Lithography

1. Introduction and application.

2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.

1
 History
• Historically, lithography is a type of printing technology that is based on the
chemical repellence of oil and water.
• Photo-litho-graphy: latin: light-stone-writing.
• In 1826, Joseph Nicephore Niepce in Chalon France takes the first photograph using
bitumen of Judea on a pewter plate, developed using oil of lavender and mineral spirits.
• In 1935 Louis Minsk of Eastman Kodak developed the first negative photoresist.
• In 1940 Otto Suess developed the first positive photoresist.
• In 1954, Louis Plambeck, Jr., of Du Pont, develops the Dycryl polymeric letterpress plate.

Lithography stone and mirror-image

print of a map of Munich. Lithography press for
2
printing maps in Munich
 Lithography for art: the print principle
• Lithography is a printing process that uses chemical processes
to create an image.
• For instance, the positive part of an image would be a
hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would be water.
• Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible ink and water
mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water
will clean the negative image.

3
Photolithography for IC manufacturing
• In IC manufacturing, lithography is
the single most important
technology.
• 35% of wafer manufacturing costs
comes from lithography.
• The SIA roadmap is driven by the
desire to continue scaling device
feature sizes.
• 0.7 linear dimension shrink every 3 yr.
• Placement/alignment accuracy 1/3 of
feature size.
Figure 5.2

Patterning process
consists of:
Mask design
Mask fabrication
Wafer exposure
4
 Chapter 5 Lithography

1. Introduction and application.

2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.

5
 Light source: mercury arc lamp
Traditionally Hg vapor lamps have been used which generate many spectral lines from a high
intensity plasma inside a glass lamp.
Electrons are excited to higher energy levels by collisions in the plasma, and photons are
emitted when the energy is released. (electron effective temperature 40000K in a plasma!! )
g line =436 nm
i line =365 nm
(used for 0.5μm and 0.35μm
lithography generation)

High pressure Hg-vapor lamps

Order $1000, lasts 1000 hours.

• Filters can be used to limit exposure wavelengths.

• Intensity uniformity has to be better than several % over the collection area.
• Needs spectral exposure meter for routine calibration due to aging. 6
 Light source: excimer laser
Decreasing feature size (to <0.35m) requires
shorter .
Brightest sources in deep UV are excimer lasers.

Excimer laser:
• In excimer lasers, two elements, e.g. a noble
gas and a halogen (from a halogen
containing compound), which can react and
“bind” together only in the excited state but
not in their ground states, are present.
• Providing energy will therefore drive the
reaction, creating the excimer.
• When the excitation energy is removed, the
excimer dissociates and releases the energy
at the characteristic wavelength.
• A pulsed excitation is used to repeat Eximer = Excited dimer
the process. Xe* + Cl2  XeCl* + Cl
XeCl*  XeCl + DUV
Kr + DUV = deep UV, 308nm for XeCl laser
⎯ energy
⎯⎯→ KrF → photon emission
NF3 XeCl  Xe + Cl
Here “*” means excited state
ArF  = 193 nm (currently used for 45nm node/generation production) 7
KrF  = 248 nm (used for 0.25μm lithography generation)

ArF  = 193 nm (currently used for 45nm node/generation production) 7

 Light sources: summary

CD: critical dimension

Note: the numbers in the two tables are different, so they must be for different 8
systems
 Photomask
Types:
• Photographic emulsion on soda lime glass
(cheap).
• Fe2O3 on soda lime glass (no longer in use?).
• Cr on soda lime glass and on quartz glass (most
popular).
(Quartz has low thermal expansion coefficient and low
absorption of light, but more expensive; needed for
deep UV lithography).
• Transparency by laser printer, more and more
popular for MEMS (resolution down to few
m with a 20000 dpi printer, very cheap).

Polarity: Three potential mask improvements:

• Light-field, mostly clear, drawn feature is Pellicle, antireflective coatings, phase-
opaque. shift masks.
• Dark-field, mostly opaque, drawn feature is
clear.

(we want 100% transmission, no reflection) 9

Light-field photomask

(we want 100% transmission, no reflection) 9

 Pellicle on a reticle (IC word for mask)
Pellicle film

Chrome pattern
Frame

Reticle

The particle on the pellicle surface

is outside of optical focal range.

Antireflective coatings Pellicle film

Depth of focus Chrome pattern

Mask material

Pellicle: (used only for IC manufacturing where yield is important)

• A thin coating of transparent material similar to Mylar is stretched over a cylindrical
frame on either side of the mask.
• The frame stands off the membrane at a distance of ~1 cm from the surface of the mask.
• Purpose of pellicle is to ensure that particle that fall in the mask are kept outside of the
focal plane of the optical system. 10
 Photomask (Cr pattern on quartz) fabrication
Laser beam writing:
• Similar to photolithography, but use a focused laser beam.
• It is a direct-write technique - no mask is needed.
• Resolution down to a few 100nm, cheaper than electron-beam writing.

(Cr is 100nm thick)

Remove the resist. 11
Photomask fabrication by electron beam lithography

quartz

12. Finished 12
Mask fabrication by photo-reduction (demagnification)
Minimum feature size 1-5m

This is similar to photography, where image is reduced onto the negative film.
13
Mask fabrication by photo-reduction

The beginning “artwork” is

huge (close to 1 meter) that can
be made easily by printing, the
final photomask is only order 1
inch with m feature size on it.

14
 Mask to wafer alignment
• 3 degrees of freedom between mask
and wafer: x, y,  (angle) Alignment mark on wafer created
from prior processing step.
• Use alignment marks on mask and wafer
to register patterns prior to exposure.
• Modern steppers use automatic pattern
recognition and alignment systems,
which takes 1-5 sec to align and expose.
• Normally requires at least two
alignment mark sets on opposite sides Alignment mark on mask, open
of wafer or stepped region, and use a window in Cr through which
split-field microscope to make alignment mark on wafer can be seen.
easier.

15
Use vernier for more precise alignment
 Alignment problems: thermal expansion

Pattern on
wafer for
alignment

Alignment
ΔTm, ΔTsi = change of mask and wafer temperature. mark on mask
m, si = coefficient of thermal expansion of mask & silicon.

For example, for thermal expansion of 2ppm/oC

(silicon 2.6, fused silica/quartz 0.5 ppm/oC),
assume temperature change of 1oC, then the
distance between two features separated by
50mm will change by 2ppm or 100nm, which is
too large for IC production but OK for most R&D.

16
 Chapter 5 Lithography

1. Introduction and application.

2. Light source and photomask, alignment.
3. Photolithography systems.
4. Resolution, depth of focus, modulation transfer function.
5. Other lithography issues: none-flat wafer, standing wave...
6. Photoresist.
7. Resist sensitivity, contrast and gray-scale photolithography.
8. Step-by-step process of photolithography.

17
 Three basic methods of wafer exposure

Figure 5.3

High resolution. But mask Less mask wear No mask wear/contamination,

wear, defect generation. /contamination, less mask de-magnified 4 (resist
resolution (depend on gap). features 4 smaller than
mask).
18
Fast, simple and inexpensive, choice for Very expensive, mainly used
R&D. for IC industry.

19
 Contact/proximity exposure system (called mask aligner)

Hard to maintain contact or constant gap

when wafer/mask is not even/flat.
Resolution (half-period for grating
pattern) is given by:
3  t
R λ g
 
2  2
g is gap (=0 for contact), t is resist
thickness, and  is wavelength.

4 objectives of optical exposure system

• Collect as much of radiation
• Uniform radiation over field of exposure
• Collimate and shape radiation
• Select exposure wavelength
20
 Stepper (step and repeat system)
Die-by-die exposure UV light source
Feature size (typically)
4 reduction
Shutter
Alignment laser

Shutter is closed during focus

and alignment and removed
during wafer exposure Reticle (may contain one or
more die in the reticle field)

Projection lens (reduces the size

of reticle field for presentation to
the wafer surface)
Single field exposure, includes:
focus, align, expose, step, and
repeat process
Wafer stage controls
position of wafer in
X, Y, Z, 
21
 Step and scan (stepper) exposure system: 193nm
193nm stepper systems are used today
for IC manufacturing. Excimer laser
(193 nm ArF )
Illuminator optics

Reticle library
(SMIF pod Beam
interface) line

Wafer
transport
system
Reticle
stage

Auto-alignment kHz.
system
4:1 Reduction lens
Excimer laser: light is in pulses of 20ns
duration at a repetition rate of a few
About 50 pulses are used for each exposure. 22
 W
a
f
e
r
s
t
a
g
e

Optical train for an excimer laser stepper

About 50 pulses are used for each exposure. 23

 Step and scan (stepper) exposure system: 157nm

However, 157nm was not used for production and will never be used, because it needs
expensive vacuum (air absorb 157nm), and lens materials (CaF2) have much higher 22
thermal expansion coefficient than quartz (quartz absorb 157nm, thus unsuitable).