with minimal lag or downtime.
●​ Interactivity: Devices should be able to communicate and collaborate with each
other.
●​ Individuality: The system should be able to adapt to the needs of each individual
user.

Internet of things

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects that are

connected to the internet and can communicate with other devices and
systems. IoT devices are equipped with sensors, software, and other
technologies that allow them to collect data and exchange it with other
devices.
IoT devices can be found in many different settings, including:

●​ Homes: Voice assistants, automated vacuum cleaners, and security systems

●​ Human bodies: Wearable or ingestible devices that monitor health and wellness
●​ Retail environments: Self-checkout, in-store offers, and inventory optimization
●​ Infrastructure: Monitoring and controlling bridges, railway tracks, and wind
farms

The IoT has many benefits, including:

​ Improved efficiency​
IoT can help businesses create efficiencies in manufacturing by monitoring
machines and products in real time.
​ Better safety​
IoT can help improve incident management and emergency response coordination
by monitoring infrastructure for safety risks.
​ Cost savings​
IoT can help businesses save money by reducing time and paper, and improving
productivity.

Ethical issues in social networking: With the rise of Online Social Networking, the
ethical dilemmas are growing in number including violation of
privacy,misrepresentation, bullying and creepiness. When the consumersare getting
the facility of relatively unrestricted social communications they are becoming more
vulnerable to deception and scams too at the same time which has become the reason
of attention for Social Networking Ethics. Few ethical dilemmas faced when different
people use social networks are given below:

Privacy

Social media platforms have access to an enormous amount of personal data, and
there are concerns about how this data is collected, stored, and used. Users often need
to understand the risks of sharing sensitive information fully. Privacy is a significant
concern regarding social media, as these platforms often require users to share
personal information to create a profile and engage with others.

Cyber bullying

Social media platforms have become a breeding ground for cyberbullyingvi, which can
have devastating consequences for victims. It can also lead to social exclusion and
mental health issues. Cyberbullying is a form of bullying that occurs through electronic
means, such as social media platforms, messaging apps, and online forums. It is a
serious issue that can significantly impact the mental health and well-being of those
who experience it

Fake News

Social media platforms have made it easy for fake news to spread rapidly, which can be
dangerous and have serious consequences. Misinformation and propaganda can
influence people's decisions and beliefs. Fake news refers to false or misleading
information presented as factual news. Social media platforms are often used to spread
fake news due to their massive reach and easy accessibility.

Content Moderation

Social media platforms face the difficult task of moderating content, and there are
concerns about censorship, freedom of speech, and bias. Content moderation is
important for maintaining a safe and respectful environment on social media platforms.
It can help prevent harmful or offensive content from being shared with a large
audience, protect users from harassment and discrimination, and prevent the spread of
misinformation or false information.

Discrimination

Social media platforms have been accused of facilitating discrimination, particularly

gender, race, and ethnicity. This can be hate speech, trolling, and targeted attacks.
Discrimination on social media refers to the unfair treatment or prejudice against
individuals or groups based on race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, or other
personal characteristics. Discrimination can take many forms on social media, including
hate speech, offensive comments or images, and exclusionary behavior.
Online Harassment

Social media platforms can be used to harass and intimidate individuals, which can lead
to significant emotional distress and even physical harm. Online harassment can take
many forms, such as threats, stalking, doxxing (publishing someone's private
information online), spreading rumors or lies, and making derogatory or offensive
comments. It can target individuals or groups based on race, gender, sexual orientation,
religion, or other characteristics

Unit 4: security and encryption.

E- security:
"E-security," short for "electronic security," refers to the practice of protecting electronic
systems, networks, and data from unauthorized access, use, disruption, or modification,
primarily focusing on online transactions and activities conducted through the internet,
encompassing aspects like data privacy, authentication, integrity, and availability to
ensure secure online interactions and commerce.

Scope of e-security:

Data protection:​
Safeguarding sensitive user information like personal details, financial data, and
login credentials from unauthorized access or breaches.

​ Authentication:​
Verifying the identity of users and systems involved in online transactions to prevent
fraudulent activity.
​ Encryption:​
Using cryptographic algorithms to scramble data, making it unreadable to
unauthorized parties during transmission.
​ Access control:​
Implementing mechanisms to restrict access to sensitive systems and data based
on user roles and permissions.
​ Network security:​
Protecting the network infrastructure from malicious attacks like hacking, malware,
and denial-of-service attacks.
​ Website security:​
Implementing measures to secure websites including secure sockets layer (SSL)
certificates for encrypted communication and protection against vulnerabilities like
cross-site scripting (XSS).
​ Payment security:​
Ensuring secure processing of online payments through PCI DSS compliance and
other payment gateway security protocols.
​ Email security:​
Protecting email communication from phishing scams, spam, and malware.

Need of e-security:

1. Privacy

Privacy includes preventing any activity that will lead to the sharing of customers’ data
with unauthorized third parties. Apart from the online seller that a customer has chosen,
no one else should access their personal information and account details.

2. Integrity

Integrity is another crucial concept of eCommerce Security. It means ensuring that any
information that customers have shared online remains unaltered. The principle states
that the online business is utilizing the customers’ information as given, without
changing anything. Altering any part of the data causes the buyer to lose confidence in
the security and integrity of the online enterprise.

3. Authentication

The principle of authentication in eCommerce security requires that both the seller and
the buyer should be real. They should be who they say they are. The business should
prove that it is real, deals with genuine items or services, and delivers what it promises.
The clients should also give their proof of identity to make the seller feel secure about
the online transactions. It is possible to ensure authentication and identification. If you
are unable to do so, hiring an expert will help a lot. Among the standard solutions
include client login information and credit card PINs.

4. Non-repudiation

Repudiation means denial. Therefore, non-repudiation is a legal principle that instructs

players not to deny their actions in a transaction. The business and the buyer should
follow through on the transaction part that they initiated. eCommerce can feel less safe
since it occurs in cyberspace with no live video. Non-repudiation gives eCommerce
security another layer. It confirms that the communication that occurred between the
two players indeed reached the recipients. Therefore, a party in that particular
transaction cannot deny a signature, email, or purchase.

Dimensions of e- security:

1. Integrity: Integrity can ensure that information on the internet has not been altered in
any way by an unauthorized party. It maintains the consistency, accuracy, and
trustworthiness of the information over its entire life cycle.
2. Non-repudiation
Good business depends on both buyers and sellers. They must not deny any facts or
rules once they accept that there should not be any repudiation. Non-repudiation
ensures that the sender of a message cannot deny having sent the message and that
the receiver cannot deny having received the message. In other words, it is an
assurance that anyone cannot deny the validity of a transaction.

3. Authenticity

In ecommerce, since both the customer and seller need to trust each other, they must
remain who they are in real life. Both the seller and buyer must provide proof of their
original identity so that the ecommerce transaction can happen securely between them.

4. Confidentiality
Confidentiality refers to protecting information from being accessed by an unauthorized
person on the internet. In other words, only the people who are authorized can gain
access to view or modify or use the sensitive data of any customer or merchant.

5. Privacy
Where confidentiality is a concern about the information present during communication,
privacy concerns personal details. In general, privacy is used to control the usage of
information by the customers that they have given to the merchant.

6. Availability
Continuous data availability is the key to providing a better customer experience in
ecommerce. It increases online visibility, search engine rankings, and site traffic.

security threatsMalicious Codes (Virus, Trozan Horse, Worm, Spyware, Ransomware)

Security threats posed by malicious code include various types of harmful software.
Here is a breakdown of the key threats:

1.​ Virus:
○​ A virus is a program or piece of code designed to attach itself to a host
program or file.
○​ It spreads when the infected host is accessed or executed.
○​ Viruses can corrupt, delete files, or even cause system failures.
2.​ Trojan Horse:
○​ A Trojan horse disguises itself as legitimate software to deceive users into
installing it.
○​ Once installed, it can enable unauthorized access to the user's system,
stealing or damaging data.
3.​ Worm:
○​ Worms are self-replicating programs that spread across networks without
needing a host program.
○​ They consume network bandwidth and may carry a payload causing
system disruptions.
 4.​ Spyware:
○​ Spyware secretly gathers user information, such as login credentials or
sensitive data, and sends it to unauthorized entities.
○​ It can track internet activities or monitor keystrokes, leading to privacy
violations.
5.​ Ransomware:
○​ This type of malware encrypts the victim's files or locks the system,
demanding a ransom payment for the decryption key.
○​ It can cause significant disruptions to personal or business operations.

These malicious codes exploit vulnerabilities in systems, emphasizing the need for
robust security measures such as antivirus software, firewalls, and regular system
updates.

Hacking = Hacking is the act of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system or

network to gain control of digital assets. It can involve identifying and exploiting
weaknesses in a system to access private information or protected databases. Hacking
can be malicious or non-malicious, and it can be legal or illegal depending on the
circumstances:

1.​ Malicious hacking​

The most common type of hacking, where cyber criminals use hacking to steal data,
compromise systems, or spread malware.
2.​ Ethical hacking​
A type of hacking that uses hacking techniques to help organizations improve their
security.
3.​ Legal hacking​
Hacking that is legal if the hacker has permission from the system's owner.

Sniffing:​
In cybersecurity, "sniffing" refers to the act of passively capturing network traffic
data, allowing an attacker to see unencrypted information like passwords or
 sensitive data that is being transmitted across a network without the user's
knowledge.

Phishing:​
Phishing is a cybercrime where attackers send fraudulent emails or messages
that appear to be from a legitimate source, aiming to trick the recipient into
revealing sensitive personal information like passwords or credit card details by
clicking on malicious links or providing information on fake websites.

Spamming:​
Spamming refers to the act of sending unsolicited bulk messages, usually in the
form of emails, text messages, or online posts, often for commercial purposes,
to a large number of recipients without their consent.

Denial of services attack

A denial of service (DoS) attack is a cyber threat that prevents legitimate users from
accessing devices, information systems, or other network resources. The goal of a DoS
attack is to overload a network or website, making it inaccessible or degrading its
performance.

Technology solutions [Confidentiality: (Data Encryption & Decryption, Symmetric and

asymmetric encryption)

Data encryption and decryption are core technology solutions used to protect confidentiality by
transforming sensitive information into an unreadable format, accessible only to authorized
parties with the correct decryption key, effectively safeguarding data from unauthorized access
even if intercepted during transmission or storage; essentially, it allows for secure
communication and data protection by scrambling data with a mathematical algorithm, making
it unintelligible without the proper key to decode it.

Data Encryption is a method of preserving data confidentiality by transforming it into ciphertext,

which can only be decoded using a unique decryption key produced at the time of the
encryption or before it. The conversion of plaintext into ciphertext is known as encryption.
Decryption : The conversion of encrypted data into its original form is called Decryption. It is
generally a reverse process of encryption. It decodes the encrypted information so that an
authorized user can only decrypt the data because decryption requires a secret key or
password.

In encryption techniques, there are two types, namely symmetric key encryption and
asymmetric key encryption.
​ Symmetric encryption​
Also known as "private key" encryption, this method uses the same key to encrypt
and decrypt data. Symmetric encryption is faster and more efficient than
asymmetric encryption, but it's also more vulnerable to threats. If the key is
compromised, the data can be easily decrypted. The length of the key is 128 or
256 bits. It is used when a large amount of data needs to be transferred.

Asymmetric encryption​
Also known as "public key" encryption, this method uses a mathematically related pair
of keys for encryption and decryption. The public key encrypts data and can be freely
distributed, while the private key must be kept secret. Asymmetric encryption enhances
data protection through the use of both a public and a private key. The encryption
process is slow. it provides confidentiality, authenticity, and non-repudiation. It is
comparatively less efficient as it can handle a small amount of data.

Security Implementation: Firewall, DMZ (De Militarized Zone), SSL, HTTPs,

Significance of Website Auditing]

Firewall: A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which

monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules
accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic. A firewall is a type of network security
device that filters incoming and outgoing network traffic with security policies that have
previously been set up inside an organization. A firewall is essentially the wall that
separates a private internal network from the open Internet at its very basic level.

DMZ (De Militarized Zone): Demilitarized Zones (DMZ) are used in cybersecurity. DMZs
separate internal networks from the internet and are often found on corporate networks. A DMZ
is typically created on a company’s internal network to isolate the company from external
threats. The DMZ is a network barrier between the trusted and untrusted networks in a
company’s private and public networks. The DMZ acts as a protection layer through which
outside users cannot access the company’s data. The goal of DMZ is to provide access to the
untrusted network by ensuring the security of the private network. DMZ is not mandatory, but a
better approach is to use it with a firewall.

SSL and HTTPs: SSL and HTTPS are both related to the security of data transferred over
the internet:
SSL​
Stands for Secure Sockets Layer, and is a technology that encrypts data sent between a browser
and a website or between two servers. SSL certificates, also known as digital certificates,
establish an encrypted connection between a user's computer and a website or server.

​ HTTPS​
Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, and indicates that a website has an
SSL/TLS certificate installed and that the connection between a web browser and the
website is encrypted and secure. The "S" in HTTPS indicates that the communication is
secure.
SSL and TLS are both protocols that allow computer systems to communicate safely over the
internet. TLS is the successor to SSL, and is used by HTTPS. However, all versions of SSL are
now considered insecure for modern use, and "SSL" is often used generically to refer to
TLS/HTTPS.
HTTPS is important for sites that send sensitive information, such as credit card information or
billing addresses.

Significance of Website Auditing:

A website audit is significant because it provides a comprehensive evaluation of a
website's performance, identifying areas for improvement in terms of user experience,
technical functionality, SEO optimization, and content quality, ultimately leading to
better search engine rankings, increased conversion rates, and a more engaging
website for visitors; essentially helping businesses maximize their online presence and
achieve their digital marketing goals.

Key aspects of website auditing:

●​ SEO Optimization:​
Identifying on-page and off-page SEO issues to improve search engine ranking
by analyzing keyword usage, meta descriptions, backlink profiles, and website
structure.
●​ Content Quality:​
Assessing the relevance, accuracy, and effectiveness of website content,
 including identifying outdated information, duplicate content, and opportunities
to improve readability and engagement.
●​ Technical Issues:​
Detecting technical errors like broken links, slow loading times, mobile
compatibility problems, and security vulnerabilities that could negatively impact
user experience.
●​ User Experience Analysis:​
Evaluating website navigation, design, and layout to ensure ease of use and
intuitive user flow.

Benefits of conducting a website audit:

●​ Improved Search Engine Rankings:​

By addressing SEO issues, a website audit can help your site appear higher in
search engine results pages (SERPs).
●​ Enhanced User Experience:​
Identifying and fixing technical issues and usability problems can lead to a more
positive user experience.
●​ Increased Conversion Rates:​
Optimizing website elements that influence user behavior can lead to higher
conversion rates, such as form submissions or purchases.
●​ Data-Driven Decision Making:​
Website audits provide valuable data and insights to inform future marketing
strategies and website development decisions.
●​ Brand Consistency:​
Reviewing content and design elements helps maintain a consistent brand image
across the website.