Constant Velocity

Note: This section assumes that you have completed the Constant Acceleration section.

Let’s try another experiment that raises the bar a little bit—constant velocity motion. It is harder to
achieve than it sounds unless we have a very low friction device which we don’t. But we can do a better
job if we understand the concept of % change and uncertainty. Suppose your cart slows down by 0.3
m/s in 1 s. If the cart starts with 0.3 m/s, the % change in speed is 100% after 1 s. But if the cart starts
with 3.0 m/s, the % change in speed is 10% after 1 s. If we measure after just 0.1 s, it is 10% with 0.3 m/s
initial velocity and 1% with 3.0 m/s initial velocity. You get the idea. This also affects the uncertainty in
statistics such as average, area, and slope. Shorter time and faster speed can reduce the effect of friction
on the quantities we calculate. So, the experiment involves hitting the cart in the front and in the back
alternately to move the cart back-and-forth quickly. In practice, you need to understand how iOLab
device work—the Wheel must not slip while in motion for accurate sensor measurement.

Procedure
Note that your last experiment data including the Snapshots are automatically saved by the iOLab app
as a previous acquisition. You can review/rework an older experiment by pressing the Local resources
button and choose the experiment (acquisition). Note also that if you have a current measurement
and Snapshots, they are already autosaved to the Local resources.

Press the Reset button. This prepares the app for a new experiment.

Go through everything in the Turn It On And Calibrate section again.

Turn on the Accelerometer sensor by checking the box under the Sensors sidebar and verify that the
Accelerometer graph appears at the top of the graphs. Uncheck Ax and Az, but keep Ay checked. The
acceleration sensor in 𝑦-direction is active when the Ay box is checked.

Place the iOLab wheels down on a table and note the positive 𝑦-direction indicator on the iOLab cart.
Take a few pictures*** of the experiment setup, including the device on the table. Insert pictures into
the Excel worksheet and add Alt Texts.

This video gives you an idea of what we mean by hitting the iOLab cart to roll back and forth in this
experiment.
00 Kinematics (https://youtu.be/QzWbwC7MkuY)
Press the Record button.

Wait for 5 seconds. Use your hands as bumpers and hit

the iOLab device a total of 20 times (10 round trips) so
that it rolls back and forth, quickly changing direction.
Do your best to keep (1) the motion only in the 𝑦
direction and (2) the wheels rolling.

Press the stop button.

The figure shown is an example of what your graphs

should look like after the measurement.

Press the “Take a new snapshot” button again.

Using Excel, take the screen clipping*** of the same two

regions again. Remember, this should include (1) a
screen clipping of the region that includes the “IOLab”
logo, “Dongle ID”, “Remote 1: ID”, Data sets Run number, Accelerometer graph, Position graph, and
Velocity graph and (2) another screen clipping of the region that includes the Velocity graph,
Acceleration graph, Wheel sensor checkboxes, and the list of Snapshots that shows the date snapshot
was taken.

Using the magnifying glass tools in the iOLab app, zoom

in on a part of the Velocity graph that fits a set of
positive and negative Velocity plateaus and plenty of
time before and after the plateaus. Zoom in vertically
using the vertical zooming tool on the Accelerometer
graph, Position graph, and Acceleration graph for better
peak-to-peak fit. The figure shown is an example of what
your graph should look like after zooming in.

Analysis
Let’s review the graphs qualitatively.

We should always check if the graphs are accurate representations of the cart’s motion. Take for
example the Position vs. Time graph. There are a couple of straight-line segments, a peak, and valleys.

What does it mean when the position is increasing linearly? Well, it means that the position is changing
uniformly since the slope (or rise over run or Δ𝑥/Δ𝑡) is constant. Are we supposed to see some time
intervals with straight lines? Not necessarily. You don’t know until you see the data. But if we do see a
linear position increase, it is in constant velocity motion. Indeed, the example Velocity vs. time graph
shows nearly flat (constant) velocity plateaus (with a small decrease in speed) and valleys (with a small
increase in speed). So, the time on plateaus or valley corresponds to the time between the hitting.

The peak and valleys in the example Position graph appear unexpectedly smooth. The cart was “hit” and
changed the direction of motion abruptly; you should observe sharp vertices. But the graph lacks the
clarity of the event. The Velocity graph in the same time interval shows the velocity changing from
positive to negative or vice versa as expected. Beyond that, our eyes are not good enough to tell how
the velocity is changing. The Acceleration graph shows bumps and a dip indicating that the velocity is
changing. Unfortunately, we don’t learn how to describe that motion in the algebra-based physics
course, and we don’t know if the graph shows the expected acceleration. The surprising element
appears in the Accelerometer graph in which there are large, sharp-edged peaks and a dip unlike the
Acceleration graph.

Why do those graphs on acceleration look so different? Aren’t they supposed to be showing the same
acceleration? Well, they are supposed to be. But they don’t look the same in the example. The
Accelerometer graph is usually noisy, but it is a better representation of the real acceleration in this
experiment since the sensor does not use wheels that can slip.

Describe what you would expect to see in the Position, Velocity, and Acceleration graphs if the wheels
slip when the cart is hit.***

Let’s analyze the graphs quantitatively.

The goal of the analysis is to test Eq. 1, Eq. 2, and Eq. 4. We will do a measurement to test Eq. 1 and Eq.
2. We will do the second measurement to test Eq. 4.

To obtain accurate results for Eq. 1 and Eq. 2, the measurement must (1) include the positive Velocity
plateau (or negative plateau), and (2) avoid the parts of graph during which the wheels are slipping.

Press the Graph Analysis Mode button . Drag the mouse cursor in the Velocity graph from
about a half of one tenth of a second (which is 0.05 s) after the top of rising shoulder reached the
positive plateau to about a half of one tenth of a second before the falling shoulder begins.

Press the “Take a new snapshot” button again.

Using Excel, take the Screen Clippings*** of the same two regions again.

Read the statistics from each graph and record them in the data table*** in Excel. Use the table format
below to record data in this Constant Velocity section. Note that the Accelerometer is placed at the
bottom of the table. Record full digits displayed in the statistics. Name the Velocity 𝜇 cell “VelMuPos”
and Velocity 𝜎 cell “VelSigPos”. Attach the table caption “Statistics on Positive Constant Velocity for Eq.
1 and Eq. 2” above the table.

Wheel & Accel ∆t μ σ a s r2

(s) (·s) (/s)
Position (m)
Velocity (m/s)
Acceleration (m/s2)
Accelerometer (m/s2)
Eq. 1 Velocity = Slope of 𝑥-𝑡 Graph
Recall that Eq. 1 is
𝚫𝒙
𝒗 = lim [𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑣𝑠. 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ].
Δ𝑡→0 𝚫𝒕

𝑑𝑥
While it would be nice to test if the instantaneous 𝑣 value is equal to the slope ( ) at any given time 𝑡,
𝑑𝑡
our measurement involves random errors at any moment. So, it is more appropriate to compare the
Δ𝑥
average 𝑣 value and slope ( Δ𝑡 ) of the linear fit because the averaging cancels out the random errors.
Remember that the average is under the "𝜇" heading and the slope is under the "s" heading in the table.

Using the Excel formula, calculate the % difference*** between “𝜇” value and “s” value like we did in
the Constant Acceleration experiment. Label the % difference value with the header “% difference
between positive velocity 𝜇 and slope s”.

Based on the % difference value, explain if your experiment confirms Eq. 1 or not.***

Recall that the 𝜎 value is called statistical uncertainty. Check if the slope s is within the uncertainty
interval 𝜇 ± 𝜎 (or relative uncertainty interval, if you like).***

Eq. 2 Change in Position = Area Under 𝑣-𝑡 Graph

Recall that Eq. 2 is
𝑛 𝑡
𝚫𝒙 = lim ∑ 𝒗𝒊 𝚫𝒕𝒊 (= ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡) [Δ𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣 𝑣𝑠. 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ].
𝑛→∞ 0
𝑖=0

To verify Eq 2, we need to find ∆ position value—we can measure the difference between two position
values in graph analysis mode as we did in the Constant Acceleration section.

Align the vertical line with the left edge of the highlighted time interval.

Record the time and position values in Excel. Use the table format shown below. Do the same at the
right edge of the highlighted time interval. Attach the table caption “Change in Position Over the
Positive Velocity Time Interval”.***

Left Right ∆ a
Time (s)
Position (m)
Velocity*∆Time (m)

Calculate the time difference “∆” value with the Excel formula “=D312-C312” (it assumes the table
caption is entered in cell A310). Fill from E312 to E313 to calculate the change in velocity ∆ value. Enter
the Velocity “a” value in cell F314.

According to the Eq. 2, the Position “∆” value is equal to the Velocity*∆Time “a” value. Compare your
values by calculating the % difference in Excel (use column G) and label appropriately with a
heading.***
Based on the % difference value, explain if your experiment confirms Eq. 2 or not.***

Repeat For the Negative Velocity Plateau

Repeat the quantitative analyses for Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 by starting a new Graph Analysis on the time
interval for the negative Velocity plateau. Make sure to create the data tables, name the Velocity 𝜇 cell
“VelMuNeg” and Velocity 𝜎 cell “VelSigNeg”, and attach captions that has “Negative” velocity and label
the % difference with “negative” velocity in the heading.***

Eq. 4 Change in Velocity = Area Under 𝑎-𝑡 Graph

Recall that Eq. 4 is
𝑛 𝑡
𝚫𝒗 = lim ∑ 𝒂𝒊 𝚫𝒕𝒊 (= ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡) [Δ𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑣𝑠. 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ].
𝑛→∞ 0
𝑖=0
To test the equation, we need a new measurement in the graphs that covers the entire “peak” structure
in the Acceleration graph during which the velocity changed from positive to negative. Press the Graph
Analysis Mode button. Drag the mouse cursor in the Acceleration graph from the moment just before
the baseline (0 acceleration) shows a hint of falling to the moment just after the curve reached the
baseline on the other side of the “peak” structure.

Press the “Take a new snapshot” button again.

Using Excel, take the Screen Clippings*** of the same two regions again.

Read the statistics from each graph and record them in the data table*** in Excel. Record full digits
displayed. Attach the table caption “Statistics on Constant Velocity for Eq. 4” above the table.

Prepare a new table that is designed for Eq. 4 calculations using the format shown below. The positive
velocity 𝜇 value is that of the positive plateau and is already in the table “Statistics on Positive Constant
Velocity for Eq. 1 and Eq. 2”. Type in the Positive Velocity cell “=VelMuPos” and in Positive Uncertainty 𝜎
cell “=VelSigPos”. Type in Negative cells “=VelMuNeg” and “=VelSigNeg”. Attach the table caption
“Change in Velocity Over the Negative Acceleration Time Interval”.***

Positive Negative ∆ a
Velocity (m/s)
Uncertainty 𝜎 (m/s)
Acceleration*∆Time (m/s)
Accelerometer*∆Time (m/s)

Calculate the change in velocity ∆ value using Excel formula.

According to the Eq. 4, the Velocity “∆” value is equal to (1) Acceleration*∆Time “a” value and (2)
Accelerometer*∆Time “a” value. Copy the Acceleration “a” value and Accelerometer “a” value from the
table “Statistics on Constant Velocity for Eq. 4” by typing in cell F413 “=F404” and hitting Enter key, and
then in cell F414 “=F405” (the formulas assume that the word “Positive” is entered in cell C410).
Compare your values for case (1) and case (2) by calculating the % difference using Excel formula.***
Label with appropriate headings. Based on the % difference values, explain if your experiment confirms
the Eq. 4 or not.***
Recall that the standard deviation 𝜎 is called statistical uncertainty. Because the Velocity “∆” value is
calculated using measured velocities with 𝜎 values, Velocity “∆” value itself also has uncertainty 𝜎Δ𝑣 . To
calculate this uncertainty 𝜎 in Δ𝑣, we use the Addition/Subtraction propagation rule given by Eq. 5.

𝜎Δ𝑣 = √𝜎+2 + 𝜎−2

Check if the area under the acceleration curves (Acceleration “a” value and Accelerometer “a” value) are
within the uncertainty interval Δ𝑣 ± 𝜎Δ𝑣 .*** Based on the uncertainty method, explain if your
experiment confirms the Eq. 4 or not.***

Save the Excel worksheet.

To get full credit, requested items such as pictures, Screen Clippings, data tables, results tables, and all
error analyses identified with three asterisks (***) must be included in the lab report document with
appropriate captions and labels. Likewise, answer to open questions (which are the questions and
prompts that have no matching answers or explanations in the lab instructions) must be included in your
report.