BE3251 – BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
UNIT V
MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Functional elements of an instrument , Standards and calibration, Operating Principle , types -
Moving Coil and Moving Iron meters, Measurement of three phase power, Energy Meter,
Instrument Transformers-CT and PT,DSO- Block diagram- Data acquisition.

1. Explain the functional elements of an instrument with a neat block

diagram. (May/June 2014) (or) Draw and explain the general block
diagram of measurement system with an example.

An instrument is defined as “ A device or a system designed for functional

relationship with physical variables and must include ways and means of
communication with human beings”

The three main functional elements of an instrument are

(i) Primary sensing element
(ii) Variable Conversion element
(iii) Data Presentation element
Each functional element is made up of individual component or group of
components.
Primary Sensing element:
 A quantity which is to be measured makes its first contact with the primary
sensing element.
 The measured quantity must be converted into an analog electrical signal.
 A transducer is a device which converts physical quantity into an electrical
quantity.
 The first step is known as detector transducer stage.

Variable Conversion Element:

 The output of primary sensing element is in any form of electrical signal.
Eg., Voltage, Current, Frequency.
 It must be converted into another form suited for the next step.
Ex: If the output of primary sensing element is in analog form and the next
stage needs input in digital form , then A/D Converter is required as an
variable conversion element.
 Many instruments may not need variable conversion element while many
instruments need more than one variable conversion element.
Variable Manipulation element:
 The function of this element is to manipulate the data presented to it.
 Manipulation means only the change in the numerical value of the signal.
Ex: Electronic amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and
produces an output signal or voltage of greater magnitude. Here Voltage
amplifier is variable manipulation element.
 Manipulation process includes linear Processes such as
 Amplification
 Attenuation
 Integration
 Differentiation
 Addition and
 Subtraction
And non linear process such as
  Modulation
 Detection
 Sampling
 Filtering
 Chopping and
 Clipping
This process is also called signal conditioning.

Data Transmission element:

 When the elements of the instrument are physically separated it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another.
 The element which performs this function is called data transmission element.
 Eg., Spacecrafts are physically separated from earth. The control stations are
located pn earth. The control signals are sent from the stations to spacecraft
with the help of radio signals.
Data Presentation element:
 The information about the quantity to be measured has to be conveyed to the
personnel who is handling the instrument.
 The data is used for monitoring , control or analysis purposes.
 This function is performed by data presentation element.
 The data presentation elements are
 Ammeters
 Voltmeters etc.,
 In case the data is being recorded
 Magnetic tapes
 High Speed Camera
 TV Equipment
 Storage type CRT
 Printers
 Analog and Digital Computers , Microprocessors
Are used.
 2. Discuss the Different types of standards and Calibration in measurement.
 A standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement.
The fundamental unit of mass is Kilogramme.
 It is defined as the mass of cubic decimeter of water at its temperature of
maximum density of 4 C.
 The mass of the International Prototype Kilogramme consists of Platinum
Iridium Cylinder . The Unit is presented at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Severes near Paris.
 The different types of standards and measures are
 International standard
 Primary Standard
 Secondary standard
 Working Standard.
International Standard:
 The international standards are defined as the basis of international
agreements.
 International standards are checked and evaluated regulary against absolute
measurements in terms of fundamental units.
 The International Standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and not available to the ordinary user.
 The standardized units are:
1) International ohm.
2) International amperes.
Primary Standards:
 Primary Standards are absolute standards of high accuracy and can be used as
ultimate reference standards.
 The standards are maintained at National Standard Laboratories in different
parts of the world.
 Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
 One of the Main function of primary standard is the verification and
calibration of secondary standard.
Secondary Standards:
  The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in industrial
measurement laboratories.
 The responsibility of measurement and calibration of these standards lies with
the particular industry.
 These standards are checked locally against reference standards available in
the area.
 Secondary standards are normally sent periodically to the national standards
and laboratories for comparison against primary standards.
Working Standards:
The working standards are the major tools in the measurement laboratory.
These standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for
accuracy and performance.
For Ex: A manufacturer of preision resistance may use a standard resistance in the
quality control department for checking the value of resistances that are being
manufactured.
Calibration:
Calibration is a process of making an adjustment or marking the scale so that the
readings of n instrument agree with the accepted and certified standard.
It is the procedure for determining the current value of measured by comparison with
the measured or standard ones.
The calibration offers the guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating
with required accuracy under given environmental conditions.
The calibration procedure involves steps like:
 Visual inspection of various defects
 Installation according to specification
 Zero adjustment
Types of Calibration Methodologies:
There are two methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument
and standard instrument.
The methodologies are
(i) Direct Comparison
(ii) In Direct Comparison.
Direct Comparison:
In a direct comparison a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under
test.
The ratio of what the meter is indicating and the known generator values gives the
meter error.
Here the meter is the test instrument while the generator is the standard instrument
Indirect Comparison:
In the Indirect Comparison the test instrument is compared with the standard
instrument o same type.
If the test instrument is a meter the standard instrument is also a meter.
If the test instrument is generator the standard instrument is also generator.
3. Explain the Principle, construction and working of PMMC Instrument.
The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument is used for D.C. Measurements.
The working Principle is based on D’Arsonval type of Galvanometers.
The basic principle is “Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in the
magnetic field, it experiences a force and that force is equivalent to the magnitude
of current flowing through it”.
Construction of PMMC Instrument:
Moving Coil:
 The moving coil is made up of enameled or silk covered copper wire.
 The coil is wound with many turns on a rectangular aluminium frame which
is pivoted with jewel bearings.
 The coil moves freely in the field of permanent magnet.
 The voltmeter coils are wound on metal frame and ammeter coils are wound
on ono-magnetic frames.
Magnet Systems:
 Old style magnet systems consisted of a relatively long U- shaped Permanent
Magnet having soft iron pieces.
 Due to the development of materials like Alcomax and Alnico which may
have high coercive force, it is possible to use small magnets with high field
intensities.
 The moving coil moves over the magnet control.
When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings, the control torque is
provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs.
Damping Torque: Damping torque is provided by the movement of aluminium
former.
Pointer and Scale : The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over the
graduated scale.
Torque Equation:
Deflecting Torque Td = NBAI
Where, Td = deflecting torque in N-m
N = number of turns of coil.
A = effective area of the coil in m2
I = current passing through the moving coil in A.
B = flux density in air gap in Wb/m2.
Let G = NBA = constant
Now Td= GI
 Controlling torque is provided by the spring and is proportional to the angular
deflection of the pointer.
Tc α θ
Tc = K θ
Where K = Spring Constant
For final steady deflection
Tc = Td
GI = K θ
𝑮
𝜽 = ( )𝑰
𝑲
As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the meter (
K and G constant), we get a uniform scale on the instrument.
Torques in PMMC Instruments:
Deflecting Torque :
The deflecting torque acts on the moving system of the instrument to give the
required deflection and indicates the corresponding electrical quantity to be
measured on a graduated scale. It exists as long as the instrument is connected to the
supply.
Controlling torque :
The controlling torque is produced by a spring or gravity, which opposes the
deflecting torque. The pointer comes to rest at a particular position corresponding to
the electrical quantity to be measured, when these two torques are equal.
Damping Torque :
The torque that is used to reduce the oscillations of the pointer and to bring it to the
final deflected position is known as damping torque.

4. Explain the Principle construction and working of PMMI type of

instrument.
 Moving iron instruments are used to measure the flow of alternating current or
voltage with the help of moving iron.
 The basic principle of the moving-iron instrument is that when an iron piece is
brought near the magnet, it gets attracted towards the magnet.
 This movement of the soft-iron piece is used to measure the current or voltage,
which produces the magnetic field.
 The strength of magnetic field, which depends on the magnitude of current
passing through the magnet, decides the force of attraction of the iron piece. The
two different types of moving-iron instruments are:
 Moving-iron instrument–attraction type
 Moving-iron instrument–repulsion type
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument:
The basic working principle of attraction type of moving-iron instrument is that,
when a soft-iron piece is brought near to the magnet, the magnet attracts it.

Construction:
 This type of instrument consists of a fixed coil C, and a moving-iron piece D,
which is a flat disc mounted on the spindle supported by the jewel bearings.
 The pointer used to indicate the alternating current or voltage moves over a
graduated scale and is fixed with the spindle.
 The range of the alternating current or voltage measured by the instrument is
directly proportional to the number of turns in the fixed coil.
 Springs are used to provide the controlling torque.

Working Principle:
 When the measuring instrument is connected to the circuit, the current starts
flowing through the coil and generates a magnetic field.
  Now, the coil behaves like a magnet, thereby attracting the soft-iron piece
towards the centre of the coil.

 As a result, the spindle and the pointer attached to the spindle move from their
initial positions and give a proportional deflection due to deflecting torque.
Moving-Iron Instrument-Repulsion Type:
 The basic working principle of a repulsion type moving-iron instrument is
that, when two soft-iron pieces are magnetised to the same polarity, a force of
repulsion exists between them, which cause the movement.
The two different designs of repulsion type instruments are:
● Radial vane type
● Co-axial or concentric vane type
Radial vane type:
Construction
 In this type, the radial strips of soft-iron piece are used and are placed within
the coil.
 The fixed soft iron piece is attached to the coil and the movable one is attached
to the spindle of the instrument.
 Using the deflecting torque, the pointer attached to the moving-iron moves
over the scale.
 The controlling torque is produced by spring mechanism, and the air-friction
damping provides the damping torque.
Working Principle

 When the current starts flowing through the operating coil it magnetizes both
the iron pieces.
 Hence, a repulsive force exists between these two soft-iron pieces.
  This repulsive force, when acting on the moving iron, pushes away from its
initial position.
 Thus, the spindle attached to the moving-iron moves and hence the pointer
gives a proportional deflection.

Torque equation:
Let Td = Deflecting torque
Mechanical Work Done = Td dθ
Increase in the applied voltage is given by
𝑑 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑒= (𝐿𝐼) = 𝐼 +𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The electrical energy supplied
𝑒𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼
Initial energy
1 2
𝑒𝑖 = 𝐼 𝐿
2
Final Energy
1
𝑒𝑓 = (𝐼 + 𝑑𝐼)2 (𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿)
2
Theefore the change in energy stored in the coil is given by
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑒𝑓 − 𝑒𝑖
Thus the Change in Stored energy is
1 2 1
(𝐼 + 2𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝑑𝐼2 )(𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿) − 𝐼2 𝐿
2 2
Neglecting the higher order terms we get
1
𝑑𝐸 = 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼2 𝐿
2
According to the Principle of Conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + Mechanical
Work done
1
𝐼2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑑𝜃
2
1
𝑇𝑑 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼2 𝑑𝐿
2
1 𝑑𝐿
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼2
2 𝑑𝜃
The Controlling Torque
𝑇𝐶 = 𝐾𝜃
At Equilibrium
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑
1 2 𝑑𝐿
𝐾𝜃 = 𝐼
2 𝑑𝜃
𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝑳
𝜽=
𝟐 𝑲 𝒅𝜽
5. With a neat diagram, explain the construction and working
principle of electrodynamometer type wattmeter. Also derive its
torque equation.
 Wattmeter is the most common instrument for measurement of both
AC and DC Power.

Construction:

The wattmeter consists of two coils.

(i) Fixed Coil

(ii) Moving Coil

Fixed Coil:
 It is also called as current coil.
 It is connected in series with the load.
 The fixed coil is laminated properly in order to avoid eddy current
loss when heavy current flows.
 Fixed coils are wound with heavy wire with less number of turns in
order to have low resistance and hence low voltage drop across the
meter.

Moving Coil:

 The moving coil is also called pressure coil.

 It is made up of thin wires and more number of turns in order to have
high resistance.
 It is generally attached to the spindle which is connected to the
pointer.

Control torque:

 It is provided by springs.

Damping:

 Air friction damping is used.

Pointer and scale:

 Mirror type scale and knife edge pointer to avoid parallax error
while reading.
Torque equation:

The instantaneous torque is given by

𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑑𝜃

Let V and I be the r.m.s values of voltage and current being measured.

So the instantaneous voltage across pressure coil is

𝑣 = √2𝑉 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑡

Since pressure coil has high resistance it acts as a resistive coil.

𝑣 √2𝑉
𝑖𝑝 = =( ) sin 𝑡 = √2 𝐼𝑝 sin 𝑡
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑝

If the current in the current coil lags the voltage in phase by angle φ
, instantaneous value of current in current coil is

𝑖𝑝 = √2 𝐼 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑑𝑀
∴ 𝑇𝑖 = √2𝐼𝑝 sin 𝑡 𝑥 √2 𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡 − 𝜑)𝑥
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑀
= 2𝐼𝑝 𝐼 sin 𝑡 sin(𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑀
= 𝐼𝑝 𝐼 (cos 𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑))𝑥
𝑑𝜃
It is clear that there is a component of power which varies as twice the
frequency and voltage

Average deflecting torque

𝑇
1
𝑇𝑑 = ∫ 𝑇𝑖 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝑇 0

1 𝑇 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = ∫ 𝐼𝑝 𝐼(cos 𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑))𝑥 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝑇 0 𝑑𝜃
𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = ( ) cos 𝜑 𝑥
𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝜃

𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = ( ) cos 𝜑
𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝜃

𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜑 𝑑𝑀
𝜃=( )𝑥
𝑅𝑝 𝐾 𝑑𝜃

Controlling Torque 𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝜃

At balance 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑

𝑑𝑀
𝐾𝜃 = 𝐼𝑝 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑥
𝑑𝜗
𝒅𝑴
𝜽 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑽𝑰 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝝋 𝒙
𝒅𝜽

6. Write notes on Three phase power measurement using two

wattmeter method.
 The two wattmeter method is the most popular method for
measuring power in three phase circuits.
 The load may be balanced or unbalanced.
The connections are shown below:
  Let e1,e2,e3 be the instantaneous voltages of the three loads.
 Let i1, i2, i3 be the instantaneous currents of the three loads
Hence power at the instant is equal to the sum of the products.
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑒1 𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 + 𝑒3 𝑖3 ------------------(1)

Case (i) : Load Star Connected

Since all loads meet at the star point applying KCL gives

𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 0

𝑖3 = −(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) -----------------------------(2)

Sub in (1)

𝑃 = 𝑒1 𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 + 𝑒3 (−(𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ))

= 𝑒1 𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 − 𝑒3 𝑖1 − 𝑒3 𝑖2

= 𝑖1 (𝑒1 − 𝑒3 ) + 𝑖2 (𝑒2 − 𝑒3 )

∴ 𝑖1 (𝑒1 − 𝑒3 ) = 𝑊1 𝑖2 (𝑒2 − 𝑒3 ) = 𝑊2

∴ 𝑃 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

Total Average Power P = W1+W2

Case (ii) : Load Delta Connected

𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 = 0

Or 𝑒1 = −(𝑒2 + 𝑒3 )

𝑃 = 𝑒1 𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 + 𝑒3 𝑖3
 = (−(𝑒2 + 𝑒3 )𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 + 𝑒3 𝑖3

= −𝑒2 𝑖1 − 𝑒3 𝑖1 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 + 𝑒3 𝑖3

= 𝑒2 (𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) + 𝑒3 (𝑖1 − 𝑖3 )

∴ 𝑃 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

Determination of Power Factor:

𝑉𝑅𝐵 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅𝑁 − ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝐵𝑁

̅̅̅̅̅
𝑉𝑌𝐵 = 𝑉 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑌𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 1 = 𝑊1

= 𝑉𝑅𝐵 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑅𝐵 𝑥𝐼𝑅

= 𝑉𝑅𝐵 𝑥𝐼𝑅 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(30 + 𝜑

= 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos(30 + 𝜑)

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 = 𝑊2

= 𝑉𝑌𝐵 𝑥 𝐼𝑌 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑌𝐵 𝑥𝐼𝑌

= 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos(30 − 𝜑)

𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜑

𝑊2 − 𝑊1 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜑

√3(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑊1 + 𝑊2

√3(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑊1 + 𝑊2

7. Explain the construction and working principle of single phase

induction type energy meter.
 Energy meter is an instrument used to measure the total power
consumed over a specific interval of time. Unit of energy is Kwh.
 Energy= power * time
 Energy meter is an integrating type of instrument.
 Basic principle:

 It is an integrating type instrument which works on the principle

of induction. i.e., alternating fluxes are produced because of 1φ
AC supply.
 These alternating fluxes induce the generation of eddy current in
the moving system which interacts with each other to produce a
driving torque which causes the aluminum disc to rotate and thus
records the energy.

Constructional details:

The four main parts of induction type of energy meter are:

 Driving system
 Moving system
 Braking system
 Registering system

Driving System :

 The driving system of the energy meter consists of two

electromagnets.
 The core of the electromagnet is made up of silicon steel
laminations.
  One of the electromagnets is excited by the load current and is
called as current coil and the corresponding electromagnet is
called series magnet.
 The second electromagnet connected across the supply is called
pressure coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt
magnet.

Moving System :

 The moving system consists of aluminium disc mounted on a

light alloy shaft.
 The disc is positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt
magnets.
 The moving system is connected to a hardened steel pivot which
is screwed to the foot of the shaft.
 In this type of energy meter as there is no controlling torque

Braking system:

 The braking system consists of permanent magnet positioned

near the edge of the aluminium disc.
 The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus
provides a braking torque.

Registering system:
  The function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record
continuously a number which is proportional to the revolutions
made by the moving system.

Working:
 The Pressure coil is energized by the supply voltage.
 The Pressure coil produces current in proportion to the supply
voltage.
 Both these coils produce alternating fluxes φ1 and φ2 respectively.
 Parts of these fluxes link with the disks and emf is induced in it.
 Due to these emfs eddy currents are induced in the disks.
 The eddy currents induced by the electromagnetic disks interact
with the fluxes to produce motor action.
 Phasor Diagram:

V= Supply Voltage
I2 = Current through pressure coil proportional to V
Φ2 = flux produced by I2
I1 = Current through current coil i.e., load
Φ1 = flux produced by I1
E1 = Induced emf in disc due to Φ1
E2 = Induced emf in disc due to Φ2
Ish = Eddy current due to E1
Ise = Eddy current due to E2
Net Deflecting torque is
Creeping : It is the process in which the disc rotates slowly but continuously when
no load is connected to the system and when the pressure coil is energised by the
supply. It is due to excessive supply voltage, vibration, stray magnetic field, etc. It
is prevented by drilling two holes or slots in the disc.

8. Explain with the neat sketch the classification of instrument

transformers
 The measurement f high current and high voltage cannot be done
with our available meters.
 In such cases instrument transformers are used.
 These instrument transformers isolate the high current and high
voltage a.c circuits from the measuring instruments.
These are generally classified as
(i) Current Transformers (C.T)
(ii) Potential Transformers (P.T)
Current transformers:
 The large alternating currents which cannot be sensed or passed
through normal ammeters current coil of ammeters and energy
meter can be easily measured by current transformers.
Construction:
 A current transformer basically has a primary coil of one or more
turns of heavy cross sectional area. In some current transformers
the bar act as primary.
 This is connected in series with the line carrying heavy current.
 The secondary winding of the C.T is connected to a low range
ammeter.
 In case of C.T the secondary current is less than the primary
current.
 The transformers are basically step up transformers. i.e., Volate is
stepped up from Primary to secondary and current is stepped down
from primary to secondary.
 For example for a C.T of 500: range if primary current is 500A it
will be reduced to 5A on secondary.
𝐼1 𝑁2
=
𝐼2 𝑁1

Secondary of CT should not be left open:

 The secondary of CT should not be left open . It should be shorted

and must be connected in series with a low resistance coil such as
current coils of wattmeter, coil of ammeter etc.,
 If it is left open , the current through secondary becomes zero,
hence the amphere turns produced by secondary which generally
opposes primary amphere turns becomes zero.
 Similarly heavy emfs will be induced in the primary and secondary
side. This may damage the insulation of the winding.
Potential transformers:
 The basic principle is same as the current transformer.
 The high alternating voltages are reduced in a fixed proportion for
the measurement purpose with the help of potential transformers.
 The construction of these are similar to normal transformers.
 These are extremely accurate ratio step down transformers.
 The Primary winding has large number of turns while the
secondary winding has less number of turns.
 The secondary is rated for 110 V irrespective of the primary
voltage rating.
 One end of the secondary is always grounded for safety purposes.

The transformation Ratio is

𝑽𝟏 𝑵𝟏
=
𝑽𝟐 𝑵𝟐
9. Explain the differences between Current transformer and
Potential transformer (6 Marks)
 S.No Current transformer Potential Transformer
1. High current value is High voltage value is
transformed to a low transformed to a low voltage
current value. value.
2 Primary winding of CT Primary winding of PT with
with small number of large number of turns carries
turns carries the voltage which is to be
the current which is to measured.
be measured.
3. Secondary winding with Secondary winding with less
large number of turns is number of turns is connected
connected to the meter or instrument.
to the low resistance
ammeter coil.
4. CT is connected in PT is connected in parallel with
series with the the instrument.
instrument.
5 CT has high PT has low transformation
transformation ratio. ratio.
6 It has low impedance. It has high impedance.

10. Explain with a neat block diagram the working of Digital

storage oscilloscope.
 The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the
storage of a digital waveform or a digital copy of the waveform.
 It allows us to store the signal or the waveform in digital format.
 The maximum frequency measured on the digital signal
oscilloscope depends upon two things.
(i) Sampling rate of the scope
(ii) Nature of Converter.
 The traces in DSO are brought, highly defined and displayed
within seconds.
Block diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope:
The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of
 Amplifier
 Digitizer
 Memory
 Analyzer Circuitry
 Waveform Reconstruction
 Vertical Plates
 Horizontal Plates
 Cathode ray tube
 Horizontal amplifier
 Time base circuitry
 Trigger and clock

 At first, digital storage oscilloscope digitize the analog input signal.

 The analog input signal is amplified by an amplifier if it has any weak
signal.
  After amplification the signal is digitized by the digitizer and the digitized
signal is stored in memory.
 The analyzer circuit processes the digital signal after the waveform is
reconstructed (again the digital signal is converted into an analog form) .
Again the signal is applied to the vertical plates of the CRT.
The cathode ray tube has two inputs:
 Vertical input
 Horizontal input
 The vertical input signal is in Y – axis
 The horizontal input signal is in x-axis.
 The time base is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal so it is going
to generate the time base signal which is a ramp signal.
 Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and the
horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate.
 The digitizing occurs by taking the sample of the input waveform at periodic
intervals.
 The process of digitizing should follow sampling theorem.
 The sampling theorem states that “ The rate at which the samples are taken
(Sampling frequency, fs) should be greater than twice the highest frequency
(fm)
𝑓𝑠 ≥ 𝑓𝑚
DSO Operation Modes:
The Digital storage oscilloscope works in three modes :
 Roll Mode
 Store Mode
 Hold or Save Mode
Roll Mode : In Roll Mode very fast varying signals are displayed on the display
screen.
Store Mode : In Store Mode the signal stores in Memory
Hold or Save Mode: In hold or save mode some part of the signal will hold for
some time and they will be stored in memory.
 11.Discuss in detail about Data Acquisition System
A data acquisition system is a complex system that consists of all the required
systems for
 Collection
 Conditioning
 Conversion
 Processing
 Display
 Storage and
 Transmission of data
To obtain the best characteristics of data in terms of performance , handling
capacity and economy the subsystem of data acquisition system can be clubbed
together
 The processing of data may involve different operations.
 They can be simpler or complex mathematical manipulations.
 The data collected from various points is to be transformed into useful
format.
 The data is to be transmitted
 The transmission may be from one or more collection points.
General Data Acquisition system:
The block diagram is shown below:
The output of the different transducers are given to the signal conditioners.

Signal conditioning: The outputs of transducers may be amplified attenuated

linearized as per requirements.

 The outputs obtained from the signal conditioners are given to the inputs of
the multiplexer.
 The output of the analog data can be supplied to recorders, meters for
indication and for a display devices for display.
 Multiplexer output will be converted into digital format.
 The digital signal will be used with printer digital display, magnetic recorder
[tape recorder] for printing a hard copy, monitoring and recording
respectively.