DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

CHAPTER ONE

CLASSIFICATION, NATURE, AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

A substance or thing from which something else can be made is considered as a material.
Examples: Cement, brick, aluminum, soil, water….

In Engineering, materials are employed to design and build structures or elements.

Material Engineering refers to the understanding and review of properties and uses of
materials commonly used in engineering.

Material science examines why’s and how's of materials, making it possible to advance
the development of new materials.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Based on their metallic properties, materials can be broadly classified into Metallic and
Non-metallic.

A) Metallic materials

In general, metals can be classified into two major groups: Ferrous and Non-ferrous. A
ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is iron, as in:

 Steel
 Wrought iron
 Cast iron

These metals are primarily used for their tensile strength and durability which helps hold
up the tallest skyscrapers and the longest bridges in the world.

Construction Materials and Equipment 1

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

A non-ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is not iron, as in:

 Copper
 Aluminum
 Lead
 Tin
 Zinc

Because they contain no iron, non-ferrous metals have a higher resistance to rust and
corrosion, which is why you’ll find these materials in use for gutters, water pipes, and
roofing.

B) Non-Metallic

 Cementing Materials (lime, cément, etc.)

 Concrete
 Timber
 Stone
 Plastics
 Ceramics

Based on their physical nature, materials can also be classified as:

A) Solid
B) Liquid
C) Gas

Materials can also be classified based on their mode of production as:

A) Naturally occurring materials: are those which are available in the nature and
need to be extracted and processed. E.g., Stones, sand, timber, etc.
B) Industrially produced materials: are those which can only be manufactured, by

Construction Materials and Equipment 2

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

physical, chemical or/and mechanical means in the industry. E.g., cement, steel,
plastics, etc.
C) Materials produced at construction site: materials not available in nature but
produced at the construction site. E.g., concrete, mortar, etc.

2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad understanding of

these properties is essential. Properties which relate to materials generally are: Physical,
Chemical and Mechanical.

a) Physical Properties: -

 Heat conductivity
 Density and Specific Gravity
 Acoustic(sound) permeability
 Fire resistance
 Porosity

b) Chemical Properties: -

 Corrosion resistance
 Combustibility
 Adhesion
 Toxicity
 Decay resistance
 Hardening

c) Mechanical Properties: -

Mechanical properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad

understanding of these properties and the behavior of materials under load are essential.

Construction Materials and Equipment 3

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

Selection of materials for construction purpose mainly depends on its mechanical

properties.

3. BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER LOAD

Strength:

 resistance of a material to the action of external static forces (compressive, tensile,

bending, shear, and torsion strength)
 resistance of a material to various dynamic external forces (impact and vibratory
loads)

Application of external forces on a solid body in equilibrium results in:

 Internal resisting forces developed in the body which balance the

externally applied force
 The body is deformed to varying degree

 The intensity of the internal force is called STRESS and

 The deformation per unit length is called STRAIN

Depending upon the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the stress
produced in a body may be tensile stress, compressive stress, shear stress, bending stress,
tensional stress, and various combinations of the above stresses.

When a body, which has been deformed under the action of external forces, is released
from such action, the deformed bodies may or may not recover their original form
depending on the magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material
that they are made out of it. If a body recovers the original form, it is said to be elastic. If
it fails to recover its original form, it is said to be plastic .

Construction Materials and Equipment 4

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

A perfectly elastic body is one that fully recovers its original size and shape after the
application and removal of load. Stiffness is the measure of the ability of the material to
resist deformation. In other words, a body is said to be stiff if it sustains large loads
without too much deformations.

Depending on the magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material
the deformation produced may be permanent or temporary. As the magnitude of the
applied load increase, the deformation increases. A point is reached beyond which the
original form is not fully recovered; this point is elastic limit of the material.

3.1 Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

Mechanical tests are those used to examine the performance of construction materials
under the action of external forces. Mechanical tests may be classified under the
following headings: -

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load Application.

C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces

i) Tension test

rod

Construction Materials and Equipment 5

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

Under tension test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial tensile force

 Tensile stress is produced on cross sectional area perpendicular to the line of
action of the force.
 The specimen increases in length.

ii) Compression test

Under compression test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force

 Compressive stress is produced on cross sectional area Perpendicular to the
line of action of the force
 The specimen decreases in length.

iii) Shear test

The shearing stress in a specimen is determined on cross-sectional areas parallel -to the
line of action of the external force.

Construction Materials and Equipment 6

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

iv) Bending test

Under bending test: -

 A specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to bending moments

 The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of a neutral plane and
tensile on the other side
 Shear stresses exist throughout the beam

v) Torsion test:

Torsion test is an indirect test used to determine the shearing strength of materials. Test
specimens for torsion test are generally cylindrical shape, solid or hollow.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load application

i) Static tests: are made with gradually increasing load, such as the ordinary tests in
tension, compression tests

ii) Dynamic tests: are made with suddenly applied loads, as by falling weight or
pendulum. Such as drop impact test.

iii) Wear tests: are made to determine resistance to abrasion and impact as in the case of
paving materials.

iv) Long Time tests: are made with loads applied to the object under test for a long
period. They are used for materials such as concrete.

Construction Materials and Equipment 7

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

v) Fatigue tests: are made with fluctuating stresses repeated many a times.

C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen

i) Destructive test: under these test methods the specimens are either crushed or ruptured
and made useless at the end of the test. Examples under this category of test are tension
in steel and compression test in concrete.

ii) Non-destructive test: these are usually used to test the strength of members of existing
structures without affecting their performance. Example of this test is hammer test in
concrete.

3.2 Stress-Strain Properties in Simple Tension Test

In the standard conventional tension test, a specimen is subjected to a gradually

increasing axial tensile force P by means of a testing machine. At various increment of
force, the change in length ΔL of the specimen for an initial gage length Lo are measured
by a strain gage. It is generally assumed that, for a gage length L o of the specimen, the
stress is uniformly distributed for all points on each cross section and for all cross sections
perpendicular to the line of action of the force.

σ =P/A

Where: σ = the tensile stress

P = applied load

A=area of the cross-section perpendicular to the line of action of the

applied force.

It is also assumed that this uniform stress will produce a uniform elongation ΔL. The
value of the elongation per unit length, strain, is expressed as:

Construction Materials and Equipment 8

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

ε = ΔL/Lo

Where: ε = strain

ΔL= total elongation

Lo =original length of the specimen

With the values of the stress and strain known for various tensile load values, a diagram
showing the relation between the stress and strain, called the stress-strain diagram, can be
plotted.

It should be noted that as the specimen stretches, the cross-sectional area reduces and the
gage length increases in value. However, the stress and strain values as defined by the
above equations do not include these changes of area and gage length but are based on
the original values of area A and gage length Lo. For this reason, the stress σ and strain ε
are called the nominal stress and strain. The amount of deformation, which the material
will undergo before rupture, varies widely with different materials.

3.3 Stress-Strain Diagram for a Typical Structural Steel in Tension

A stress- strain diagram for a ductile material such as a steel alloy will show a large
deformation after yield point before the specimen ruptures, whereas that for brittle
materials will show small deformation before rupture. This means that a ductile material
will exhibit a large deformation before complete failure whereas a brittle material will
fail without showing much deformation.

A structural steel, also known as mild steel or low-carbon steel, is one of the most widely
used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes, towers and many other types of
construction. A stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension is shown
below. Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis.

Construction Materials and Equipment 9

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

B E
A C

Yielding region
Linear region Necking
hardening region
ε

The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin 0 to point A, which means that
the relationship between stress & strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional. These stress- strain relations may be represented approximately by the
equation:

σ =Eε (Hook’s Law)

E, the slope of the straight line, is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus.
Modulus of elasticity has the same unit as stress.

Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence,
the stress at A is called the proportional limit. For low-carbon steels, this limit is in the
range 210 to 350 MPa.

With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase
more rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress strain curve has a
smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at

Construction Materials and Equipment 10

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

this point, considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable
increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as Yielding of the
materials, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the
Yield Stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic,
which means that it deforms without an increase in the applied load. After undergoing
the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden.

During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure,
resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation of the
test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the
stress- strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its
maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress.
Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and
fracture finally occurs at a point E. The yield stress & ultimate stress of a material are also
called-the yield strength & ultimate strength, respectively.

4. CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Modern structures often comprise vast number of components. Many of them pre-
manufactured & assembled on site, some of them are manufactured at a construction site
like concrete. In each case satisfactory operation of the building as a whole depends on
the performance of the materials from which its components are made as on how they
interact with each other in the structure.

The following questions show some of the main factors which needs to be considered in
choosing construction materials:

 Is the material produced locally, or is it partially or entirely imported?

 Is it cheap, abundantly available, and/or easily renewable?
 Has it been produced in a factory far away (transportation costs!); does it

Construction Materials and Equipment 11

Lecture Note
DILLA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF HYDRAULIC AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING 2014

require special machines and equipment, or can it be produced at lower cost

on the building site? (Good quality and durability are often more important
than low procurement costs).
 Does its production and use require a high energy input, and cause wastage
and pollution? Is there an acceptable alternative material which eliminates
these problems?
 Is the material and construction technique climatically acceptable?
 Does the material and construction technique provide sufficient safety against
common natural hazards (e.g., fire, biological agents, heavy rain, and
earthquakes)?
 Can the material and technology be used and understood by the local
workers, or are special skills and experience required?
 Are repairs and replacements possible with local means?
 Is the material socially acceptable? Is it considered low standard, or does it
offend religious belief? Does it match with the materials and constructions of
nearby buildings?

Construction Materials and Equipment 12

Lecture Note