Unit 3: Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud

History:

● Born: 1856, Austria

● Profession: Neurologist and the founder of Psychoanalysis.
● Key Concept: Freud revolutionized the study of psychology and human behavior by
focusing on the unconscious mind.
● Influence: Freud revolutionized psychology, offering new insights into mental illness,
human development, and the unconscious. His ideas challenged the prevailing medical
and psychological views of his time.
● Legacy: Despite controversy, Freud’s theories continue to shape clinical psychology,
therapy practices, and cultural studies.

Contributions:

1. Iceberg Model – 3 Levels of the Mind

- Freud's model divides the mind into three levels: conscious (awareness at the
moment), preconscious (easily retrievable memories), and unconscious
(repressed thoughts influencing behavior).
2. Structure of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
- The id seeks immediate gratification, the ego balances desires with reality, and
the superego imposes moral standards.
3. Defence Mechanisms
- Unconscious strategies like repression, denial, etc. to protect the ego from
anxiety and internal conflict.
4. Psychosexual Stages of Development
- Freud proposed five stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital),
where unresolved conflicts in each stage can lead to personality issues.
5. Psychoanalysis – Methods to Explore the Unconscious Mind
- Techniques like free association, dream analysis, projective tests, and
Freudian slips are used to access unconscious thoughts and desires.

Iceberg Model – Three Levels of the Mind

Freud's Iceberg Model divides the human mind into three levels of consciousness, each with
distinct roles and functions:

1. Conscious Mind:
- Includes thoughts, feelings, and actions we are aware of at any given moment.
- Represents only the tip of the iceberg—about one-tenth of the total psyche.
- Ex: Thinking about what to eat for dinner.
2. Preconscious Mind:
- Contains memories and thoughts that are not currently in awareness but can
easily be brought to consciousness.
 -Acts as a guard that controls what information is allowed into conscious
awareness.
- Ex: Recalling your phone number or what you had for breakfast.
3. Unconscious Mind:
- A vast reservoir of feelings, thoughts, and memories that are repressed or hidden
because they are distressing or socially unacceptable.
- Most of the mind's content lies here, influencing behavior despite being outside of
conscious awareness.
- Ex: Repressed childhood trauma affecting adult relationships.

Freud compared the unconscious mind to the bulk of an iceberg submerged under water,
while the conscious mind is like the small visible tip above the surface.

Methods to Study Unconscious:

1. Free Association
- Definition: A therapeutic technique where patients are encouraged to say
whatever comes to mind without censoring their thoughts.
- Purpose: The goal is to bypass the conscious mind and allow unconscious
thoughts and feelings to surface.
- Application: Freud believed that this method helps uncover repressed memories
and desires, revealing unconscious material that influences current behavior.
- Significance: This technique is used in psychoanalysis to access deep-seated
emotions and unresolved conflicts that may manifest in dreams, symptoms, or
actions.
2. Projective Tests
- Definition: Psychological tests that require individuals to respond to ambiguous
stimuli, such as pictures or words, in order to reveal hidden thoughts and
feelings.
- Purpose: These tests aim to project the individual's unconscious content onto
the ambiguous stimuli, revealing underlying conflicts, desires, or fears.
- Ex: The Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
- Significance: Freud viewed projective tests as useful tools for accessing the
unconscious mind, as they bypass the ego's defenses by offering no clear right
answer, leading to spontaneous responses.
3. Dreams
- Definition: Freud famously called dreams the "royal road to the unconscious."
- Purpose: Dreams are believed to express unconscious desires, fears, and
repressed memories. Freud divided dream content into manifest content (the
literal storyline) and latent content (the hidden, symbolic meaning).
- Application: Psychoanalysis interprets dreams to uncover the latent content,
revealing unconscious conflicts and unresolved issues.
- Significance: Dreams are viewed as a direct link to unconscious processes,
offering insight into repressed material and unresolved psychological tension.
4. Slip of the Tongue
- Definition: Also known as a "Freudian slip," it refers to mistakes in speech or
action that Freud believed were not random but unconscious expressions of
repressed thoughts or desires.
 - Purpose: These slips are seen as unintentional revelations of unconscious
thoughts that the ego tries to suppress.
- Ex: Calling someone by the wrong name, accidentally saying something
inappropriate.
- Significance: Freud believed these errors were not accidental, but rather a
glimpse into the unconscious mind, providing insight into repressed desires or
conflicts.

Structure of Personality – Id, Ego, and Superego

Components:
Freud’s tripartite model explains personality as a dynamic interaction between three distinct
components:

1. Id:
- Represents primitive instincts and desires, such as hunger, aggression, and
sexual urges.
- Operates according to the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification
and avoiding pain, without concern for morality or social norms.
- The id is completely unconscious and impulsive, acting on raw, unconscious
desires without considering consequences.
- Ex: A child demanding a toy without considering whether it's appropriate or not.
2. Ego:
- Acts as the mediator between the unrealistic desires of the id, the moral
constraints of the superego, and the demands of reality.
- Operates according to the reality principle, seeking realistic and socially
acceptable ways to satisfy the id’s desires.
- The ego develops from the id and is involved in decision-making and planning.
- Ex: Deciding to wait until after work to go on vacation, instead of immediately
leaving.
3. Superego:
- Represents the moral conscience and embodies the values and norms learned
from parents and society.
- Acts as a counterbalance to the id, imposing rules and guidelines for what is
ethically right or wrong.
- The superego develops around age 5 and regulates behavior through feelings of
guilt or pride.
- Ex: Feeling guilty for cheating, even if you could have gotten away with it.

Interaction of Id, Ego, and Superego:

- The id seeks instant gratification, driven by the pleasure principle, while the superego
imposes moral constraints based on societal rules, driven by the morality principle.
The ego, governed by the reality principle, mediates between these forces, finding
realistic ways to satisfy the id’s desires without violating the superego’s moral standards.
- Ego Strength: A strong ego can effectively balance the demands of the id, the
superego, and the reality of the external world, resulting in healthy, well-adjusted
 behavior. Conversely, a weak ego may struggle to manage internal conflicts, leading to
anxiety, impulsivity, or excessive guilt.
- Imbalance: If the id is too dominant, impulsiveness or recklessness can occur; if the
superego is too strong, excessive moral rigidity and guilt may develop.
- Dominant Id: Impulsiveness and recklessness.
- Dominant Superego: Excessive moral rigidity.
- Weak Ego: Poor coping mechanisms.

Defense Mechanisms:
Integration of Defense Mechanisms and Psychoanalysis

- Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies employed by the ego to

protect individuals from anxiety, conflict, or unacceptable thoughts and feelings. They
serve to manage internal conflicts and maintain self-esteem.
- Freud linked defense mechanisms to the ego’s role in managing anxiety from conflicts
between the id, superego, and reality.
- These mechanisms provide temporary relief but may lead to maladaptive patterns if
overused or unresolved.

Fifteen Defense Mechanisms:

1. Compensation: Covering up weaknesses by emphasizing strengths.

Ex: A student who struggles in academics excels in athletics.
2. Denial: Refusing to accept reality.
Ex: Ignoring a terminal diagnosis and planning for a long future.
3. Displacement: Redirecting emotions from the original source to a less threatening
target.
Ex: A person angry at their boss yells at their partner instead.
4. Identification: Adopting the characteristics of someone else to cope with anxiety or
insecurity.
Ex: A child may start mimicking the behavior or attitude of a popular friend to gain
acceptance.
5. Intellectualization: Using logic and reasoning to avoid experiencing emotional conflict
or anxiety.
Ex: A person who is facing a serious illness focuses on the scientific details of the
disease rather than the emotional impact.
6. Introjection: Incorporating the beliefs or values of others into one's own identity, often
unconsciously.
Ex: A child may adopt the moral standards of their parents as their own without fully
understanding them.
7. Minimization: Downplaying the significance of an event or behavior to reduce anxiety or
guilt.
Ex: A person who drinks excessively may minimize their behavior by saying, "I only drink
on weekends.”
8. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
Ex: A spouse tempted by infidelity accuses their partner of being unfaithful.
9. Rationalization: Justifying behaviors or feelings with logical but false reasons.
Ex: Blaming a poor test score on unfair questions rather than insufficient preparation.
 10. Reaction Formation: Acting in a way opposite to true feelings.
Ex: Expressing excessive friendliness toward someone you dislike.
11. Regression: Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier developmental stage.
Ex: Throwing a temper tantrum when faced with frustration.
12. Repression: Unconsciously blocking disturbing thoughts or memories.
Ex: Forgetting details of a traumatic event.
13. Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.
Ex: Channeling aggressive urges into sports.
14. Substitution: Replacing an unattainable or unacceptable goal with one that is more
achievable or acceptable.
Ex: A person who cannot pursue their dream job may focus on a different career that
offers similar rewards.
15. Undoing: Attempting to reverse or undo feelings by performing contrary actions.
Ex: Bringing gifts to someone after an argument to mitigate guilt.

Psychosexual Stages of Development:

Suggest early childhood experiences shape personality. The five stages—oral, anal, phallic,
latency, and genital—each focus on a different erogenous zone and involve key conflicts.
Unresolved issues in any stage can lead to fixation, influencing adult behavior and relationships.

Five Stages:

1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year):

- Pleasure is centered in the mouth (e.g., sucking, biting).
- Early experiences, particularly related to feeding, shape later personality.
- Conflict: Weaning; unresolved conflicts lead to oral-dependent (gullible,
dependent) or oral-aggressive (pessimistic, aggressive) personalities.
2. Anal Stage (1-3 Years):
- Pleasure centers on the anus (e.g., potty training).
- Conflict between control of bodily functions and societal expectations.
- This stage established the basis for conflict between the id and ego, and also
between the desire for babyish pleasure and demand for adult, controlled
behaviour.
- Outcomes of fixation:
- Anal-retentive: Obsessive neatness, orderliness, and control.
- Anal-expulsive: Messiness, disorganization, and impulsiveness.
3. Phallic Stage (3-5 Years):
- Pleasure centers on the genital region; awareness of biological differences as
well as differences between the sexes, deriving pleasure by playing with or
manipulating the genital organs.
- Oedipus Complex (boys) and Electra Complex (girls): Desire for the opposite-
sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent.
- Fixation can lead to relationship issues or conflicts with authority.
4. Latency Stage (6 to Puberty):
- Sexual urges are repressed; focus on social and intellectual development.
- Starts at the age of 6 for girls and 7 or 8 for boys.
- Gender-segregated peer relationships.
 - Channeling energy into social or achievement-related activities.
5. Genital Stage (Puberty onwards):
- Strong sensation in the genitals and attraction towards the opposite sex.
- Maturity in psychosexual development.
- Resolution of earlier stages' conflicts allows for mature sexual and social
relationships.
- Fixations at earlier stages can cause difficulties in adult relationships.

Key Concepts:

- Fixation: Failure to resolve conflicts at a particular stage can lead to lasting personality
traits and behaviors.
- Stages of Development: Each stage builds upon the previous one, shaping the
individual's worldview and personality.

Criticisms:

1. Overemphasis on Sexuality:
- Freud placed excessive focus on sexual drives as the primary motivators of
human behavior.
- Critics argue that this view oversimplifies human development and neglects other
important factors like social and cognitive influences.
2. Lack of Scientific Rigor:
- Freud’s theories were based on case studies and clinical observations rather
than empirical research or controlled experiments.
- His concepts, such as the unconscious mind and defense mechanisms, are
difficult to measure or observe scientifically, making them challenging to test in a
rigorous, objective manner.
3. Cultural and Gender Bias:
- Freud’s theories reflect the cultural and gender biases of his time, particularly in
his views on women.
- Concepts like "penis envy" and the Oedipus complex have been criticized for
being gender-biased and culturally specific, not universally applicable across all
societies.
- His work largely ignores the impact of culture and society on psychological
development.
4. Deterministic View of Human Nature:
- Freud's theory suggests that much of human behavior is determined by
unconscious drives and early childhood experiences.
- Critics argue that this leaves little room for free will, personal growth, or the ability
to change one’s future.
5. Limited Generalizability:
- Freud based his conclusions on a small, non-representative sample, often
consisting of patients with psychological disorders from the upper classes.
- This limits the universal applicability of his theories to different cultures, classes,
and backgrounds.
6. Neglect of Positive Human Potential:
 -
Freud’s focus on conflict, pathology, and repressed desires overlooks the
potential for positive human growth and development.
- His theories emphasize resolving inner conflict rather than fostering human
strengths such as creativity, resilience, and personal fulfillment.
7. Over-reliance on Retrospection:
- Freud’s theories are based on analyzing past experiences and unconscious
memories to explain current behavior.
- This retrospective approach overlooks the role of present-day experiences,
conscious thought, and the environment in shaping behavior.
- The reliance on repressed memories is criticized for potential inaccuracy, as
memories can be distorted or fabricated over time.

Unit 3: Behaviorism
Definition

● Behaviorism focuses on the study of observable behavior rather than introspection or

subjective experiences.
● It emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior.

Significance

● Behaviorism laid the foundation for modern psychological treatments and learning
theories.
● It introduced systematic and scientific approaches to study and modify behavior.
● Despite its limitations, its emphasis on observable behavior remains crucial in applied
psychology fields.

Key Figures and Their Contributions

1. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936):

○ Known for Classical Conditioning, which explores how associations between
stimuli are formed to control behavior.
○ Conducted experiments with dogs, demonstrating how a neutral stimulus (bell)
could trigger a conditioned response (salivation) when paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (food).
2. John B. Watson (1878–1958):
○ Regarded as the Founder of Behaviorism.
○ Advocated that psychology should focus on observable and measurable
behavior, discarding mentalistic concepts.
○ Known for the Little Albert Experiment, demonstrating that emotional
responses (e.g., fear) can be conditioned.
3. B.F. Skinner (1904–1990):
○ Introduced Operant Conditioning, which studies behavior modification based on
consequences.
○ Developed the Skinner Box to demonstrate how reinforcement and punishment
shape behavior.
○ Distinguished between types of reinforcements and schedules for effective
behavior learning.
Key Principles

1. Stimulus-Response Psychology:
○ Behavior is a result of interactions between environmental stimuli and responses.
○ Stimuli act as triggers for behavior, while responses are observable actions.
2. Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate):
○ Assumes that individuals are born without built-in mental content.
○ All behaviors are acquired through interaction with the environment.
3. Objective Measurement:
○ Emphasizes the importance of observable and quantifiable behavior.
○ Avoids subjective methods like introspection.

Contributions of Behaviorism

1. Practical Applications:
○ Behavior Modification Techniques: Used in therapy to alter maladaptive
behaviors.
○ Educational Psychology: Reinforcement-based teaching methods for effective
learning.
○ Clinical Psychology: Treatments like exposure therapy for phobias.
2. Scientific Rigor:
○ Strong reliance on empirical research and controlled experiments.
○ Emphasis on replicability and testability.
3. Focus on Observable Behavior:
○ Provides clear and measurable outcomes in experiments and interventions.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

1. Reductionism:
○ Oversimplifies complex human behaviors by focusing solely on observable
actions.
○ Ignores the influence of emotions, thoughts, and internal mental processes.
2. Neglect of Cognitive Processes:
○ Does not account for subjective experiences, beliefs, or intentions.
○ Led to the rise of the Cognitive Revolution, which highlighted mental
processes.
3. Limited Scope:
○ Struggles to explain abstract behaviors like creativity, problem-solving, and
decision-making.

Classical Conditioning (A Subset of Behaviorism)

 ● Key Idea: Learning occurs through associations between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus.
● Process:
○ Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not elicit a response.
○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally elicits an automatic response.
○ Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic reaction to the UCS.
○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Elicits a response after association with UCS.
○ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned reaction to the CS.
● Applications:
○ Treating phobias through exposure therapy.
○ Developing conditioned taste aversions to prevent harmful behaviors.

Operant Conditioning (A Subset of Behaviorism)

● Key Idea: Behavior is influenced by the consequences of actions.

● Processes:
○ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
■ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., rewards).
■ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g.,
stopping a loud noise).
○ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
■ Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., fines).
■ Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., revoking
privileges).
● Reinforcement Schedules:
○ Fixed or Variable, based on ratio (responses) or interval (time).
○ Partial reinforcement is more effective than continuous reinforcement for long-
term behavior change.
● Techniques:
○ Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.
○ Chaining: Linking a series of behaviors to achieve a goal.

Unit 3: Gestalt Psychology

Definition

● Gestalt Psychology emphasizes studying psychological processes as a whole, rather

than breaking them down into components.
● The central idea is that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
● The term "Gestalt" is German, meaning "form," "shape," or "whole."

Historical Background

● Emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against:

○ Structuralism: Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic
elements.
○ Behaviorism: Concentrated solely on observable behavior and ignored
subjective experience.
● It emphasized holistic perception and rejected the idea that experiences could be
understood by analyzing individual elements.

Key Figures

1. Max Wertheimer (1880–1943):

○ Founder of Gestalt psychology.
○ Studied the perception of motion (e.g., the phi phenomenon) to demonstrate how
the mind perceives wholes rather than parts.
2. Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967):
○ Conducted experiments on problem-solving in animals (e.g., chimpanzees using
tools).
○ Highlighted insight learning: sudden realization or solution without trial-and-error.
3. Kurt Koffka (1886–1941):
○ Promoted Gestalt theories in the English-speaking world.
○ Applied Gestalt principles to learning and development.

Core Principles of Gestalt Psychology

1. The Law of Prägnanz (Simplicity):

○ The mind tends to perceive objects in the simplest, most stable form.
2. Principles of Grouping:
○ Figure and Background:
■ The visual field is divided into a figure (main focus) and the background
(surrounding area).
■ For example, in optical illusions, focus shifts between figure and
background (e.g., the vase-face illusion).
○ Similarity:
■ Objects that are similar in shape, size, or color are perceived as
belonging together.
○ Proximity:
 ■ Objects that are close to each other are grouped together.
○ Continuity:
■ The mind prefers continuous patterns and smooth lines over disjointed
segments.
○ Closure:
■ The mind fills in missing gaps to perceive a complete figure (e.g., dashed
lines forming a circle).

Applications of Gestalt Psychology

1. Perception and Problem Solving:

○ Explains how we perceive organized patterns, even in ambiguous or incomplete
visual data.
○ Insight learning, as demonstrated by Köhler's chimpanzees, shows that problem-
solving involves understanding relationships rather than trial-and-error.
2. Visual Design and Art:
○ Gestalt principles are widely used in graphic design, advertising, and user
interface (UI) design to create balanced and visually appealing compositions.
3. Education:
○ Emphasizes holistic understanding and insight-based learning.
○ Suggests that breaking down material into isolated pieces (as in rote
memorization) is less effective than presenting it as meaningful wholes.
4. Cognitive Psychology:
○ Influenced modern research on memory, perception, and cognitive processes.

Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology

1. Lack of Rigorous Methodology:

○ Relied heavily on subjective descriptions and lacked experimental rigor
compared to behaviorism.
2. Limited Scope:
○ Focused primarily on perception and problem-solving, neglecting other areas like
motivation and emotion.
3. Overemphasis on Holism:
○ Some critics argue it downplays the importance of analyzing individual
components for understanding complex systems.

Examples and Demonstrations

1. Phi Phenomenon:
○ Illusion of motion created by rapidly alternating static images (e.g., in movies or
animations).
2. Optical Illusions:
○ Visual examples like the Rubin Vase demonstrate figure-ground relationships.
3. Gestalt in Real Life:
 ○ When reading, we perceive whole words rather than individual letters.
○ In music, we recognize melodies rather than individual notes.

Gestalt Psychology in Modern Context

● Though Gestalt psychology as a formal school has declined, its principles have heavily
influenced:
○ Cognitive Psychology: Understanding perception, memory, and problem-
solving.
○ Human-Computer Interaction: Designing intuitive and user-friendly interfaces.
○ Therapeutic Approaches: Gestalt Therapy focuses on holistic self-awareness.