Human respiratory

system
Respiratory system- functions to supply
oxygen for the metabolic needs of the
cells and to remove one of the waste
materials of cellular metabolism, carbon
dioxide
External respiration- absorption of oxygen
and removal of carbon dioxide from the
lungs
Internal respiration- gaseous exchange
between the cells of the body and their
fluid medium
Parts
Nose- filters substances through vibrissae
and air currents
Paranasal Sinuses
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
 NOSE
-septal cartilage- anterior part of nasal septum
-lateral cartilage- winglike expansion
-alar cartilage- U- shaped and are located on the
sides of the nose
-anterior nares or nostril- external opening of the
nasal cavity
-mucous membranes-filter out bacteria and dust
particles- air must be warmed for tissue lining
to function properly
-vibrissae- nose hair
During breathing, air enters the
nose by passing through the
nostrils/ external nares. The
olfactory receptors for the
sense of smell are located in the
mucosa in the slitlike superior
part of the nasal cavity, just
beneath the ethmoid bone. The
rest of respiratory mucosa that
rest on veins warms the air as it
flows.
The sticky mucus produced by the
mucosa’s gland moistens air and traps
incoming bacteria and other foreign
debris. The ciliated cells of the nasal
mucosa moves contaminated mucus
toward the throat where it is swallowed
and digested by stomach juices. When
temp is cold, cilia becomes sluggish
allowing mucus to accumulate and
dribble outside as runny nose.
 Paranasal Sinuses-air-containing spaces
communicating with nasal cavity and lined
with mucous membranes
-lighten the bone of the skull; provide mucous
for nasal cavity and act as resonant chambers
for production of sound
a. Maxillary-largest
b. Frontal
c. Ethmoid
d. sphenoid
 Pharynx-musculomembranous tube;13 cm
or 5 inches
-commonly known as throat
-serves as passage for respiratory and
digestive systems
- Assumes function in the formation of
sound particularly in creation of vowels
-air enters the nasopharynx from the nasal
cavity and then descends through the
oropharynx and laryngopharynx to enter
the larynx below
Pharyngotympanic tubes w/c drains the
middle ear, open into the nasopharynx.
Mucosa of these two regions are
continuous, thus otitis media may follow
sore throat or pharyngeal infection.
Tonsils- cluster of lymphatic tissue in
pharynx
a. Pharyngeal tonsils or adenoid- located
in nasopharynx
b. Palatine tonsils- in oropharynx at the
end of soft palate
c. Lingual tonsils- at base of the tongue
 Larynx- commonly voice box
-routes air and food into the proper channels
and plays a role in speech
-Consist of nine cartilages united by intrinsic
and extrinsic muscles
a. Thyroid-unpaired, largest; Adam’s apple
b. Cricoid-
c. Epiglottic
d. Arytenoid- paired
e. Cuneiform
f. Corniculate
Epiglottis- “guardian of the airways”
protect superior opening of the
larynx

When we swallow food or fluids,

larynx is pulled upward and
epiglottis tips forming a lid over the
opening of the larynx. This route the
food into the esophagus.
Cough reflex- expel substance that
enters the larynx to prevent from entering
the lungs

Vocal folds or true vocal cords- part of

the mucous membrane of larynx which
vibrate with expelled air allowing us to
speak

Glottis- slitlike passage way between the

vocal folds
 Trachea- windpipe
- 10-12 cm or 4-5 inches long to the level of the
5th thoracic vertebra
- Made of c – shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
- The open parts of the ring abut the esophagus
and allow it to expand anteriorly when we
swallow a large piece of food.
- The ring part support the trachea walls and
keep it patent or open in spite of pressure
changes during breathing
- Tracheal cilia beat in opposite direction to
incoming air to propel mucus loaded w/ debris
Primary or main Bronchi- right is straighter,
shorter and wider and takes more vertical
course than the left

- Primary bronchus divides into secondary or

lobar bronchi and again divides into tertiary
or segmented bronchus the into terminal
bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles

- By the time incoming air reaches the

bronchi, it is warm, cleansed of impurities
and well humudified
 Lungs- right bigger than left
-Cupula/ apex- part of lung above the clavicle
-mediastinum- space in the center of chest
and between 2 pleural cavities housing heart
- hilum-slit in each lung where bronchi and
pulmonary arteries enter
- base- broad lung area resting on the diaphragm
-right lung divided by oblique and horizontal
fissures into superior, middle and inferior
- left lung divided by oblique into superior and
inferior
Pulmonary or visceral pleura- visceral serosa
that covers the surface of the lungs
Parietal pleura- lines the walls of the visceral
cavity
Pleural fluid- slippery serous secretion
produced by pleural membranes which allows
lung to glide over the thoracic wall during
breathing and causes the pleural layers to
cling together
Surfactant- lipid molecule produced by
cuboidal cells- Coats gas- exposed alveolar
surface
Respiratory Zone:
-Terminal bronchioles
-Alveolar ducts
-Alveolar sacs
-Alveolus- air sacs; site of gas exchange
-wall is consist of single , thin layer of
squamous epithelial
- alveolar pore- connect neighboring air sac &
provide alternate routes for air to reach alveoli
whose feeder bronchioles are clogged
Respiratory Membrane ( air-blood
barrier)- fused basement membrane
of alveolar and capillary walls for gas
exchange
50-70 sq. meters- total gas exchange
surface area that is 40x greater than
skin
Macrophages- dust cells that makes
alveoli’s
final line of defense
-wander in and out of alveoli picking up
bacteria, carbon particles and debris
Four events in respiration:
1. Pulmonary ventilation/ breathing-air move
in and out of lungs are continuously
changed and refreshed
2. External respiration- gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
3. Respiratory Gas transport- Gas are
transported to and from lungs & tissue
cells via blood stream
4. Internal respiration- gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells
Pleural sac- covers the lungs
a. Pulmonary or visceral pleura-
covers the surface of the lung
b. Parietal Pleura- lines the thoracic
cavity

Pleural Fluid- slippery serous

secretions of pleural membranes
that allows lungs to glide easily over
thorax wall during breating
movements
Respiratory or tidal volume- 500 ml
air (1 pint)- move in and out of
lung each breath
Inspiratory reserve volume- amount
of air forcibly taken in over the
tidal volume 2100-3200 ml
Expiratory reserve volume- amount
of air forcibly exhaled after a tidal
expiration 1200ml
Residual volume- amount of air that still
remains in the lungs that can not be
expelled
Vital capacity- total amount of
exchangeable air 4800ml
-equal to TV+ IRV+ERV
Dead space volume-about 150 ml
-amount of air that enters the
respiratory tract that remains in
the conducting zone and never
leaves the alveoli
Respiratory Sounds
Bronchial sounds- are produced by
air rushing through the large
respiratory passages (trachea &
bronchi)
Vesicular breathing sounds- soft,
muffled breeze-like sound as air
fills the alveoli
Oxyhemoglobin-formed as oxygen
attaches to hemoglobin in RBC
Bicarbonate ion- in this form
Carbon dioxide is transported in
plasma
Eupnea- normal respiratory rate of
12-15 respirations/minute
Disorders and diseases
Cleft Palate-
failure of bones
forming palate
to fuse
medially
Sinusitis- sinus inflammation
Tonsilitis-
inflammation of
tonsils due to bacteria
- may lead to
rheumatic heart
disease
Rhinitis-inflammation of nasal
mucosa resulting in nasal
congestion and mucosal drip
Pleurisy- inflammation of the pleura
caused by decreased secretion of
pleural fluid; pleural surface
becomes rough and dry results in
friction and stabbing pain with each
breath
-pleura may also produce excessive
amounts of fluid, exerts pressure in
lungs , hinders breathing movement
but less painful
Pneumothorax-
presence of air in
intrapleural space
which disrupts the
fluid bond between
the pleura
-Reversed by
drawing air out
allowing
lungs to reinflate
Atelectasis- lung collapse; useless
for ventilation
- When air enters the pleural space
through chest wounds resulting in
rupture of visceral pleura
Crackle- bubbling sound due to
mucus or pus production in
respiratory disease
Wheezing- whistling sound due to
constriction of tubes
Hypoxia- inadequate oxygen delivery
to body tissues; skin of fair-skinned
takes a bluish cast (cyanotic)and in
dark-skinned seen in nail beds
and mucosae
-due to anemia, pulmonary dse,
impaired or blocked blood circulation,
carbon monoxide poisoning
Types of lung cancer
1. Squamous cell carcinoma-
arises in the epithelium of larger
bronchi and tend to form
masses that cavitate and bleed
2. Adenocarcinoma-originate in
peripheral areas of lungs as
solitary nodules that develop
from bronchial glands and
alveolar cells
3. Small cell carcinoma- contains
lymphocyte -like cellsthat originate
in primary bronchi and grow
aggressively in cords or small
grape-like structures in
mediastinum
Hyperventilation-rapid and deep breathing
results as carbon dioxide or other acids
begin to accumulate in blood and blood pH
starts to drop
-brought about by anxiety attacks leading to
apnea(cessation of breathing) until CO2
builds up in blood again or cyanosis if
breathing stops for extended period of time
-px may be dizzy and faint because
alkalosis causes cerebral blood vessels to
constrict;px asked to breathe in paper bag.
Because more CO2 upsets the normal
diffusion gradient that causes CO2 to be
unloaded in blood and leave the body thus
CO2 level rises and ending alkalosis
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD)
1. Chronic bronchitis-mucosa of
lower respiratory passages
becomes severely inflamed and
produces excessive amounts of
mucus
- Also called “blue bloaters”-because
hypoxia and CO2 retention occurs,
cyanosis is common
2. Emphysema-alveoli enlarge as the walls of
adjacent chambers break through & chronic
inflammation promotes fibrosis of the lungs
-lungs become less elastic and airways collapse
during expiration
- Patients are called “pink puffers” and use
incredible amount of energy to exhale
Asthma-constriction air passage due to
allergy or temperature change
-chronically inflamed , hypersensitive
bronchial passage
Lower respiratory tract infection
The most common lower respiratory tract
infection in is pneumonia, a lung infection.
Pneumonia is usually caused by bacteria,
particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae
Tuberculosis is an important cause of pneumonia.
Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can
cause pneumonia for example severe acute
respiratory syndrome and pneumocystis
pneumonia. A pneumonia may develop
complications such as a lung abscess, a round
cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may
spread to the pleural cavity.
Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS)
- common in premature infants below 28
weeks or inadequate surfactant
production or diabetic mothers
- Infants have dyspnea and use
tremendous energy to reinflate alveoli
which collapse after each breath
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)-
infants stops breathing and die in their
sleep either due to problem in neural
control, viral infection or heart rhythm
abnormality