Chapter 1: Psychology ( Psyche - soul, study of -​ Focuses primarily on

the soul) educational, social, and career

-​ Scientific study of the mind; behavior adjustment problems
and mental processes ●​ Behavioral Genetics
-​ Its goal is to describe, predict, explain, -​ Study the inheritance of traits
and control behavior related to behavior
Behavior ●​ Clinical Neuropsychology
●​ Cognitive processes -​ It unites the areas of
●​ Emotional states biopsychology and clinical
●​ Actions psychology, focusing on the
Mental processes relationship between biological
●​ Emotions and psychological factors.
●​ Perceptions ●​ Industrial/Organizational Psychology
●​ Reasoning -​ Concern of the psychology in
●​ Memories the workplace

Subfields in Psychology School of Thought

●​ Developmental Psychology ●​ Structuralism
-​ Examines how people grow -​ The first school of thought was
and change from the moment established by Wilhelm Wundt,
they are born to death assisted by Edward Tichner
●​ Health Psychology -​ Introspection
-​ Explores the relationship -​ “The structure of
between psychological factors consciousness thinking, and
and physical ailments or other kinds of mental states
disease and activities”
●​ Clinical Psychology ●​ Functionalism
-​ The largest part of the field -​ Established by William James,
-​ The study, diagnosis, and A Harvard professor
treatment of psychological -​ Functions of the mind, what
disorder the mind does, and behavior
●​ Evolutionary Psychology functions
-​ Study on how behavior is -​ “The science of the mental life”
influenced by our genetic -​ Our stream of consciousness
inheritance from our ancestors allows us to adapt
●​ Social Psychology ●​ Gestalt
-​ Study of people’s thoughts, -​ Established by Max
feelings, and actions are Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler,
affected by others and Kurt Kuffka
●​ Counseling Psychology -​ “Pattern” “Configuration”
“Organized whole”
 -​ Study the effects that various how our ways of thinking
Gestalten have on thinking and influence our behavior
perception ●​ Humanistic Perspective: The Unique
-​ “The whole is greater than its Qualities of the Human Species
own parts” -​ Its central figures are Carl
Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Psychological in Today’s Perspectives -​ All individuals naturally strive
●​ Neuroscience Perspective: blood, to grow, develop, and be in
sweat, and fear control of their behavior, each
-​ It is how people and of us can seek and reach
nonhumans function fulfillment (free will)
biologically; includes the study
of heredity and evolution
-​ Views behavior from the
biological functioning
-​ Study of how our brain and
nervous system work
●​ Psychodynamic Perspective:
Understanding the Inner Person
-​ Work of Sigmund Freud (the
father of psychoanalysis)
-​ Behavior is motivated by
unconscious inner forces over
which the individual has little
control, “hysteria”
●​ Behavioral Perspective: The Outer
Person
-​ Formed by John B. Watson
-​ It focuses on the observable,
measurable behavior of an
individual; our environment
has a huge influence on
behavior
●​ The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying
the Roots of Understanding
-​ It focuses on how people think,
process, understand, and know
about the real world
-​ It emphasizes the
comprehension and
representation of the outside
world within themselves and
Chapter 2: Physiological Basis of Behavior -​ Basic, fundamental unit of the NS
-​ Communicates and send signals with
Mechanisms of behavior other neurons
●​ Receiving mechanism - sense organs
●​ Connecting mechanism - nervous
system
●​ Reacting mechanism - muscles and
endocrine system

Sense Stimuli Receptors Part of the

organs brain that
will
process the
Parts of neurons
information
●​ Dendrite - a root like structure,
Vision Light Retina Occipital receives information from other
(cons/rod lobe
neurons through it receptors
s)
●​ Cell body
Audition sound Cochlea Temporal ●​ Axon - A tubelike (longer part of the
semicircul lobe cell), the path of information down to
ar canals
axon terminal
Olfaction smell Olfactory Temporal ●​ Neurofibrils - fibers within axon
smells lobe ●​ Myelin sheath - A sausagelike around
axon, made of fats and protiens;
Gustation taste Papilea Frontal
(taste lobe prevents short circuiting one another
buds) ●​ Nodes of ranvier - The gap between
myelin sheath; speeds up the
Somatose Pain, Pacinian Parietal
nsation pleasure, corpuscle lobe propagation
temperat - vibration ●​ Interneuron – connects or integrates
ure Rufinni information coming from sensory and
endings
motor neurons; determines where
-warmth
Krause’s information will be sent
Corpuscle ●​ Synapse - the gap between the
- cold
terminal buttons and dendrites where
neurotransmitters is release

Type of Neuron
Nervous System ●​ Sensory/Afferent neurons
-​ Constists of central nervous system -​ Receives information from the
(CNS) and peripheral nervous system different sense
(PNS) organs/receptors in the body;
from internal organs to CNS
Neuron
 ●​ Interneurons sensory outputs,
-​ Connects or integrates the mediates complex
signal received from sensory processes (Broca’s
and motor neurons, area, learning,
determines where the speaking,
information will be sent problem-solving)
●​ Motor neurons -​ Has the cerebrum;
-​ From CNS to internal organs; frontal lobe (motor;
responds to signals; cognition), parietal
homeostasis lobe (sensation from
the body), temporal
Resting/Action Potential lobe (hearing,
●​ Resting-state language, patterns,
-​ Before the electric impulse memories), and
happens; it is filled with occipital lobe (visual
negative charges (potassium) analysis)
●​ Action potential -​ Has the hippocampus -
-​ A movement from one end of stored long-term
the axon to the other; from the memories
resting state, positive charges +​ Diencephalon
(sodium) penetrate the axon -​ Top of the brain stem
●​ Thalamus - sensory
Divisions of the Nervous System nuclei (receive and
transmit signals),
lateral geniculate
nuclei (visual), medial
geniculate nuclei
(auditory), ventral
posterior
(somatosensory),
medial dorsal nuclei
(olfaction)
●​ Hypothalamus -
Motivated behaviors
and regulates the
Central Nervous System (CNS) release of hormones
-​ Consists of the brain and spinal from the pituitary
cord gland; Optic chiasm
●​ Forebrain (where both eyes
+​ Telencephalon meet), mamillary
-​ Initiates voluntary bodies (memory
movements, interprets
 consolidation and Cranial Nerves (12 pairs)
storage) 1.​ Olfactory - smell
●​ Mesencephalon 2.​ Optic - vision
+​ Tectum (inferior and superior 3.​ Oculomotor - eye movement; focusing
culliculi) the eye, and constricting the pupil
+​ Tegmentum 4.​ Trochlear - eye movement; different
●​ Metencephalon directions
+​ Reticular formation 5.​ Trigeminal - facial touch, pain,
+​ Pons temperature
+​ Cerebellum 6.​ Abducence - eye movement
●​ Myelencephalon 7.​ Facial - Chewing, saliva production,
+​ Medulla taste buds
+​ Reticular formation (arousal, 8.​ Vestibulocochlear - maintain
sleep, eating, etc. ) equilibrium, hearing
9.​ Glossopharyngeal - Throat and tongue
Limbic System & Basal Ganglia movement, swallowing
●​ Limbic system - responsible for the 10.​ Vagus - heart and lung signals
4Fs 11.​ Accessory - Neck muscle and motor
+​ Amygdala functions
+​ Cingulate cortex 12.​ Hypoglossal - tongue and chewing
+​ Forex movements, speech
●​ Basal Ganglia Spinal Nerves (31 pairs)
●​ Caudete nucleus & Putamen ●​ Cervical nerves (8)
●​ Thoracic nerves (15)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ●​ Lumbar nerves (5)
-​ Cranial nerves (12 pairs) and spinal ●​ Sacral nerves (5)
cord (31 pairs) ●​ Coccygeal nerve (1)
●​ Somatic NS/division
-​ Responsible for voluntary C1-C4 - breath
movements via skeletal C2 - head and neck movements
muscles C4-C6 - heart rate
●​ Autonomic NS/division C6 - shoulder movement
-​ Responsible for involuntary C5 - wrist and elbow movement
movements, part of our body C7-T1 - hand and finger movements
that keeps us alive; lungs, T1-T12 - sympathetic tone, temperature
heartbeat, blood cells, etc. T2-T12 - trunk stability
●​ Sympathetic NS/division T11-L2 - ejaculation
-​ The fight/flight mode L2 - hip extension
●​ Parasympathetic NS/division L3 - Knee flexion
-​ Regulates (calms down) our L4-S1 - foot motion
body after an emergency L5 - knee flexion
S2-S3 - bowel and bladder activity
 S2-S4 - sexual activity Stimulates
S5 - bowel and bladdy activity uterine
C0 - Oxytocin contraction
during
childbirth and
Endocrine System milk ejection
●​ Pituitary gland - “master gland”, key
Regulates
element
Thyroxin (T4) metabolism,
●​ Secrete hormones - chemical growth, and
messenger development

Similar to T4,
Thyroid gland Triiodothyroni but more
Gland Hormone Effect on the ne (T3) potent and
body fast

Releasing Regulate the

Hypothalamu hormones pituitary gland Calcitonin Lowers blood
s (TRH, CRH, releasing calcium levels
etc.)
Raise blood
Parathyroid Parathyroid calcium levels
Growth Stimulates gland hormone by stimulating
hormone growth and bone
reproduction resorption

Stimulates Regulates
Thyroid-stimul thyroid glands metabolism,
ating hormone to produce Cortisol stress
(TSH) thyroid response, and
hormones immune
function
Regulates
Luteinizing testosterone Regulates
hormone (LH) in males and sodium and
ovulation in Aldosterone potassium
Pituitary females balance, and
gland blood
Follicle-stimul Stimulates pressure
ating hormone egg and Adrenal gland
(FSH) sperm Increases
production heart rate,
Epinephrine blood
Stimulates (adrenaline) pressure, and
Prolactin (PRL) milk energy supply
production in in stress
female
norepinephrin Similar to
Antidieuric Antidieuric e epinephrine;
hormone hormone affects
(ADH) attention and
responses to
 stress
Perception - The sorting out, interpretation,
analysis, and integration of stimuli by sense
Lowers organs and brain (psychological response)
glucose levels
insulin by facilitating
cellular Stimulus - Energy that produces a response in
glucose the sense organ
uptake
Pancreas
Raises glucose Perception
levels by Process
Glucagon stimulating
glucose
release from Stimulation→transduction→sensation→perce
the liver ption

Raises female
reproductive Functions
estrogen functions and
secondary ●​ Guessing what is out there -
sexual
knowledge and experience; educated
characteristics
guess
Ovaries Prepares the ●​ Helping us focus on particular inputs -
uterus for attention (CPE)
pregnancy
progesterone and regulates ●​ Putting pieces together - multiple
the pieces of information combined to
menstruation represent something concrete
cycle

testosterone Regulates Attributes

male 1.​ Perception is limited to sensory
reproductive discrimination
Testes functions and
secondary Ability to discriminate among stimuli
sexual in the environment
characteristics ●​ Condition of the organism
●​ Properties of stimulus
Regulates
sleep-wake 2.​ Perception is selective and subjective
Pineal gland melatonin cycle and Internal factors:
seasonal ●​ Motivation
biological
rhythms ●​ Expectations
●​ Emotion
●​ Experience
●​ Culture
●​ Individual differences
Chapter 3: Perceptions External factors:
●​ Intensity size
Key terms: ●​ Contrast
 ●​ Repetition
●​ Movement Errors in perceptions
3.​ Perception is constant ●​ Illusions
●​ Size constancy -​ incorrect perception of a
●​ Light constancy stimulus pattern, especially
●​ Color constancy one that also fools others who
●​ Shape constancy are observing the same
●​ Location constancy stimulus
4.​ Perception has to organize tendencies ●​ Delusions and hallucinations
●​ Law of Pragnanz - of several -​ False beliefs from both
geometrically possible organizations, perception and memory
what will be perceived as the best, -​ Impressions of sensory
simplest, and most stable shape vividness arising from mental
+​ Figure & ground — a pattern or factors
image that grabs our attention -​ Hearing/seeing/imagining what
and everything else becomes is not present
ground (backup)
+​ Grouping – certain figural
elements seem to be Chapter 4: Learning
perceived together rather than
-​ More or less permanent change in
isolated or independent units;
behavior as a result of experience
interaction of elements
+​ More or less: resist change
-​ Similarity
once acquired but sometimes
-​ Proximity
change; can be shaped or
-​ Continuity
modified
-​ Closure
+​ Experience: necessary to
-​ Common fate
receive information
-​ Simplicity
+​ Extinction: can be forgotten
+​ Latent learning: can be
Perceptual Processing dormant
●​ Bottom-up processing Ways human beings do learn behavior
-​ Start constructing at the ●​ Classical conditioning
“bottom” with raw materials -​ Ivan Pavlov
-​ Beginning with small sensory -​ “A previously neutral stimulus
units (features) and building to elicit a response”
upward to a complete +​ Unconditioned: no learning was
perception necessary; reflex; stimulus
●​ Top-down processing automatically elicits a
-​ Pre-existing knowledge is used response
to organize features into a +​ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
meaningful whole rapidly reflexive stimulus elicits the
-​ Past experiences automatic response
 +​ Unconditioned Response to be repeated and
(UNR): response automatically unsatisfying consequences
elicited by UNC tend to not be repeated
+​ Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
previously neutral stimulus +​ Reinforcement
+​ Conditioned Response (CR): ●​ Reinforcer: a stimulus
learned response to CS that increases the
​ Other uses apart from instilling fear: probability of a prior
-​ Celebrities and products response
-​ Classroom management ●​ The probability of a
-​ Behavioral therapy response is increased
+​ Acquisition: acquiring a new response by a reinforcer
– the CR to the CS following a response
+​ Extinction: unlearning process; ●​ Positive: addition of
diminishing of the CR when the UCS no appetitive stimulus
longer follows the CS ●​ Negative: removal of
+​ Spontaneous Recovery: partial aversive stimulus
recovery in strength of the CR +​ Punishment
following a break during extinction ●​ Punisher: a stimulus
trials that decreases the
probability of a prior
+​ Stimulus Generalization: stimuli response
similar to the CS elicit the CR ●​ The probability of a
+​ Stimulus Discrimination: elicitation of response is decreased
the CR only by the CS or only by a by a punisher following
small set of highly similar stimuli that a response
includes the CS ●​ Positive: addition of
aversive stimulus
●​ Operant Conditioning ●​ Negative: removal of
-​ “We are constantly operating an appetitive stimulus
on our environment and
learning from the +​ Primary reinforcement
consequences of our behavior” ●​ Innately reinforcing
-​ BF Skinner: Skinner’s box since birth
-​ Operant behavior: A behavior ●​ Food and water
that is reinforced or punished +​ Secondary
-​ Edward Thorndike started this reinforcement
conditioning by argument: the ●​ Gains its reinforcement
law of effect; puzzle boxes through learning
(satisfying effects, stamping ●​ Money
in); behavior that results in ●​ Good grades
satisfying consequences tend ●​ applause
 -​ “Learning that occurs but is not
+​ Acquisition: Strengthening of the demonstrated until there is an
reinforced operant response incentive to do so”
+​ Extinction: diminishing of the operant -​ Develop by Edward Tolman
response when it is no longer -​ Rats and races
reinforced -​ Cognitive maps; map
+​ Spontaneous recovery: temporary representation
recovery of the operant response ●​ Observational learning
following a break during extinction -​ “Learning by observing others
training and imitating their behavior”
-​ Developed by Albert Bandura
●​ Stimulus generalization: give the -​ Bobo doll experiment
operant response in the presence of -​ Behavior can be learned
stimuli similar to DS through observation
●​ Discriminative stimulus: a stimulus regardless of whether the
that has to be present for the operant behavior was reinforced,
response to be reinforced or punished punished, or neither
●​ Stimulus discrimination: give the
operant response only in the presence Chapter 5:
of the DS Motivation
➔​ The factors that direct and energize the
+​ Schedule of Reinforcement behavior of humans and other organisms.
-​ Continuous ➔​ minimize physical pain and maximize
-​ Partial schedule; responses are pleasure. (e.g: Eating, Resting, Desired
reinforced part of the time; object or goal, state of being.)
more resistant to extinction
●​ Ratio schedule Approaches to explaining motivation
-​ Based on a number of ●​ Drive Reduction Approach
responses ➔​ lack of basic biological needs (food
-​ Fixed-ratio: number of required & water) produces a drive to fulfill
responses the need
-​ Variable-ratio: responses ➔​ Drive - motivational tension,
required varied on each trial arousal, that energizes behavior to
●​ Interval Schedule fulfill a need
-​ Based on the amount of time a.​ Primary Drives - biological needs
elapsed b.​ Secondary Drives - learning, and
-​ Fixed-interval: the required experience (power & achievement).
amount of time needed
-​ Variable-interval: the amount ●​ Arousal Approach
of time varies on each trial ➔​ The belief that we try to maintain
certain levels of stimulation and
●​ Latent Learning
 activity, increasing or reducing higher-level needs become
them as necessary irrelevant
➔​ A person tries to maintain a
certain level of stimulation and +​ Safety Needs
activity. -​ Once physiological needs are
met, the next level of concern
●​ Incentive Approach is safety and security. This
➔​ Motivation stems from the desire includes personal, emotional,
to obtain valued external goals or and financial security, as well
incentives. as health and well-being.
➔​ more than 'feel good' byproduct of
doing that satisfies us. +​ Love and Belongingness Needs
-​ Humans have a deep need for
●​ Cognitive Approach social connections. This level
➔​ Motivation is a product of one's involves relationships, love,
thoughts, expectations, and goals affection, and a sense of
(cognition). belonging. People seek
a.​ Intrinsic motivation - enjoyment friendships, family
rather than any external reward. connections, and romantic
b.​ Extrinsic motivation - for external bonds.
and observable rewards.
+​ Esteem Needs
●​ Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs -​ Esteem needs are associated
with the desire for respect,
self-esteem, and recognition.
There are two types: (1)
self-esteem, which includes
self-confidence, independence,
and achievement, and (2)
esteem from others, which
involves status, recognition,
and appreciation.

+​ Self-Actualization
+​ Physiological Needs -​ The highest level in the
-​ These are the most basic, hierarchy, self-actualization
essential needs for human refers to the realization of
survival, including air, water, one’s potential and
food, shelter, sleep, and self-fulfillment. It involves
clothing. Without satisfying personal growth, creativity,
these needs, the body cannot and striving to become the
function properly, and best version of oneself.
 ➔​ Conditioned satiety - fullness we feel.
Need for Achievement Affiliation Power ➔​ Alliesthesia - food tastes better when one
1.)​ Need for achievement - striving for and is hungry.
attaining a level of excellence.
2.)​ Need for affiliation - establishing bonds Obesity
and relationships with other people. ➔​ Being 20% above the average weight of a
3.)​ Need for power - seeking impact, person of a particular height
controlling its influence on others. ➔​ Body Mass Index (BMI) - measurement of
obesity
Homeostasis ➔​ 30 - obese, 25-30 - overweight
➔​ The body’s tendency to maintain a steady
internal state. Obesity Factors
➔​ Set Point - The particular level of weight 1.)​ Genetic Factors - it has long been known
that the body strives to maintain. that obesity runs in families.
2.)​ Twin Studies - identical twins, due to their
Thirst having the same genes, have the same
➔​ Psychological manifestation of the need patterns in weight gain and loss.
for water which is essential for survival. 3.)​ Fat Cells - One study found that obese
a.​ Extracellular thirst - our bodies losing participants had three times as many fat
water for having gone without drinking or cells as normal participants.
having exercised intensely 4.)​ Diet and Set Points - when a person stops
b.​ Intracellular thirst - caused by osmosis; taking diet pills or has conscious control
dehydration over food intake, his appetite will return to
the degree needed to maintain his weight
Hunger set point.
➔​ Discomfort, weakness, or pain caused by 5.)​ Overeating - overeating is the usual culprit
prolonged lack of food. that people blame in terms of defining
obesity.
a.​ Biological Factors 6.)​ Emotional Arousal - overweight individuals
➔​ Changes in the levels of glucose in the often report that they tend to eat more
blood; monitored by the hypothalamus when they are tense or anxious.
➔​ Weight set point - level of weight that the
body strives to maintain; genetic Eating Disorders
predisposition; metabolism 1.)​ Anorexia Nervosa - Restricted eating.
Extreme self-imposed weight loss (at least
b.​ Social Factors 15% of the individual's normal weight).
➔​ Societal rules on appropriate eating Denies that there is a problem and refuses
behavior to gain weight: Amenorrhea, body
●​ Families eating together dysmorphia, self-esteem, self-image.
●​ Filipino social gathering 2.)​ Bulimia Nervosa - binge/purging -
non-purging followed by a sense of guilt
c.​ Learning
 for gaining weight. Dentists can first notice Emotion Components
these people since it's found in the mouth. 1.​ Cognitive Appraisal - What do you think of
3.)​ Binge Eating Disorder - recurring episodes the situation/thinking/present
of eating significantly more food in a short assessment? subjective interpretation
period of time than most people would eat made by an individual to stimuli in the
under similar circumstances with episodes environment.
marked by feelings of lack of control. 2.​ Subjective Experiences - our emotions are
our own subjective experience, not all
Causes of Eating Disorder people have the same emotion towards a
a.​ Objectification theory - how being raised in specific context, emotions = unique.
a culture that sexually objectifies the 3.​ Thought and Action Tendencies - universal
female body. component and individual component,
b.​ Biological causes - hypothalamus when we feel a certain emotion that
(anorexia) makes us act a certain way.
c.​ Familial causes - families that demand 4.​ Internal Bodily Changes - when feeling a
"perfection" and extreme self-control but certain emotion, there's a body
do not allow expression reaction/changes. A literal feeling of a
broken heart is tantamount to
Sexual Motivation physiological pain.
Androgens - Male sex hormones secreted by 5.​ Facial Expressions - an emotion can be
the testes. read to someone's face (universal
Genitals - The male and female sex organs. component).
Estrogens - Class of female sex hormones. 6.​ Responses to Emotion - how we feel an
Progesterone - A female sex hormone emotion is subjective, the way we respond
secreted by the ovaries. to emotion is subjective.
Ovulation - The point at which an egg is
released from the ovaries. Emotion Functions
Transsexuals - Persons who believe they were a.​ Prepares us for action.
born with the body of the other gender. b.​ Shapes future behavior - allows us to plan
Need for achievement - A stable, learned for future situations
characteristic in which a person obtains c.​ Interacting with others effectively -
satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level knowing people, and our feelings for them,
of excellence. fosters relationships.

Subjective Experiences
Emotion ●​ Emotions influence us:
➔​ Association with motivation. ●​ Attention and Learning
➔​ Feelings generally have both physiological ●​ Evaluations and Judgement
and cognitive elements that influence
behavior
➔​ What do you think of that particular thing?
 James-Lange Theory Plutchik’s Eight Basic Emotions
➔​ "We feel sorry because we cry, angry
because we strike, afraid because we
tremble." (Feldman, 2010)
➔​ Emotional experience is a reaction to
bodily events occurring as a result of an
external situation, we experience emotions
as a result of physiological changes that
produce specific sensations.
➔​ The body acts out first before the feelings
occur.
➔​ Body reaction before emotion expression.

Thought Action Tendencies

Emotion Thought-Action Tendency

Anger Attack
➔​ The emotions are arranged in pairs of
Fear Escape opposites (e.g., Joy vs. Sadness, Anger vs.
Fear), highlighting that certain emotions
Disgust Expel
are direct contrasts.
➔​ Each emotion can vary in intensity, from
Guilt Make Amends
mild (e.g., apprehension for fear) to strong
Shame Disappear (e.g., terror for fear). The wheel uses color
shades to indicate this, with brighter
Sadness Withdraw shades representing more intense
emotions.
Joy Play

Interest Explore Cannon-Bard Theory

➔​ The same nerve stimulus, produced by the
Contentment Savor and Integrate thalamus in the brain, produces both
physiological arousal and emotional
Pride Dream Big experience simultaneously (Feldman,
2010).
Gratitude Be Parasocial

Elevation Become a Better Person Schachter-Singer Theory

●​ We identify the emotions we are
experiencing by observing our
environment and comparing ourselves
with others (Feldman, 2010); different
 emotions can result depending on the Chapter 6:
context. Thinking
a.​ Physical process - activation of the -​ A mental process characterized by the
sympathetic nervous system. use of symbols and concepts to
b.​ Cognitive process - interpret physiological represent both inner and outer reality
response by looking at the surrounding -​ Manipulation of mental representation
environment to see what caused them to of information
feel this way. Representation = symbols
●​ Word
Facial Expressions ●​ Sign
1.​ Emotional Display Rules - Vary cultures ●​ Visual image
and specify the types of emotions people ●​ Sound
should express in certain situations and ●​ Other sensory modality
the behaviors appropriate for particular
emotions Concepts
2.​ Facial Affect Program - People across -​ Mental category/groupings
different cultures express emotions +​ Objects
similarly ("built-in program"). Universal. +​ People
3.​ Facial-feedback Hypothesis - facial +​ events
expressions not only reflect emotional -​ Enable us to organize phenomena
experience but also help determine how -​ A basic tool of thought, a way in which
people experience and label emotions. we organize and simplify information
-​ Put the world of experience into
Gender Differences mental boxes
➔​ Women are stereotyped as the more -​ Prototypes are typical and highly
emotional sex, experiencing and representative of a concept
expressing emotions more often. +​ Furniture - chair
➔​ Men and women differ more in the +​ Vehicle - car
expression of emotions—both facially and +​ Weapon - gun
verbally—rather than the subjective ●​ Conjunctive
experience of emotions (Feldman, 2010) -​ Strings together perceived
attributes;
Cultural Differences -​ Joins attributes to make a
1.​ Collectivism - refers to certain perceptual whole (positive and
characteristics in cultures that emphasize negative exemplar)
the fundamental connectedness and ●​ Disjunctive
interdependence among people. -​ Treats perceived attributes in
2.​ Individualism - refers to certain either-or terms;
characteristics in cultures that emphasize -​ It must have “this” feature or
the fundamental separateness and “that” feature
independence of individuals. ●​ Relational
 -​ Treats perceived attributes in -​ Judging the probability of an
terms of some connection event based on how easily the
between objects or ideas such event can be recalled from
as “more than,” “less than,” memory
“bigger than,” “more beautiful -​ We assume that events we
than,” etc. remember easily are likely to
have occurred more frequently
Reasoning in the past— and are more
●​ Syllogistic Reasoning likely to occur in the future—-
-​ Beginning with a general than events that are harder to
assumption that we believe is remember
true and then derive specific Types of problems
implications from that ●​ Arrangements
assumption -​ Rearrange or recombine
-​ “If the assumption is true then elements in a way that will
the conclusion must be true” satisfy certain criteria
+​ Deductive +​ Anagram problems
-​ General info to specific +​ Jigsaw puzzles
+​ Inductive ●​ Inducing structure
-​ Moving from specific to -​ Identifying the existing
broader generalizations relationships among the
elements present and then
Problem-solving constructing a new
●​ Algorithm relationship among them
-​ Formula; ●​ Transformation
-​ If followed carefully; it will -​ Consist of an initial state; a
always solve problems goal state, and a method for
●​ Heuristics changing the initial state into a
-​ Mental shortcuts; goal state
-​ Employ principles, +​ Tower of Hanoi
rule-of-thumb, and insights to
solve problems Steps in Problem-solving
-​ This may lead to Preparation→production→judgment
errors/inaccurate conclusions ●​ Preparation
+​ Representations -​ Identify if the problem is:
-​ A rule we apply when we judge well-defined or Ill-defined
people by the degree to which ●​ Production
they represent a certain -​ Trial and error
category or group of people +​ Heuristics (mean and
-​ Similarity does not ensure analysis)
in-category membership -​ Subgoals
+​ Availability -​ Insight
 +​ Kohler experiment +​ Spatial
●​ Judgment +​ Interpersonal
-​ If the solution is clear, we will +​ Intrapersonal
know immediately whether we +​ Naturalist
have been successful ●​ Information processing
-​ The way people store
Intelligence information in memory and
-​ Capacity to understand the world, use that information to solve
think rationally, and use resources intellectual tasks provides the
effectively when faced with challenges most accurate measure of
intelligence
Theories of intelligence -​ Examine the processes
●​ G-factor involved in producing
-​ The assumption was that there intelligent behavior
was a single, general factor for -​ People with high
mental ability, which they scores on intelligence
called “g” or the g-factor tests spend more time
-​ Different types of measure of on the initial encoding
intelligence (math, language, stages of problems,
spatial) all ranked test-takers identifying the parts of
in roughly the same order a problem, and
-​ The assumption was that there retrieving relevant
was a general, global information from
intellectual ability underlying long-term memory
performance on the various than people with lower
measures in the test (g-factor) scores.
-​ Single score on IQ (intelligence ●​ Biological Basis
quotient) test -​ Lateral prefrontal cortex
●​ Multiple Intelligences +​ Completing intelligence test
-​ Howard Gardner questions in both verbal and
-​ Rather than asking, “How spatial domain
smart are you?” we should ask +​ Juggling many pieces of
a different question: “How information simultaneously
smart are you?” and solving new problems
-​ We have a minimum of eight -​ Thickness of cerebral cortex
different forms of intelligence ●​ Practical/emotional intelligence
each relatively independent of +​ Practical
the others - Able to learn general norms
+​ Musical and principles and apply them
+​ Bodily-kinesthetic appropriately
+​ Logical-mathematical +​ Analytical
+​ Linguistic
 - ability to analyze and (mental age) and CA
evaluate ideas, solve problems, (chronological age)
and make decisions
+​ Creative
- Going beyond what is given to
generate novel and interesting
ideas
+​ Emotional Intellectual disabilities
- Basis of empathy for others, -​ Characterized by significant limitations
self-awareness, and social in intellectual functioning and in
skills conceptual, social, and practical
- ability to get along well with adaptive skills
others -​ Below-average intellectual functioning
- understanding of what other can be measured using IQ tests but
people are feeling and more difficult to determine how to
experiencing, which permits us guage limitations in adaptive behavior
to respond appropriately to ●​ Intellectual disability - IQ of 55-69
other’s needs +​ Development is typically
slower than that of their peers,
Intelligence Test they can function quite
●​ Francis Galton independently by adulthood
-​ head size and shape; the first and can hold jobs and have
person to suggest that families of their own
intelligence could be quantified ●​ Moderate retardation (IQs of 40 to 54):
and measured in an objective language and motor skills lagging
manner behind those of peers, can hold simple
●​ Alfred Binet jobs but will need to have a moderate
-​ IQ test; performance on certain degree of supervision throughout their
task items improved with lives
chronological, or physical, age, ●​ Severe and profound retardation (SR
performance could be used to IQs 25-35 and PR IQs below 25):
distinguish more intelligent unable to function independently and
people from less intelligent typically require care for their entire
ones within a particular age lives
group ●​ Fetal alcohol syndrome: a mother’s
-​ Intelligence quotient (IQ), is a use of alcohol while pregnant
score that takes into an ●​ Down syndrome: a person is born with
individual’s mental and 47 chromosomes instead of the usual
chronological age. Historically, 46, 23 pairs of chromosomes
the first IQ scores employed ●​ Familial retardation: no apparent
the following formula MA biological defect exists but there is a
history of retardation in the family
Intellectually Gifted -​ Growth and changes in the
-​ Have IQ scores greater than 130 body, brain, sensory capacities,
-​ Stereotype associated with the gifted and motor skills.
suggests that they are awkward, shy -​ Influenced by both genetic and
social misfits who are unable to get environmental factors.
along with peers, most research ●​ Cognitive Development
indicates that just the opposite is true -​ Changes in thinking, memory,
problem-solving, and
Chapter 7: decision-making abilities.
Developmental Psychology -​ Theories include Piaget’s
-​ Study of how people change over their Stages of Cognitive
lifespans. Development and Vygotsky’s
-​ Focus on physical, cognitive, and Sociocultural Theory.
socio-emotional development. ●​ Socio-emotional development
-​ Examines pattern growth and factors -​ Changes in emotions,
influencing change personality, relationships, and
social skills
Key themes -​ Influenced by theories like
●​ Nature vs. Nurture Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
-​ Interaction of genetic and Attachment Theory
inheritance (nature) and
environmental factors Influential Theories
(nurture) in shaping ●​ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
development. Development
●​ Continuity vs. Discontinuity -​ Stages from sensorimotor to
-​ Continuity: Development as a formal operational thinking.
gradual, cumulative process
(e.g., language acquisition).
-​ Discontinuity: Development in
distinct stages or shifts (e.g.,
Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development).
●​ Stability vs. Change
-​ Examining which aspects of
personality, behavior, and ●​ Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
abilities remain stable versus -​ Eight stages, each with a
those that change across the central psychosocial conflict.
lifespan. ●​ Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
-​ The role of social interaction
Major Developmental Domains and cultural tools in learning.
●​ Physical Development
 -​ Germinal (0-2 weeks):
Fertilization and
implantation.
-​ Embryonic (3-8 weeks):
The development of
major organs and the
heart starts beating.
-​ Fetal (9 weeks-birth):
●​ Kohlberg’s Moral Development Growth, refinement of
-​ Stages of moral reasoning, structures, brain, and
from obedience to ethical sensory development.
principles. +​ Influences on Development:
-​ Genetic Factors:
Genetic inheritance,
chromosomal
abnormalities.
-​ Teratogens: Impact of
substances (e.g.,
alcohol, nicotine) and
maternal health on
development.

Research Methods Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years)

●​ Longitudinal Studies ●​ Physical Development: Baby Reflexes:
-​ Studying the same individuals Rooting, sucking, grasping, and Moro
over time to observe reflexes—important for survival and
long-term changes. development.
●​ Cross-Sectional Studies -​ Motor Skills: Developmental
-​ Comparing individuals of milestones like sitting,
different ages at a single point crawling, walking, and fine
in time. motor development.
●​ Sequential Studies ●​ Cognitive Development: Piaget’s
-​ Combining longitudinal and Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):
cross-sectional approaches for Infants explore the world through their
a comprehensive view. senses, and learn object permanence.
-​ Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Developmental Stages (2-7 years): Development of
●​ Prenatal Development symbolic thinking,
+​ Stages of Prenatal egocentrism, and conservation
Development errors.
-​ Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Theory: Role of social
 interactions and language in based on rewards and social
cognitive development; Zone of norms.
Proximal Development (ZPD) ●​ Socio-Emotional Development
and scaffolding. -​ Erikson’s Industry vs.
●​ Socio-Emotional Development: Inferiority: Developing
Attachment Theory (Ainsworth): confidence through
Secure, avoidant, ambivalent achievement in school, sports,
attachment types based on the and friendships.
Strange Situation Experiment. -​ Peer Relationships: Increased
-​ Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 significance of friendships,
year): Importance of caregiver beginning of peer influence on
responsiveness in developing self-concept.
trust.
-​ Erikson’s Autonomy vs. Adolescence (12-18 years)
Shame/Doubt (1-3 years): ●​ Physical Development
Encouraging independence -​ Puberty: Hormonal changes,
builds self-confidence. sexual maturation, and growth
spurts.
Middle Childhood (6-12 years) -​ Brain Development: Prefrontal
●​ Physical Development cortex maturation (but still
-​ Growth slows but is steady; developing), leading to
improved coordination, and heightened risk-taking and
athletic skills. emotionality.
-​ Fine motor development ●​ Cognitive Development
allows for complex tasks like -​ Piaget’s Formal Operational
drawing, and writing. Stage: Ability to think
●​ Cognitive Development: abstractly, reason
-​ Piaget’s Concrete Operational hypothetically, and develop
Stage (7-11 years): personal ethics.
Understanding logic, ●​ Moral Development
conservation, classification, -​ Kohlberg’s Postconventional
and seriation. Stage: Abstract principles,
-​ Vygotsky’s Role of Social development of personal
Learning: Increased ability to moral values.
work with peers, and teachers ●​ Socio-Emotional Development
as sources of knowledge. -​ Erikson’s Identity vs. Role
●​ Moral Development Confusion: Exploring identity,
-​ Kohlberg’s Preconventional career goals, values, and peer
and Conventional Stages: influences.
Understanding rules, fairness, -​ Parenting Styles: Authoritative,
and consequences; morality authoritarian, permissive, and
uninvolved parenting styles
 impact adolescent behavior -​ Crystallized Intelligence
and self-concept. (knowledge-based): Often
-​ Peer Influence: Increasing peaks, while Fluid Intelligence
reliance on peer relationships, (problem-solving) may decline.
leading to experimentation -​ Expertise in specific areas of
with identity roles. work or life.
●​ Socio-Emotional Development
Early Adulthood (18-40 years) -​ Erikson’s Generativity vs.
●​ Physical Development Stagnation: Need to contribute
-​ Peak physical performance, to society, and guide the next
followed by a slow decline. generation.
-​ Healthy habits established: -​ Family Dynamics:
exercise, diet, substance use. Relationships with adult
●​ Cognitive Development children, aging parents, “empty
-​ Post-Formal Thinking: Realistic nest” syndrome
and pragmatic thinking, -​ Career Satisfaction: Possible
adaptability, and career reevaluation or shift,
problem-solving in real-world planning for retirement
scenarios.
●​ Socio-Emotional Development Late Adulthood (65+ years)
-​ Erikson’s Intimacy vs. Isolation: ●​ Physical Development
Formation of intimate -​ Decline in physical health,
relationships, establishing sensory abilities, and mobility.
independence from family. -​ Increased likelihood of chronic
-​ Career Development: health issues, but also growth
Professional identity, job in adaptive strategies for living
stability, work-life balance. with limitations.
-​ Parenting Styles: For those ●​ Cognitive Development
becoming parents, introduction -​ Memory Changes: Short-term
to different parenting memory declines, but many
approaches and their effects retain long-term and
on child development. procedural memory.
-​ Cognitive Reserve: The concept
Middle Adulthood (40-65 years) that lifestyle factors like
●​ Physical Development mental activity and social
-​ Gradual aging: skin changes, engagement help preserve
reduced muscle tone, slower cognitive abilities.
metabolism. ●​ Socio-Emotional Development:
-​ Menopause for women -​ Erikson’s Integrity vs. Despair:
reduced fertility in both Reflection on life
genders. achievements, seeking
●​ Cognitive Development fulfillment, or facing regrets.
 -​ Social Roles: Grandparenting, Influences on Personality Development
retirement, adjusting to the ●​ Person and situation contribute to
loss of peers and partners. behavior
-​ Emotional Well-being: -​ We don’t act the same way in
Increased emotional stability; all situations
older adults often prioritize -​ “How does a situation influence
meaningful relationships and our behavior as well as how
activities. our behavior reflects oneself?”
●​ Culture and personality
End-of-Life Development -​ Individualist vs Collectivist
●​ Physical and Cognitive Changes -​ Monochromic vs polychromic
-​ Final physical decline, possibly ●​ Heredity vs environment
dementia or other age-related -​ The strict biological (nature)
illnesses. position states that just as you
●​ Psychosocial Aspects are programmed to grow at a
-​ Preparation for Death: certain height, you are
Acceptance and preparation predisposed to become shy,
for the end of life, both sociable, smart, athletic,
personal and with family cheerful, or depressed —
support. according to your genetic
-​ Grief and Bereavement: Impact blueprint
on family members, stages of -​ The extreme environmental
grief. (nurture) position says that
●​ Cultural Perspectives on Death your fate is shaped by life
-​ How different cultures view experience the way the hands
death, dying rituals, and of a sculpture mold clay.
support for the elderly and
grieving. Universal Human Principles
●​ Big five personality factor
-​ One of the leading theories of
Chapter 8: “normal” personality
Personality -​ “Dimensions”
-​ A pattern of relatively permanent +​ Openness to new
traits, dispositions, or characteristics experiences
that give some measure of +​ Conscientiousness
consistency to a person’s behavior +​ Extraversion
over and across situations +​ Agreeableness
-​ Traits may be unique, common to +​ Neuroticism
some group, or shared by the entire ●​ Psychoanalytic theory
species, but their pattern is different -​ We are not even the masters
for each individual of our own minds but are
driven by many powerful
 unconscious processes changed to deal with a
(wishes, fears, beliefs, new object or situation
conflicts, emotions, memories) +​ Sensorimotor development
of which we are totally (0-2 YO)
unaware -​ The coordination of the
-​ The unconscious disguises the senses with motor
meaning of the material it responses and sensory
holds, the content of the curiosity of the world.
unconscious cannot be The language used for
observed directly much of our demands and
personality is determined by cataloging. Object
our unconscious permanence is
-​ Different defense mechanisms: developed
+​ Regression +​ Preoperational (2-7 YO)
+​ Action formation -​ Symbolic thinking is
+​ Projection the use of proper
+​ Rationalization syntax and grammar
+​ Displacement to express concepts.
+​ Denial Imagination and
●​ Cognitive Development intuition are strong,
-​ Explains how a child but complex abstract
constructs a mental model of thoughts are still
the world difficult. Conservation
-​ Occurs due to biological is developed
maturation and interaction +​ Concrete Operational (7-11 YO)
with the environment -​ Attached to concrete
-​ A development from an infant situations. Time, space,
to someone can reason and and quantity are
think hypothetically understood and can be
●​ Assimilation applied, but not as
-​ Using an existing independent concepts
schema to deal with a +​ Formal Operational (11+ YO)
new object or situation; -​ Theoretical,
matching external hypothetical, and
reality to an existing counterfactual
cognitive structure thinking. Abstract logic
●​ Accommodation and reasoning.
-​ Happens when the Strategy and planning
existing schema became possible.
(knowledge) does not Concepts learned in
work and needs to be one context can be
applied to another
 -​ The ability to intuitively
●​ Moral Development understand the feelings and
-​ People pass through a series intentions of others, often
of stages in the evolution of without explicit verbal
their sense of justice and in the communication
kind of reasoning they use to ●​ Kagandahang-loob
make moral judgments -​ Refers to shared humanity and
-​ People pass through the levels compassion, emphasizing the
in a fixed​ order, and they importance of helping others
cannot reach the highest level and being kind
until about age 13—primarily
because of limitations in Ibang Tao
cognitive development before +​ Pakikitungo - civil interaction,
that age characterized by politeness and
+​ Pre-conceptual - Right and respect
wrong are determined by +​ Pakikisalamuha - social interaction,
prohibition and punishment. involving casual conversation and
Self-interest orientation small talk
+​ Conventional morality - +​ Pakikilahok - participation in group
Following social norms: activities and shared experiences
interpersonal agreement and +​ Pakikibagay - conformity to social
conformity. Law and order: norms and expectations
authority and social order +​ Pakikisama - getting along with others,
maintaining orientation even if there are differences in opinion
+​ Post-conceptual morality - or background
Social construct orientation Hindi ibang Tao
and consciousness building. +​ Pakikipagpalagayang-loob - building
Universal ethical principles to trust and intimacy
mutual respect +​ Pakikisangkot - joining forces and
working together toward a common
The Filipino Personality goal
Core values +​ Pakikipagkaisa - sharing a sense of
●​ Kapwa unity and belonging
-​ Refers to shared identity,
emphasizing communal
solidarity and treating others Abnormal Psychology
with dignity and respect -​ The study of people who suffer
-​ Plays a crucial role in emotional, mental, and often physical
understanding interpersonal pain, AKA psychopathology
relationships -​ Context of the situation is important to
●​ Pakikiramdam determine if the behavior is normal or
abnormal
 interfering with social life, not
Cultural Relativism dangerous
-​ The view that there are no universal Abnormal
standing or rules for labeling a -​ Behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are
behavior as abnormal, instead they one or more of the following: highly
can only be abnormal relative to unusual for the social context, the
cultural norms source of significant individual
Unusualness distress, significantly interfering with
-​ Behaviors that are deviant or unusual social or occupational functioning,
are considered abnormal, whereas highly dangerous to one’s self or
behaviors that are typical or usual are others
considered normal
Problems Major Psychological Disorders
-​ Many rare behaviors are positive for ●​ Anxiety Disorder
the individual and for society, most -​ Characterized by excessive fear
people would object to labeling such or anxiety that interferes with
behaviors abnormal daily functioning
Distress ●​ Somatic Disorder
-​ Proponents of a distress criterion for -​ This disorder involves physical
abnormality suggest that behaviors symptoms that cannot be fully
should be considered abnormal only if explained by a medical
the individual suffers distress and condition
wishes to get of the behaviors ●​ Dissociative Disorder
The problem of mental illness diagnoses -​ This disorder involves
-​ No biological test is available for any disconnection with thoughts,
types of abnormality people with identity, consciousness, and
“mental illness” present with. When we memory
give a person’s psychological ●​ Depressive and bipolar disorder
symptoms a diagnosis, it is simply a -​ This category includes
label for that set of symptoms disorders that primarily affect
the person’s emotional state
The four Ds of Abnormality ●​ Childhood disorder
●​ Dysfunction -​ These disorders are
●​ Distress specifically diagnosed in
●​ Deviance children and can significantly
●​ Dangerousness impact their development and
functioning
Normal ●​ Schizophrenia
-​ Behaviors, thoughts, and feelings: -​ Disruptions in thought
typical of social context, not processes, perceptions,
distressing to the individual, not emotional responsiveness, and
 social interactiveness mark a hearing each word, the client is
severe mental disorder to respond with the first word
that comes to mind. Jungian
Treatment therapists have often
Psychodynamic therapy developed hypotheses about
-​ The term was used to cover an clients based on the content of
extensive range of therapies, from their associations or the
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis to all amount of time it takes them
subsequent efforts to revise and to respond to certain words.
expand on it. ●​ FREUDIAN “SLIPS”
-​ This therapy covers psychoanalytic -​ Psychodynamic
psychotherapy, neo-Freudian psychotherapists who witness
treatment, and psychodynamic a client’s slips of the tongue
psychotherapy. during a session or who hear
GOAL OF PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY clients’ stories of such events
-​ To make the unconscious conscious. may be able to glimpse the
Helping clients become aware of clients’ underlying intentions.
thoughts, feelings, and other mental ●​ DREAMS
activities that they are unaware of at -​ Psychodynamic
the start of therapy. psychotherapists generally
-​ The word insight captures this believe that our dreams
phenomenon - looking inside oneself communicate unconscious
and noticing something previously material.
unseen. -​ Freud theorized that when we
sleep, our minds convert latent
The existence of the unconscious is one content (the raw thoughts and
of Freud’s most important and enduring feelings of the unconscious) to
contributions to clinical psychology. manifest content (the actual
Accessing the Unconscious plot of the dream as we
●​ Free Association remember it).
-​ A technique in which +​ This process, called
psychodynamic dream work, uses
psychotherapists simply ask symbols to express
clients to say whatever comes wishes, which can
to mind without censoring result in unconscious
themselves at all; client wishes appearing in a
verbalizes any thought that very distorted or
occurs. disguised form.
-​ Word association is a ●​ RESISTANCE
technique used by Jung where -​ Sometimes, when certain
the therapist presents the issues come up during the
client with a list of words. After course of therapy, clients make
 it clear that they “don’t want to clients
go there.” countertransference,
-​ When clients sense that and, generally, they
certain unconscious thoughts strive to minimize it
and feelings are being laid because it involves a
bare too extensively or too reaction to the client
quickly, they feel anxious. That that is unconsciously
anxiety motivates them to distorted by the
create distractions or therapist’s own
obstacles that impede the personal experiences.
exploration of those thoughts
and feelings. Behavior Therapy
●​ DEFENSE MECHANISMS -​ the clinical application of behavioral
-​ Psychodynamic principles, which have theoretical and
psychotherapists believe that experimental roots extending back
by identifying clients’ hundreds of years.
unconscious defense -​ A landmark in the history of
mechanisms and bringing behaviorism is the work of Ivan Pavlov.
them into the clients’ Goal of behavior therapy
awareness, they can improve -​ The primary goal of this therapy is
the quality of their clients’ observable behavior change
lives. -​ The primary behavior of the therapist
●​ Transference in this approach is to help the client
-​ “Generally regarded as the modify maladaptive overt behaviors
most important focus” of -​ This treatment can proceed without
psychodynamic psychotherapy. exploring early childhood experiences,
Transference refers to clients’ unconscious processes, inner conflicts,
tendency to form relationships etc.
with therapists in which they -​ It is not critical to know how a
unconsciously and maladaptive behavior disorder
unrealistically expect the originated; it is enough to know how it
therapist to behave like is being maintained and how it can be
important people from the change
clients’ pasts. Classical Therapy
-​ The “blank screen” role of the ●​ Exposure Therapy
psychodynamic -​ “Facing your fears”
psychotherapist is essential to -​ Used mostly for the treatment
the transference process. of phobias
-​ Psychodynamic -​ When the client is repeatedly
psychotherapists call “exposed” to the feared object
this transference by and the expected aversive
therapists toward outcome does not take place,
 the client no longer experience resume their natural growth toward
the fear response psychological wellness
Systematic Desensitization Elements
-​ also used primarily for phobias and ●​ Empathy
other anxiety disorders -​ To understand a client’s
-​ Quite similar to exposure therapy - behavior and help the client
exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli understand it, the therapist
is one of its key components - but must try to see the world as
rather than simply breaking the the client sees it.
association between the feared object -​ This involves striving for
and the aversive feeling, systematic accurate empathy or empathic
desensitization involves re-pairing (or understanding.
counterconditioning) the feared object -​ The therapist sees life through
with a new response that is the client’s eyes and adopts
incompatible with anxiety. the client’s frame of reference.
-​ the feared object is paired with a new -​ the term
response that replaces and blocks the client-centered therapy
fear response often used
synonymously with
​ ​ Humanistic Therapy humanistic therapy,
-​ Carl Rogers is the person who reflects this emphasis
pioneered along with Abraham Maslow on empathic
-​ The humanistic approach to understanding
understanding people stood in ●​ Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)
opposition to the biologically based, -​ essentially, full acceptance of
id-dominated, cynical Freudian view. another person “no matter
-​ Humanists assume that people have what.”
an inborn tendency to grow called -​ Kit allows clients to grow in a
“self-actualization” purely self-directed way, with
-​ People need “positive regard” –its POV no need for concern about
is essentially the warmth, love, and losing the respect or
acceptance around acceptance of the other
The goal of humanistic therapy person.
-​ To foster self-actualization -​ creates an environment that
-​ Depression and most other forms of allows clients the freedom to
psychopathology are the by-products be themselves.
of a stifled growth process (growth ●​ Genuineness
has been interrupted or disrupted) -​ Humanistic therapists must,
-​ The therapist task is through the therefore, be genuine in their
therapeutic relationship, to create a relationships with clients.
climate in which the clients can
Interpersonal Therapy
 -​ Its root term from psychodynamic -​ newer class of antidepressants
approaches -​ generally as effective as the
-​ Improve current relationships tricyclics but have significantly
-​ Here and now fewer side effects and are
-​ Typically last from 12 to 16 weeks safer in overdosage
-​ The first SSRI on the market
Group therapy, family therapy, and self-help was fluoxetine (Prozac)
groups -​ newer agents are citalopram
(Celexa), escitalopram
(Lexapro), fluvoxamine (Luvox),
​ Anti-depressant drugs paroxetine (Paxil), and
●​ MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS sertraline (Zoloft)
-​ iproniazid: accidental
discovery; TB px less ATYPICAL ANTIDEPRESSANTS
concerned with their disorder -​ a blocker of dopamine and
-​ increases the levels of norepinephrine reuptake, and it
monoamines (serotonin & is also a blocker of nicotinic
norepinephrine); inhibiting the acetylcholine receptors
activity of the monoamine ●​ Bupropion (Wellbutrin): This atypical
oxidase enzyme that breaks antidepressant is often used for
down monoamine NTs in the depression and smoking cessation. The
neuron price range for a month's supply can
●​ Tricyclic Antidepressants be around PHP 800 to PHP 1,500.
-​ considered “dirty” drugs in that ●​ Mirtazapine (Remeron): This atypical
they react with a number of antidepressant is known for its
receptors besides the one sedative properties. The price range
responsible for the therapeutic for a month's supply can be around
effect, resulting in a host of PHP 800 to PHP 1,200.
side effects
-​ Their chemical structures ANTIDEPRESSANTS
include three rings of atoms ●​ SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake
(DA, NE, 5-HT) Inhibitors):
-​ imipramine, the first tricyclic -​ Sertraline (Zoloft): This is a
antidepressant originally an widely available and
antipsychotic drug blocks the commonly prescribed SSRI.
reuptake of both serotonin and The price range for a month's
norepinephrine, thus supply can vary from PHP 500
increasing their levels of the to PHP 1,500.
brain -​ Fluoxetine (Prozac): Another
-​ safer alternative to MAOIs popular SSRI, the price range
●​ SELECTIVE SEROTONIN REUPTAKE for a month's supply can be
INHIBITORS similar to Sertraline.
 -​ Venlafaxine (Effexor XR): This Mood Stabilizers
SNRI is commonly used to ●​ Lithium Carbonate: Used to manage
treat depression and anxiety. mania and prevent mood swings
The price range for a month's ●​ Valproate (e.g., Depakote): Effective for
supply can be around PHP manic episode.
1,000 to PHP 2,000. ●​ Antipsychotics Quetiapine (e.g.,
Seroquel): Commonly prescribed for
BIPOLAR DRUG TREATMENT bipolar depression Olanzapine (e.g.,
●​ Lithium Zyprexa): Effective for manic episodes
-​ stabilizes mood, preventing a ●​ Risperidone (e.g., Risperdal): Used in
relapse into either mania or both manic and depressive episodes
depression reducing the depending on the medication
intensity and duration of both ●​ Anticonvulsants Lamotrigine (e.g.,
manic and depressive episodes Lamictal): Helpful for depressive
-​ dose must be regulated episodes and mood stabilization
carefully, as a low dose is
ineffective and a high dose is ANXIOLYTIC DRUGS
toxic ●​ Benzodiazepines
-​ hippocampus forms new -​ chlordiazepoxide (marketed as
neurons throughout life, and Librium) and diazepam
some of those that form in (marketed as Valium) are
bipolar patients are widely prescribed for the
hyperexcitable treatment of anxiety disorders
●​ Anticonvulsants -​ most widely prescribed
-​ carbamazepine (tegretol), psychoactive drugs; should be
valproic acid depakote), and prescribed for only short-term
lamotrigine (lamictal) use
-​ valproic acid: first-line for ●​ Buspirone
mania & rapid cycling -​ atypical anxiolytic produces
-​ carbamazepine: second-line for anxiolytic (antianxiety) effects
mania; first-line for mixed without producing ataxia,
episodes muscle relaxation, and
-​ lamotrigine is approved for sedation, the common side
acute and maintenance effects of the benzodiazepines
therapy and is generally ●​ Alprazolam, Diazepam, Clonazepam
considered a first-line agent -​ Short-term management of
for the treatment of bipolar acute anxiety symptoms or
depression panic disorders.
- second-line agent for rapid ●​ Escitalopram, Sertraline, Paroxetine
cycling -​ Long-term management of
anxiety disorders due to their
In the Philippines
 delayed onset but reduced risk -​ we change our attitudes due
of dependence to: (1) message source:
●​ Non-sedating and non-habit-forming; expertise and trustworthiness
often used for generalized anxiety of a communicator are related
disorder (GAD). to the impact of a message (2)
characteristics of the message:
1st generation what the message is like that
-​ chlorpromazine (thorazine): accidental affects attitudes (3)
discovery; sedative phenothiazines: characteristics of the target:
haloperidol, fluphenazine, loxapine, etc may determine whether the
2nd generation message will be accepted
-​ effective for both positive and negative
symptoms clozapine olanzapine, Routes to Persuasion
quetiapine, risperidone ●​ Central route: when the recipient
thoughtfully considers the issues and
Other forms of treatment arguments involved in persuasion
●​ Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) -​ Use of logic, merit, and
●​ High-intensity light therapy strength of argument
●​ Diet and Exercise ●​ Peripheral route: when people are
●​ Psychotherapy persuaded based on factors unrelated
to the nature or quality of the content
of a persuasive message
-​ factors that are irrelevant or
extraneous to the issue, such
Social Psychology as who is providing the
message, how long the
-​ it examines how the nature of arguments are, or the
situations in which we find ourselves emotional appeal of the
influences our behavior in important arguments, influence them
ways
-​ study how we are influenced by the Attitude & behavior
presence of and interactions with one -​ Attitudes influence behavior
another -​ The strength of the link between the
two varies
Attitudes & Cognitions -​ Ideally, there should be consistency
●​ Persuasion between the two
-​ process of changing attitudes, -​ Generally, people hold consistent
one of the central concepts of attitudes
social psychology -​ You would probably not hold the
-​ attitudes are the evaluation of attitude that eating meat is immoral
a particular person, behavior, and still has a positive attitude toward
belief, or concept hamburgers
 -​ A phenomenon in which an
Cognitive Dissonance initial understanding that a
-​ Psychological tension occurs when a person has positive traits is
person holds two contradictory used to infer other uniformly
attitudes or thoughts (referred to as positive characteristics
cognitions) ●​ Assumed-Similarity Bias
-​ Explains many everyday events -​ to think of people as being
involving attitudes and behavior similar to oneself, even when
meeting them for the first
Social Cognition time
-​ study of how we perceive, store, and ●​ Self-Serving Bias
retrieve information about our social -​ tendency to attribute success
interactions to personal factors (skill,
-​ Learning how we come to understand ability, or effort) and attribute
what others are like and how we failure to factors outside
explain the reasons underlying others’ oneself
behavior ●​ Fundamental attribution Error
-​ Cognitive process by which people -​ overattribute others' behavior
understand and make sense of others to dispositional causes and the
and themselves corresponding failure to
-​ Making judgments about others based recognize the importance of
on our perceptions of who they are situational causes
-​ We interact with these people, we
must adjust our judgments to explain Social Influence & Groups
their behavior and ours
Social Influence

Attribution Theory
-​ process by which the actions of an
-​ explain how we understand the causes
individual or group affect the behavior
of behavior, particularly with respect
of others
to situational or dispositional factors
-​ Groups develop and hold norms and
●​ Situational
expectations regarding behavior
-​ brought about by something in
appropriate to the group
the environment; the situation
-​ Not adhering to group norms can
requires a person to behave in
result in retaliation from other group
a particular way
members
●​ Dispositional
-​ People conform to meet the
-​ prompted by the person’s
expectations of the group
disposition; internal traits,
personal characteristics Social Pressure

Attribution Errors ●​ Conformity

●​ Hallo Effect
 -​ change in behavior or attitudes -​ Collection of people who interact,
brought about by a desire to share common goals and influence
follow the beliefs or standards how members think and act
of other people -​ Members of a group are
-​ social pressure is subtle or interdependent, have shared goals,
unspoken and communicate with one another
●​ Compliance -​ People who congregate but do not
-​ explicit pressure to endorse a interact are not considered a group
particular point of view or but rather an aggregate
behave in a certain way -​ Interaction is the key factor in forming
-​ social pressure is direct a group
●​ Obedience -​ interdependence: any action by one
-​ change in behavior in response member will affect or influence the
to the commands of others other members
-​ communication: directed outward as a
Compliance Techniques declaration of group membership; is
internal, intended for group members
●​ Foot-in-the-Door Technique
to discuss group activities and share
-​ you ask a person to agree to a
common experiences
small request and later ask
-​ Shared goals: become interdependent
that person to comply with a
because they
more important one
-​ share common goals; perform tasks or
●​ Door-in-the-Face Technique
to organize activities that no individual
-​ someone makes a large
could handle alone
request, expecting it to be
refused, and follows it with a
smaller one
●​ That’s-not-all Technique How groups are held together
-​ immediately after an initial
offer at an inflated price, you ●​ Norms
are offered an incentive to -​ unwritten rules that govern
clinch the deal the behavior and attitudes of
●​ Not-so-free Sample technique group members
-​ you feel the need to ●​ Ideology
reciprocate when given a free -​ members must share the
sample, so you are more likely same values
to purchase the product ●​ Commitment
-​ requirement of personal
sacrifice

Groups Type of Groups

●​ In-group
 -​ members identify with their -​ A set of generalized beliefs and
group expectations about a specific group
●​ Out-group and its members
-​ everyone who is not a member -​ A set of assumptions about an
of the in-group identifiable group of people
-​ members of the out-group will -​ May be negative or positive: grew out
be rejected by and could be of our tendency to categorize and
hostile to the in-group organize the vast amount of
information we encounter in our
Group Interaction everyday lives

-​ Each group member has certain Prejudice

unique abilities and interests and the
group has different tasks that need to -​ stereotypes can lead to prejudice, a
be performed negative
-​ A role is behavior expected of an -​ (or positive) evaluation of a group and
individual because of his or her its members
membership in a particular group -​ Racial, religious, ethnic groups are
common prejudice people have
Group Polarization -​ People who on the surface appear to
be unprejudiced may harbor hidden
-​ if you discuss an opinion with a group
this
of people and a majority of the
members argue for one side of the Discrimination
issue, the discussion typically pushes
the majority to a more extreme view -​ acting on negative stereotypes
than they held before the discussion -​ Behavior directed toward individuals
on the basis of their membership in a
GroupThink particular group
-​ This can lead to exclusion from jobs,
-​ They emphasize sticking together and
neighborhoods, and educational
fail to appraise alternative courses of
opportunities, and it may result in
action
lower salaries and benefits for
-​ They do not make the best decisions
members of specific groups
-​ They may refrain from criticizing one
-​ Self-fulfilling prophecies are
another, and they may not discuss
expectations about the occurrence of a
opposing viewpoints or evaluate the
future event or behavior that act to
situation critically
increase the likelihood that the event
or behavior will occur

Stereotypes

Interpersonal Attraction
 ●​ Proximity
-​ the closer you are to people
(geographically), it's highly
likely that you will be attracted
to them
●​ Mere Exposure
-​ repeated exposure to a person
is often sufficient to produce
attraction
●​ Similarity
-​ the more similar others are,
the more we like them
●​ Physical Attractiveness
-​ people with this trait are more
popular than are physically
unattractive ones, if all other
factors are equal

Love

●​ Passionate
-​ a state of intense absorption in
someone. it includes intense
physiological arousal,
psychological interest, and
caring for the needs of another
●​ Compassionate
-​ Strong affection we have for
those with whom our lives are
deeply involved