Introduction to

INDIAN
KNOWLEDGE
SYSTEM
Concepts and Applications

B. Mahadevan
Vinayak Rajat Bhat
Nagendra Pavana R.N.
 Introduction to
INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
Concepts and Applications

B. MAHADEVAN
Professor
Indian Institute of Management Bangalore

VINAYAK RAJAT BHAT

Associate Professor
Center for Indian Knowledge System
Chanakya University
Bengaluru

NAGENDRA PAVANA R.N.

Assistant Professor
School of Vedic Knowledge Systems
Chinmaya Vishwa Vidyapeeth
Ernakulam

Delhi-110092
2022
` 795.00

INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM: Concepts and Applications

B. Mahadevan, Vinayak Rajat Bhat and Nagendra Pavana R.N.

© 2022 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi.

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 TO
The Great Sages and Saints of Ancient India and the lineage of
Gurus who self lessly contributed to the IKS knowledge repository

|| न हि ज्ञानेन सदृशं पवित्रमिह विद्यते ||

There is nothing as purifying as knowledge
Bhagavad-Gita (4.38
4.38))
 Contents in Brief

Foreword by Anil Sahasrabudhe......................................................................................................................................xv

Foreword by Subhash Kak................................................................................................................................................ xvii
Foreword by S. Sadagopan............................................................................................................................................... xix
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................................................................xxvii
Guide to Transliteration Symbols Used in the Book ........................................................................................... xxix

Part 1: Indian Knowledge System – An Introduction

1. Indian Knowledge System – An Overview.....................................................................................................3
2. The Vedic Corpus................................................................................................................................................... 27
3. Philosophical Systems......................................................................................................................................... 54
4. Wisdom through the Ages................................................................................................................................. 81

Part 2: Foundational Concepts for Science and Technology

5. Linguistics............................................................................................................................................................. 113
6. Number System and Units of Measurement........................................................................................... 139
7. Knowledge: Framework and Classification............................................................................................ 161

Part 3: Science, Engineering and Technology in IKS

8. Mathematics......................................................................................................................................................... 191
9. Astronomy............................................................................................................................................................. 221
10. Engineering and Technology: Metals and Metalworking.................................................................. 252
11. Engineering and Technology: Other Applications............................................................................... 282
12. Town Planning and Architecture................................................................................................................. 309

Part 4: Humanities and Social Sciences in IKS

13. Health, Wellness and Psychology................................................................................................................ 339
14. Governance and Public Administration.................................................................................................... 376
Glossary................................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Index......................................................................................................................................................................................... 413
 Contents

Foreword by Anil Sahasrabudhe......................................................................................................................................xv

Foreword by Subhash Kak................................................................................................................................................ xvii
Foreword by S. Sadagopan............................................................................................................................................... xix
Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................................................................xxvii
Guide to Transliteration Symbols Used in the Book ........................................................................................... xxix

Part 1
Indian Knowledge System – An Introduction
1. Indian Knowledge System – An Overview....................................................................................3
Learning Outcomes 3
IKS in Action 1.1: Do We Need Indian Knowledge System? 4
1.1 Importance of Ancient Knowledge 6
1.2 Defining Indian Knowledge System 8
1.3 The IKS Corpus – A Classification Framework 9
1.4 Caturdaśa-Vidyāsthāna 13
IKS in Action 1.2: Caturdaśa-Vidyāsthāna and the Income Tax Act, 1961 16
1.5 Historicity of IKS 16
1.6 Some Unique Aspects of IKS 19
1.6.1 Nuances of an Oral Tradition 19
1.6.2 Typical Presentation Style – Sūtras, Encryptions 20
1.7 Organisation of the Book 21
Summary 23
Review Questions 23
Discover IKS 24
Suggested Readings 24
Endnotes 25

2. The Vedic Corpus............................................................................................................................... 27

Learning Outcomes 27
IKS in Action 2.1: Yajña and Project Management 28
2.1 Introduction to Vedas 28
2.2 The Four Vedas 30
viii Contents

2.3 The Four Divisions of Each Veda 33

2.4 Vedāṅgas 38
2.4.1 Śikṣā 39
2.4.2 Vyākaraṇa 40
2.4.3 Nirukta 40
2.4.4 Chandas 42
2.4.5 Kalpa 43
2.4.6 Jyotiṣa 45
IKS in Action 2.2: Pañca-mahā-yajña 47
2.5 Vedic Life: Distinctive Features 47
Summary 49
Review Questions 49
Discover IKS 50
Suggested Readings 51
Endnotes 52

3. Philosophical Systems..................................................................................................................... 54
Learning Outcomes 54
IKS in Action 3.1: Father – Son Conversation in Taittirīya-upaniṣad 55
3.1 Indian Philosophical Systems – Development and Unique Features 56
3.2 Vedic Schools of Philosophy 58
3.3 Sāṃkhya and Yoga Schools of Philosophy 59
3.3.1 Sāṃkhya-darśana 59
3.3.2 Yoga-darśana 61
3.4 Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika Schools of Philosophy 63
3.4.1 Nyāya-darśana 63
3.4.2 Vaiśeṣika-darśana 64
3.5 Pūrva-mīmāṃsā and Vedānta Schools of Philosophy 65
3.5.1 Pūrva-mīmāṃsā-darśana 65
3.5.2 Vedānta (Uttara-mīmāṃsā-darśana) 67
3.6 Non-Vedic Philosophical Systems 70
3.6.1 Jaina School of Philosophy 70
3.6.2 Bauddha School of Philosophy 72
3.6.3 Cārvāka School 75
Summary 77
Review Questions 78
Discover IKS 78
Suggested Readings 79
Endnotes 79

4. Wisdom through the Ages.............................................................................................................. 81

Learning Outcomes 81
IKS in Action 4.1: Pañcatantra – A Treatise on Statecraft through Stories 82
4.1 Purāṇas – An Encyclopaedic Work 83
 Contents ix

4.1.1 Mahā-purāṇas, Upa-purāṇas and Sthala-purāṇas 84

4.1.2 Contents of the Purāṇas 85
4.1.3 Issues of Interest in the Purāṇas 86
4.2 Itihāsa as a Source of Wisdom 91
4.2.1 Uniqueness of the Two Epics 92
4.3 Rāmāyaṇa – Key Issues and Messages 93
4.4 Mahābhārata – A Sourcebook for Worldly Wisdom 95
4.5 Nīti-śāstras – Collection of Snippets of Wisdom 99
4.6 Subhāṣitas – A Collection of Insights from Various Texts 101
Summary 104
Review Questions 105
Discover IKS 105
Suggested Readings 105
Endnotes 106

Part 2
Foundational Concepts for Science and Technology
5. Linguistics..........................................................................................................................................113
Learning Outcomes 113
IKS in Action 5.1: An Ecosystem for Sanskrit Language Processing 114
5.1 Components of a Language 115
5.2 Pāṇini’s Work on Sanskrit Grammar 116
5.3 Phonetics in Sanskrit 117
IKS in Action 5.2: Four Stages of Speech 120
5.4 Patterns in Sanskrit Vocabulary 120
5.5 Computational Concepts in Aṣṭādhyāyī 122
5.6 Logic for Sentence Construction 128
5.7 Importance of Verbs 131
5.8 Role of Sanskrit in Natural Language Processing 132
Summary 134
Review Questions 135
Discover IKS 136
Suggested Readings 136
Endnotes 137

6. Number System and Units of Measurement...........................................................................139

Learning Outcomes 139
IKS in Action 6.1: Gautama-Buddha on Number System 140
6.1 Number System in India – Historical Evidence 141
6.2 Salient Features of the Indian Numeral System 142
6.2.1 The Concept of Zero and its Importance 143
6.2.2 Large Numbers and Their Representation 143
6.2.3 Place Value of Numerals 144
6.2.4 Decimal System 146
x Contents

6.3 Unique Approaches to Represent Numbers 146

6.3.1 Bhūta-saṃkhyā System 146
6.3.2 Kaṭapayādi System 148
6.4 Measurements for Time, Distance, and Weight 150
IKS in Action 6.2: Measurement of Time – An Illustration from Purāṇa 154
6.5 Piṅgala and the Binary System 154
Summary 157
Review Questions 157
Discover IKS 158
Suggested Readings 159
Endnotes 159

7. Knowledge: Framework and Classification............................................................................161

Learning Outcomes 161
IKS in Action 7.1: Tarka: The Indian Art of Debate 162
7.1 The Knowledge Triangle 163
7.2 Prameya – A Vaiśeṣikan Approach to Physical Reality 165
7.2.1 Dravyas – The Constituents of the Physical Reality 167
7.2.2 Attributes – The Properties of Substances 170
7.2.3 Action – The Driver of Conjunction and Disjunction 170
IKS in Action 7.2: Vaiśeṣikan Worldview of ‘Existence’ 171
7.3 Pramāṇa – The Means of Valid Knowledge 173
7.4 Saṃśaya – Ambiguities in Existing Knowledge 176
7.5 Framework for Establishing Valid Knowledge 178
7.5.1 Deductive/Inductive Logic Framework 181
7.5.2 Potential Fallacies in the Reasoning Process 182
7.5.3 Established Tenets in a Field of Study 183
Summary 184
Review Questions 185
Discover IKS 186
Suggested Readings 186
Endnotes 187
Part 3
Science, Engineering and Technology in IKS
8. Mathematics......................................................................................................................................191
Learning Outcomes 191
IKS in Action 8.1: Ancient Indians: Tryst with Mathematics 192
8.1 Unique Aspects of Indian Mathematics 193
8.2 Great Mathematicians and their Contributions 194
8.3 Arithmetic 194
8.3.1 Square of a Number 197
8.3.2 Square Root 199
8.3.3 Series and Progressions 200
 Contents xi

IKS in Action 8.2: Square Root of Imperfect Squares 201

8.4 Geometry 204
8.4.1 Property of Right-angled Triangle in Śulba-sūtras 204
IKS in Action 8.3: Fun and Practicality in Indian Mathematics 205
8.4.2 The Value of p 206
8.5 Trigonometry 207
8.6 Algebra 209
8.7 Binary Mathematics and Combinatorial Problems in
Chandaḥ-śāstra of Piṅgala (300 BCE) 210
8.8 Magic Squares in India 214
Summary 217
Review Questions 217
Exercise Problems 218
Discover IKS 218
Suggested Readings 219
Endnotes 220

9. Astronomy.........................................................................................................................................221
Learning Outcomes 221
IKS in Action 9.1:Astronomical Gifts from the King of Benares to the Prince of
Wales in 1876 222
9.1 Unique Aspects of Indian Astronomy 223
9.2 Historical Development of Astronomy in India 224
9.3 The Celestial Coordinate System 227
9.4 Elements of the Indian Calendar 230
9.5 Āryabhaṭīya and the Siddhāntic Tradition 234
9.6 Pañcāṅga – The Indian Calendar System 237
9.7 Astronomical Instruments (Yantras) 241
9.8 Jantar Mantar of Rājā Jai Singh Sawai 244
Summary 247
Review Questions 248
Discover IKS 248
Suggested Readings 249
Endnotes 250

10. Engineering and Technology: Metals and Metalworking...................................................252

Learning Outcomes 252
IKS in Action 10.1: Wootz Steel: The Rise and Fall of a Great Indian Technology 253
10.1 The Indian S & T Heritage 254
10.2 Mining and Ore Extraction 255
10.3 Metals and Metalworking Technology 257
10.3.1 Gold Extraction Process 258
10.3.2 Zinc Production 259
10.3.3 Copper Mining and Extraction Process 260
xii Contents

10.3.4 Copper Alloys 263

10.3.5 Mercury 264
10.3.6 Lead and Silver 264
10.4 Iron and Steel in India 265
10.4.1 Extraction of Iron from Biotite by Āyurvedic Method 270
10.4.2 Manufacture of Steel 271
10.5 Lost Wax Casting of Idols and Artefacts 272
10.6 Apparatuses Used for Extraction of Metallic Components 273
Summary 276
Review Questions 276
Discover IKS 277
Suggested Readings 277
Endnotes 278

11. Engineering and Technology: Other Applications...............................................................282

Learning Outcomes 282
IKS in Action 11.1: Irrigation Systems and Practices in South India 283
11.1 Literary Sources for Science and Technology 284
11.2 Physical Structures in India 287
11.3 Irrigation and Water Management 292
11.4 Dyes and Painting Technology 294
IKS in Action 11.2: The Art of Making Perfumes 295
11.5 Surgical Techniques 296
11.6 Shipbuilding 299
IKS in Action 11.3: Surgical Procedure for Piles 300
11.7 Sixty-four Art Forms (64 Kalās) 302
11.8 Status of Indigenous S & T 303
Summary 305
Review Questions 305
Discover IKS 306
Suggested Readings 306
Endnotes 307

12. Town Planning and Architecture...............................................................................................309

Learning Outcomes 309
IKS in Action 12.1: Arthaśāstra on Town Planning 310
12.1 Indian Architecture – A Historical Perspective 311
12.2 Vāstu-śāstra – The Science of Architecture 313
12.2.1 Literary Sources 314
12.3 Vāstu-puruṣa-maṇḍala 316
12.4 Eight Limbs of Vāstu 318
12.5 Town Planning 321
12.5.1 Alternative Designs for Town Planning 323
12.6 Unitary Buildings 325
 Contents xiii

12.7 Temple Architecture 327

IKS in Action 12.2: Temples in India: Marvellous Stone Architecture for Eternity 328
Summary 330
Review Questions 331
Discover IKS 331
Suggested Readings 332
Endnotes 333
Part 4
Humanities and Social Sciences in IKS
13. Health, Wellness and Psychology...............................................................................................339
Learning Outcomes 339
IKS in Action 13.1: Impact of Yoga Way of Life on Emotional Intelligence of Managers 340
13.1 Āyurveda – Definition of Health 341
13.2 Tri-doṣas – Relationship to Health 345
IKS in Action 13.2: Dinacaryā: Daily Regimen for Health and Wellness 348
13.3 Disease Management 349
13.3.1 Diagnostic Techniques 349
13.3.2 Sleep and Food – Importance to Health 350
13.3.3 Drugs and Physical Therapy 352
13.4 Yoga Way of Life – Relevance to Health and Wellness 353
13.5 Indian Approach to Psychology 357
13.6 The Tri-guṇa System 359
13.7 The Body–Mind–Intellect–Consciousness Complex 362
13.8 Consciousness – The True Nature of an Individual 363
13.9 Consciousness Studies – Issues 366
IKS in Action 13.3: The Five Layered Consciousness of an Individual 367
Summary 369
Review Questions 369
Discover IKS 370
Suggested Readings 371
Endnotes 372

14. Governance and Public Administration...................................................................................376

Learning Outcomes 376
IKS in Action 14.1: Rāmāyaṇa on Great Attributes, Dos, and Don’ts of a King 377
14.1 Arthaśāstra – Governance and Administration 379
14.2 The Kauṭilyan State 381
14.2.1 The King 383
IKS in Action 14.2: Vidura-nīti – Advice to a King 384
14.2.2 The Amātya 385
14.2.3 Settlements and Land Use (Janapada) 385
14.2.4 Fortified Capital City (Durga) 386
14.2.5 Treasury and the State Economy (Kośa) 387
xiv Contents

14.2.6 Law and Order and Security (Daṇḍa) 390

14.2.7 Foreign Policy and Allies (Mitra) 392
14.3 The Administrative Set-up 394
14.4 Relevance of Arthaśāstra 396
14.5 Public Administration – Perspectives from the Epics 398
Summary 401
Review Questions 402
Discover IKS 403
Suggested Readings 403
Endnotes 404

Glossary............................................................................................................................................................ 409
Index................................................................................................................................................................... 413
 Foreword
by Anil Sahasrabudhe
The formal Indian education system inherited from British policymakers famously known as
Macaulian system has kept the Ancient Indian knowledge heritage out of the reach of the budding
young students, citing reasons of lack of rigor and scientific value. This is arguably an incorrect
perspective. However, truth is otherwise. Ours is one of the only continuing, surviving ancient
civilization with huge repository of knowledge created by the forefathers, which can provide great
value for any society. It enables the current generation to understand the thought processes and
frameworks, analyse the received wisdom in a contemporary context and provide new opportunities
to assimilate the accrued wisdom and synthesize new knowledge.
Therefore, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), the apex body for technical
education spanning the Engineering and Management Education in India while revising the curricula
in 2018, introduced a mandatory non-credit course on Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) along
with courses on constitution of India and environment science. While there are several books on
the latter courses, unfortunately, there are no textbooks currently available for the subject that
will help students understand the various components of IKS. Hence a textbook for the course on
Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) is a timely and valuable contribution to the education system in
the country and I am happy to note that this book has been written to address the requirements
of this course.
The book has detailed coverage of IKS topics, and the authors have taken the right approach to
balancing the concepts with the applications. I notice extensive endnotes for each chapter that points
to the depth of research the authors have carried out in culling out relevant ideas to the students.
The chapters on Number Systems, Mathematics, and Astronomy truly showcase the scientific rigour
and heritage that was existing in the country. Similarly, the chapters on Metal Working and other
engineering applications will be true eye openers for the young engineering students. Another
interesting feature of this book is the discover IKS exercises at the end of the chapters. This will
provide further opportunities for the students to experientially discover the multi-faceted nature
of IKS.
Although the authors claim that the book was mainly intended for the lKS course in Engineering
institutions, I believe that the book can serve as a useful textbook for any undergraduate or
postgraduate degree programs in the country wanting to introduce an elective course on IKS.
Incidentally, the NEP 2020 does refer to Indian Knowledge Systems couple of times. The book will
therefore be a valuable asset in the context of the New Education Policy (NEP 2020).
I hope the book will motivate professionals and IKS researchers to deep dive into each chapter
and write a separate textbook based on each chapter.

(Anil Sahasrabudhe)
 Foreword
by Subhash Kak

It is generally recognized that historical accounts of science in India, the world’s third-
largest economy on a purchasing power parity basis, are woefully inadequate and need to
see beyond the colonial lens. Therefore, I am pleased that this book Introduction to Indian
Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications written by B. Mahadevan, Vinayak Rajat Bhat, and
R.N. Nagendra Pavana will provide the students with an excellent introduction to the astonishing
breadth and depth of the Indian scientific and knowledge tradition.
Ṣāʿid al-Andalusī, writing in Toledo, Spain in 1068 in the Tabaqāt al-‘Umam, comparing
science in different parts of the world declared that India was the most advanced nation: “The
first nation to have cultivated science is India. India is known for the wisdom of its people.”
India appears to have remained ahead of others in science until about the seventeenth century.
India’s sciences are based on fundamental principles, axioms, logical inference, and
empirical observations and were generally written down in texts called śāstras and sūtras.
For example, the Śulba-sūtra geometry includes the so-called “Pythagoras theorem” several
centuries prior to its later discovery in Greece; there is also Pāṇini’s astonishing grammar that
describes the Sanskrit language in 4000 algebraic rules with a structure that is now compared
to a computer program. The logic of Navya Nyāya is equivalent to mathematical logic, which
is the foundation of analysis by modern machines.
Kaṇāda’s physics has its laws of motion, and it speaks of nine classes of substances, some
of which are non-atomic and some atomic. Every substance was taken to be composed of four
different kinds of atoms, two of which had mass and two did not. A thousand or more years
after Kaṇāda, Āryabhaṭa postulated that earth rotated and advanced the basic idea of relativity
of motion. It is fascinating that Kaṇāda’s ideas were communicated by Swami Vivekananda to
Nikola Tesla in connection with the possibility of conversion of mass into energy.
It is generally believed that the discovery of infinite series and calculus by Newton and
Leibniz heralded the Scientific Revolution that was to change the world. But new research
has shown that the Kerala School of Mathematics had already developed calculus over two
centuries prior. Some historians suggest that this advanced astronomical knowledge from
Kerala went abroad via the Jesuits and sparked its further development in Europe.
The ancient Āyurveda texts include the notion of germs and inoculation and postulate mind-
body connection, which has become an important area of contemporary research. Āyurveda
uses tripartite analysis (three doṣas, for example), and since modern logic shows that ternary
logic is more powerful than binary logic, this fact may prove to be an advantage in the further
development of medicine.
xviii Foreword

There are indirect ways that Indian ideas led to scientific advances. Mendeleev was inspired
by the two-dimensional structure of the Sanskrit alphabet to propose a similar two-dimensional
structure of chemical elements. Erwin Schrödinger, a founder of quantum theory, credited ideas
in the Upanishads for the key notion of superposition that was to bring about the quantum
revolution in physics that has transformed modern science. A Vedantic vision guided Jagadish
Chandra Bose in his pathbreaking discoveries in several fields, and he is considered the true
father of radio science which, as we know, heralded a new age.
Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications provides a grand view
of the Indian knowledge tradition, and it goes back to the Vedic texts for its overarching unity.
The book covers various topics across linguistics, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, town
planning, and architecture; it also shows the application of these ideas to health, psychology,
and management. Apart from the careful study of motion, vibratory phenomena, acoustics,
Indian sages studied the transforming power of fire. It was known that lightning bolts had
electricity. Indian technology, which was quite advanced, was used in mechanical devices,
engineering, art, and civil projects.
The phenomenon of consciousness is the frontier from the perspectives of biology
and physics; it is also central to answering whether machines will become conscious. The
Upanishads speak of two kinds of science: one about things and concepts and their mutual
relationships (aparā vidyā); the other about consciousness (parā vidyā). The book will also
serve as an excellent foundation for those who wish to investigate how the Indian tradition
of consciousness science can be harnessed for further scientific advance and the betterment
of the world.

Professor Subhash Kak

Regents Professor
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Oklahoma State University–Stillwater
USA
 Foreword
by S. Sadagopan

I have gone through this book in detail and it has been an enriching, fulfilling and satisfying
experience. The authors have done an outstanding job covering a whole gamut of things, yet
with sufficient depth, to avoid a superficial survey.
The authors have addressed the contributions to Foundational knowledge, Science,
Engineering & Technology, and Humanities & Social Sciences through a structured classification.
IKS (Indian Knowledge System) have evolved over centuries, in fact, over millenniums. It
has a wide range, and the well-known among them being Astronomy, including planetary
movements, solar-centric world, shape and diameter of the Earth; Health and Well-being,
including plants & herbs, surgical procedures; Mathematics and Computing, including the
discovery of zero, decimal system of numerals, and approximation algorithms for computation
of Pi; Languages and Linguistics, including Panini’s Sanskrit grammar; Metallurgy, including
steel-making and zinc-smelting; and Public Administration, including Good Governance and
Taxation.
Thanks to the Royal patronage over centuries, there was a system where scholars could
study IKS throughout their lives without worrying about their daily livelihood. This led to
several Schools of thought, often expounded by several principal works, notably, Brahmasutra
Bhashya by Sankaracharya, Sri Bhashya by Ramanujacharya, Gita Bhashya by Madhwacharya,
Mulamadhyamakarika by Nagarjuna, and Pramana Samucchaya by Dignaga. Several cities and
towns could house thousands of scholars leading to Centres of learning, for example, Kasi in the
North and Kanchi in the South. Institutions of learning, including Nalanda and Takshashila,
paved the way for graduating generations of scholars.
Particular mention must be made of the many texts in IKS that are referred to in the footnotes
at the end of the chapters. For most people, IKS works stop with Ramayana, Mahabharata
and Srimad Bhagavatam; Patanjali’s Yogasutras on Yoga, Sayana’s Sayana Bhashya on Vedas,
Bharata’s Natyasastra on Dance, Kautilya’s Arthasastra on Economics, Vishnu Sharma’s Pancha
Tantra Stories, Sushruta’s Sushruta Samhita on Medicine and Surgery, and more recently
Panini’s Ashtadhyayi on Sanskrit Grammar that caught the attention of Computer Scientists. I
particularly like the references to the less known and equally impactful works like Rasa Ratna
Samuccaya that details complex Metallurgy, Aryabhatiya and Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita on
Astronomy, Shulba Sutras on Geometry, Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya a treatise on Mathematics,
Gautama’s Nyaya Sutra on Logic, Kanada’s Vaiseshika Sutras on Ontology, Narada’s Shilpasastra
on Architecture and Civil Engineering, Mayamuni’s Mayamata (Architecture), Bhoja’s
Yuktikalpataru (Ship-building), and, Kshemasarma’s Kshemakutuhalam on Dietetics and
Well-being.
xx Foreword

Most of these works were set in the Sanskrit language widespread across the country. With
the higher education system switching completely to the English language over the past two
centuries (more so after Indian Independence in 1947 CE), IKS became inaccessible to most
Indians. There has been sporadic interest in the IKS, particularly from Western scholars, in
specific areas, thanks to pioneering efforts of individuals; for example,
♦ Swami Vivekananda and BKS Iyengar – Indian Philosophical Systems and Yoga
♦ Pandit Ravi Shankar and MS Subbalakshmi – North Indian and South Indian Classical
Music
Yet, for most University students in India today, IKS is not in their consideration set!

It is against this backdrop that the study of IKS (Indian Knowledge System) is an idea whose
time has come. I am delighted that AICTE & UGC are making efforts to support scholars and
textbook creators in the IKS domain.

I had a personal brush with reality when I was looking for an authentic and widely available
text of Rig Veda that I realized that the Indian tradition was largely “oral”. I ended up creating
the first-ever digital edition of Rig Veda through the book Rig Veda Samhita, SAKSI, 1998.
This book by Professor Mahadevan et al. is a timely release, particularly in the Post
Covid-19 World, when India plays a leading role in the science of discovering vaccines and
managing distribution and logistics. It makes IKS accessible to a much larger set of readers,
notably University students. The book is interspersed with illustrations and context setting
“action points”. It provides ample opportunities for further exploration through the pointers
for further study that include several authentic works and Websites. I am sure the additional
material provided through the companion website will make the book a place that young
readers will visit multiple times.
Happy reading!

Professor Sadagopan
Chairman, BoG, IIITDM-Kancheepuram
Founder Director, IIIT-Bangalore
 Preface

India is a nation with a long civilizational history with recorded history, cultural artefacts, and
evidence pointing to more than five millennia of existence. Not surprisingly, such a society
would have discovered enormous knowledge cutting across various dimensions of human life
and existence. Despite a continuous onslaught of foreign invasions for more than a millennium,
the knowledge practices have more or less remained intact and have been passed on from
generation to generation ‘orally’. There have also been attempts to record the knowledge
and practices in written form in the last millennium. However, during the last 200 years, this
knowledge has been relegated to the background and the knowledge paradigm of the West has
been imposed on the Indian society. Even after Independence, no concrete efforts were made
to introduce indigenous knowledge in the educational curriculum formally.
However, knowing the thinking patterns and the knowledge repository created by the
forefathers provides great value for any society. It enables the current generation to understand
the thought processes and frameworks, and synthesize new knowledge. Arguably, no society
can hope to flourish by simply severing itself from its past and embracing alternative ideas
alien to the indigenous thoughts and practices. After some time, the need to revisit will be
strongly felt, and the Indian society is currently going through such a phase.
The policymakers and the government have taken cognizance of this and have taken several
steps to address this requirement. One of the steps is to introduce a course on the Indian
Knowledge System (IKS) in higher educational institutions. Unfortunately, we do not have a
textbook to teach this course. This textbook responds to this growing need felt by the Indian
society at large and is primarily intended to facilitate offering a one-semester or two-semester
course on IKS to undergraduate and graduate-level students. This textbook is a culmination of
our efforts to offer a two-semester course on IKS in Chinmaya Vishwavidyapeeth, Ernakulam.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

This book seeks to fill in the gap for offering a required course on IKS, recently mandated by
AICTE. The proposed textbook seeks to introduce the epistemology and ontology of IKS to
the Engineering and Science students in a way they can relate, appreciate and explore further
should there be a keen interest in the matter. Moreover, the New Education Policy (NEP)
has also provided a clear trajectory for imparting IKS in the higher education curriculum,
necessitating a book of this kind in several higher education institutions in the country in the
days to come.
xxii Preface

The book presents the topics in a two-part study of IKS. The first is to develop an overall
understanding of some key components of IKS. The second aspect is the application of IKS for
some gainful use. Specific areas of applications can be studied in a focused manner by drawing
the relevant portions of the IKS showcasing the potential for practical application either in
theoretical advancement of concepts or practical use in addressing some issues that we may
face either as an individual or at an institutional level. The book presents these aspects in
four parts:
♦ Part I: Indian Knowledge System: An Introduction
♦ Part II: Foundational Concepts relevant for Science, Engineering, and Technology
Applications
♦ Part III: Specific Concepts related to Science, Engineering, and Technology
♦ Part IV: Humanities and Social Sciences Applications
The details of the chapters and the topics discussed in the chapter are schematically
presented below.

Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Indian Knowledge Foundational Concepts in Science, Engineering Humanities and
System: An IKS for Science, Engineering amd Technology Social Sciences
Introduction and Technology in IKS in IKS

1. Indian Knowledge 5. Linguistics 8. Mathematics 13. Health, Wellness and

System: An Overview Psychology

6. Number System and 9. Astronomy

Units of Measurement 14. Governance and
2. The Vedic Corpus
Public Administration
10. Engineering and
7. Knowledge: Technology: Metals
3. Philosophical Systems Framework and and Metalworking
Classification
4. Wisdom through the 11. Engineering and
Ages Technology: Other
Applications

12. Town Planning and

Architecture

Although the book has been primarily developed for use by the engineering institutions,
the structure and the contents lend itself easily to address the requirement in other University
systems (Liberal Arts, Medicine, Science and Management) for such a book. Chapter 1 of the
book provides these suggestions.

UNIQUE FEATURES
One approach taken to present IKS has been to lay clear emphasis merely on the ‘content’ of
IKS. Therefore, efforts were made to present the ‘what’ of IKS rather than the ‘why’ or ‘how’
of IKS. The application, implications, and practical relevance of IKS are often left for self-
introspection by the students. Another approach is to merely showcase the practical relevance
of IKS. However, to impress that IKS has application potential, the material is presented
with generous and sweeping extrapolation and innovative interpretations. We have taken a
 Preface xxiii

middle path and have made special efforts to present IKS in a contextually relevant fashion
by delicately balancing the ‘why’ or ‘how’ of IKS and the ‘what’ of IKS. Moreover, the textbook
follows International best practices by incorporating several pedagogical features that will
make learning effective and enjoyable for the students.
Chapter summaries, review questions, and exercises at the end of the chapters help
students check their progress in comprehending the subject matter. Besides this, Multiple
choice questions are also available at the companion website (https://www.phindia.com/
introduction_to_indian_knowledge_system) for this textbook.
However, following features are also provided to make the process enjoyable for both the
teacher and the student:
IKS in Action: This feature enables the students to develop an early appreciation of the subject
matter being discussed and provides a context where the ideas discussed in the chapter have
application.

IKS IN ACTION 9.1

Astronomical Gifts from the King of Benares to the Prince of Wales in
1876
The Prince of Wales toured India during TABLE 9.1 List of Instruments Gifted
1875–76Ǥ —”‹‰ –Š‹• –‹‡ǡ –Š‡ ƒŠ¢”¢Œƒ ‘ˆ
Benares, Sir Ishwari Prasad Narayan Singh gifted 1 Diga‫܉‬äƒǦƒ–”ƒ ‘” ˆ‹†‹‰ –Š‡ †‡‰”‡‡• ‘ˆ
some astronomical instruments to the Prince. Azimuth of a planet/star
The astronomical instruments were prepared 2 Dhruva-Prota- ‘” ˆ‹†‹‰ –Š‡ †‡‰”‡‡• ‘ˆ
according to the descriptions in ‹††Š¢–ƒǦ䋔‘ƒ‹ ƒ”ƒǦƒ–”ƒ declination of a planet/star.
ȋŠ¢•ƒ”¢ ¢”›ƒǡ1150 CE). Table 9.1 has the details
‘ˆ–Š‡‹•–”—‡–• ’”‡•‡–‡†„›–Š‡ƒŠ¢”¢ŒƒǤ 3 ƒ–”ƒǦƒ”¢– ‘” ˆ‹†‹‰ –Š‡ †‹•–ƒ ‡ ȋ‹
(King of time) from the meridian and
Š‡ ƒŠ¢”¢Œƒ ƒŽ•‘ ’”‡•‡–‡† • ƒŽ‡ ‘†‡Ž• ‘ˆ
instruments) the declination of a planet/
the masonry astronomical instruments found in the
star, and of the Sun.
‘Hindu Observatory’ at Benares. This observatory
was one of the five set up by Sawai Jai Singh II, the 4 Š‹––‹Ǧƒ–”ƒ ȋ ‘” ˆ‹†‹‰ –Š‡ —ǯ•
‹‰‘ˆ ƒ‹’—”ǡ‹–Š‡1720s at Jaipur, Delhi, Mathura, Mural Quadrant) greatest declination and the
ŒŒƒ‹ ƒ† ‡ƒ”‡•ǤŠ‡ ‘†‡Ž ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‘”› latitude of the place.
of Benares was made in silver and sissoo-wood. 5 ‹ä—˜ƒ†Ǧƒ–”ƒ ‘”ƒ• ‡”–ƒ‹‹‰–Š‡†‹•–ƒ ‡
Š‡ ƒŠ¢”¢Œƒ ’”‡•‡–‡† ƒ Ž‘ ǡ •Š‘™‹‰ –Š‡ (Equinoctial in time) of the Sun, or of any
signs of the Zodiac, phases of the moon, dates of Circle) star from the meridian.
–Š‡ ‘–Šǡ †ƒ›• ‘ˆ –Š‡ ™‡‡ǡ Š‘—”•ǡ ƒ† ‹—–‡•Ǥ
–‹••—’’‘•‡†–‘„‡ƒ‘†‡Ž‘ˆƒŽƒ”‰‡” Ž‘ ‘ˆ–Š‡ 6 ŠƒŽƒƒǦƒ–”ƒ An instrument for finding the
•ƒ‡‹†‹–Š‡‹‡” ‘—”–‘ˆ–Š‡ƒƒ‰ƒ” ‘”–Ǥ time after sunrise (invented
Š‹•—‹“—‡ Ž‘ ™ƒ•ƒ†‡„›—Ž Šƒ†ǡ–Š‡–ƒ–‡ „› Š¢•ƒ”¢ ¢”›ƒȌǤ
Ž‘  ƒ‡” ƒ† ‹– ’”‘˜‹†‡• •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Š”‘‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ 7 ƒ”ƒǦƒ–”ƒ ‘” ˆ‹†‹‰ –Š‡ ƒŽ–‹–—†‡ ƒ†
and astronomical information. It shows not only zenith distance of the Sun,
correct time of day but also the position of the sun the longitude of planets.
and phases of the moon together with the signs

Rich Illustrations: The chapters are dotted with several illustrations by way of figures and
tables that help concisely summarise complex concepts and facilitate easy understanding and
retention by the students.

&/'hZ ϱ͘ϮപKƌŝŐŝŶ ŽĨ ^ŽƵŶĚ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ KƌĂů ĂǀŝƚLJͶŶ /ůůƵƐƚƌĂƚŝŽŶ

xxiv Preface

Discover IKS: Every chapter has an end-of-the-chapter feature that points to useful videos
on some of the concepts discussed in the chapter. The videos are actual illustrations, existing
artefacts, or expert opinions. Students are encouraged to go through the video and prepare a
report of their understanding of the ideas presented. Students can develop applied learning,
appreciation of concepts, and their relevance to practice.

/^KsZ /<^
1. India’s contribution to mathematics has been a subject that has attracted considerable attention
in recent times. Several attempts have been made to inquire into this issue. Watch this video
produced by BBC, titled, History of Indian Mathematics, Part-1 by pursuing the link: https://youtu.
be/pElvQdcaGXE. After watching the video carefully, prepare a write-up to answer the following
questions:
(a) What are the main contributions of ancient Indians to the number system?
(b) Šƒ– ‹• –Š‡ ‹’‘”–ƒ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ —„‡” ǮͲǯǫ ‘™ †‘‡• ‹– ‘–”‹„—–‡ –‘ • ‹‡ ‡ǫ
(c) What are the contributions of Brahmagupta in use of numbers in mathematics?
2. It is often mentioned that India’s contribution to the world of mathematics is the number zero.
This leaves an impression there is not much other than this contribution. On the contrary, there are
significant contributions by ancient Indians in a number of areas of mathematics that has led to the
development of mathematical thought and applications in a significant way in the West. Watch the
talk by Prof. C.K. Raju on the topic, “Not just the Zero – India’s gifts of mathematics and science to
the world”, by pursuing the link: https://youtu.be/22uZ3D5AgaE. After watching the video, prepare
a three-page note that covers answers to the following questions:
(a) Was India’s contribution to Mathematics merely the number zero or something more?
Enumerate the other salient contributions and their significance.
(b) What are the salient aspects of M¢†Šƒ˜ƒǯ• •‹‡ –ƒ„Ž‡ ȋƒᒷƒ’ƒ›¢di)? What is the importance
of sine table?
(c) What is the value of traditional knowledge in mathematics? Do we need it?

Opening Vignette: The beginning of every chapter has an opening vignette, which helps
develop a clear set of expectationsEngineering
with respect and
to theTechnology
topics discussed in the chapter. It also
Metals
generates early interest in the topics andinMetalworking
covered the chapter.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
$IWHUÀQLVKLQJWKLVFKDSWHU\RXZLOOEHDEOHWR
 Develop familiarity with the Science, Engineering and Technology (S & T) heritage of
ancient and medieval India
 Understand the role of archaeological, and other evidence in assessing the S & T
heritage of India
 Understand about ancient Indian pursuits in the area of metal and metalworking and
idol making

This is a gold coin of the Gupta king Samudragupta

(330–376 CE) kept at the British Museum.
Samudragupta, with halo, standing facing left,
wearing cap, decorated coat and trousers and
earrings, holding a spear in left hand and making an
offering with right hand over altar. In left field is a
Garuda standard with ribbons and crescent above.
Stamping such coins with intricate details requires
knowledge of mining, extraction of Gold and
further metal forming techniques such as die
casting.

6RXUFH https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SamudraguptaCoin.jpg
 Preface xxv

Endnotes: Material for the textbook has been drawn from several original sources and research
papers. To establish authenticity and enable the students and the teachers to access the original
sources of information, these have been listed at the end of every chapter.

ENDNOTES
1. For a good account of this refer to Dharampal (2021). “Indian Science and Technology in the eighteenth
century: Some contemporary European Accounts”, Dharampal Classic Series 2, Rashtrotthaana Sahitya,
Bengaluru.
2. ‡‡ ˆ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ –Š‹• ‡š–”ƒ – ˆ”‘ Šƒƒƒ”ƒäƒ Ȅ ǥ ֛֟֒֯ ᭛֑ե ռְ ֐֧ ֑᳟֝֯ ֐ְ֧ ֚֚֠ե֯ ռ ֐ְ֧ ᮢ֌᳟֡֯ ֐֧ ְ֑᭫֞֐ե ռ֯
֐֧ ְ֛֔֫ե ռ֯ ֐ְ֧ ಹ Š‹”ƒҩ ᒤyaᒢ ƒӈ  ‡ ǯ›ƒҩ ä ƒ ‡ӈ  •Çlj•ƒᒢҩ ƒ ‡ӈ  –”ƒ’—ҩ ä ƒ ‡ 䛢ӈƒᒢ ƒҩ  ‡ Ž‘ӈ Šƒᒢ ƒҩ  ‡ӈ  ǥ
3. ֟ֆ᭏֐ե ֟ռֈ֧֐ ֐֛֟ ֗֙ᲃ է֑᭭ ֏֚ֈ᳡֫ ֊ ֑֐֚֞֊ ը֚֞ ֿ ֟֗վ֧֛֐֞֊զ ֌֒֘֡֊ᭅ ֟վ᭮֗֞ե ᮤ֟֗֊ᭅ ᮤ֑֞֗֟ֆ ֈ֞ᱧ ։ᭃֆ֭ ֿֿ
tigmaᒢ cidema mahi varᒲ‘ ƒ•›ƒ „Šƒ•ƒ†ƒä˜‘ ƒ ›ƒƒ•¢ƒ ¢•¢ ȁ ˜‹Œ‡Šƒ¢ƒᒒ ’ƒ”ƒä—”ƒ Œ‹Š˜¢ᒢ
†”ƒ˜‹”ƒ †”¢˜ƒ›ƒ–‹ †¢”— †Šƒᒲƒ– ȁȁ ᏼ‰˜‡†ƒƒᒢŠ‹–¢ ͸Ǥ͵ǤͶ
Ͷ. ֆ᳒և֞֔֗օ֧֊֚֡֗օᭅ դ ֚᭠ֈ᭟֑֞᭜֚֡֗օᱷ֊֒վֆդ ֒վֆ֧֊ᮢ֌֡ ᮢ֌֡օ֚֚֞֠դ ֧֚֚֠֊֛֔֫ե ֛֧֔֫֊ֈ֞ᱧֈ֞ᱧռ֐ᭅօ֞‫Š–ƒ›†ƒ–׀‬¢
lavaᒤena suvarᒤa ɸ •ƒ†ƒ†Š›¢–•—˜ƒ”ᒤena rajata ɸ rajatena trapu trapuᒤ¢•Çlj•ƒҬ •Çlj•‡ƒŽ‘ŠƒᒢŽ‘Š‡ƒ†¢”—
†¢”— ƒ”ƒᒤ¢ȁȁ Swami Gambhirananda (2003). DzŠ¢†‘‰›ƒ ’ƒ‹ᒲƒ†dzǡ†˜ƒ‹–ƒ •Š”ƒƒǡ ‘Žƒ–ƒǡ
p. 308.
5. ֛֔֫֟ֆ֧֊᭭֗֟։֟ֆ֊֞֟֐և֡֊ե շօᭅ֑֫զշ֣ ֟։ֿէշֆ֞ᭅ֐֟᳡֊֞ ֔᭯֐ֆֈ᭭ֆ֡ ᮧվ֑֞֎ᱟ‫‹–‹Š†ƒ˜•ƒ‡–‹Š‘Ž׀‬¢‹–Š—ƒᒢ
karᒤayoᒒ kᒮ†Š‹ ȁ ƒƒ”–¢ƒä˜‹¢Žƒᒲƒ –ƒ†ƒ•–— ’”ƒŒƒ›¢ „ƒŠ— ȁȁ –Šƒ”˜ƒ˜‡†ƒ ͸ǤͳͶͳǤʹ
͸. շ֫է֟᭭֐᳖֞֌᳞֫ֈ։֞֟᭜֢֣֗֙֗ֆզ֌֡ᱨ֣֗ֆզ֚֟᭠։֣֚֡᭜֑֑֞վ֞ֆ֞զֿֆ֠ᮯ֞էᱧօ֛֞֔֫֟֊֠᭭ֆ᮫֞։᮫֢֞լ᭟֗֞ᭅէ֗֞ռ֠զ֌֡ᱧ֧֙֟ֆ᳟֒֠զ
‫‹•ƒ‘׀‬¢’‘˜›ƒ†ƒ†Š¢–˜‹ᒲó˜ᒮtaᒒ’—”ó˜ᒮtaᒒ sindhusᒮ–›¢›ƒŒ¢–¢ᒒȁ–Çlj˜”¢ƒ”—ᒤ¢Ž‘Š‹Çlj•–¢”ƒ†Šó”¢
󔆊˜¢ ƒ˜¢ Çljᒒ puruᒲ‡ –‹”ƒä Çljᒒ ȁȁ –Šƒ”˜ƒ˜‡†ƒǡ ͳͲǤʹǤͳͳ
͹. For a detailed report on this, please see, Srinivasan, K.R. (1958). “The Pallava Architecture of South
India”,  ‹‡– †‹ƒ, 14, ’’Ǥ ͳͳͶȂͳ͵ͺǤ
8. For more details on this and issues addressed in this section see, Deva, K. (1959). “Temples of
Khajuraho in Central India”,  ‹‡– †‹ƒ, 15, ’’Ǥ Ͷ͵Ȃ͸ͷǤ
9. For more details on this and the other issues addressed in this section see, Singh, P.K., Dey, P., Jaina,
S.K. and Mujumdar, P.P. (2020). “Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India”,
›†”‘ŽǤƒ”–Š ›•–Ǥ  ‹Ǥ, 24ǡ ’’Ǥ Ͷ͸ͻͳȂͶ͹Ͳ͹Ǥ
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepwell Last accessed on Oct. 1, 2021.
11. Jain—Neubauer, J. (1999). “The stepwells of Gujarat “, †‹ƒ –‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ‡–”‡ —ƒ”–‡”Ž›, 26(2),
’’Ǥ ͹ͷȂͺͲǤ

Suggested Readings: A list of additional readings has been provided at the end of every chapter
to help the students pursue further studies in the topics covered in the chapter. It also helps
the teachers prepare effectively the topics covered in the chapter.

SUGGESTED READINGS
ƒ––ƒǡ Ǥ ƒ† ‹‰Šǡ ǤǤ ȋͳͻ͸ʹȌ. ‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ ‹†— ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ •ǣ ƒ”–•  ƒ† ǡ •‹ƒ —„Ž‹•Š‹‰ ‘—•‡ǡ
—„ƒ‹Ǥ
ƒ––ƒǡ Ǥ ȋͳͻ͵ʹȌǤ  ‹‡– ‹†— ‡‘‡–”›ǣ Š‡  ‹‡ ‡ ‘ˆ —Ž„ƒ•ǡ ƒŽ —––ƒ ‹˜‡”•‹–› ”‡••ǡ ‡’”‹–‡†
‘•‘• —‰Ǥǡ ‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹ǡ ͳͻͻ͵Ǥ
‹˜ƒƒ”ƒǡ ǤǤ ȋʹͲͳͺȌǤ Š‡ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ‘ˆ †‹ƒǣ ‘ ‡’–•ǡ ‡–Š‘†•ǡ ‘‡ –‹‘•Ǥ ’”‹‰‡” ȋ ‹†—•–ƒ
‘‘ ‰‡ ›Ȍǡ ‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹Ǥ
‘•‡’Šǡ Ǥ Ǥ ȋͳͻͻͲȌǤ Š‡ ”‡•– ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‡ƒ ‘ ǣ ‘Ǧ—”‘’‡ƒ ‘‘–• ‘ˆ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ •ǡ ‡‰—‹Ǥ
‘•‡’Šǡ Ǥ ǤȋʹͲͲͻȌǤ ƒ••ƒ‰‡–‘ ϔ‹‹–›ǣ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ †‹ƒƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ •ˆ”‘‡”ƒŽƒƒ† –•‹’ƒ –Ǥƒ‰‡ǡ
‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹Ǥ
‘•‡’Šǡ Ǥ Ǥ ȋʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ †‹ƒ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ‰ƒ‰‹‰ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‘”Ž† ˆ”‘ ‹‡– –‘ ‘†‡” ‹‡•ǡ ‘”Ž†
 ‹‡–‹ϐ‹ ǡ ‘†‘Ǥ
‡†ƒ”ƒ–Š ȋͳͻ͵ͺȌǤ Šƒ†ƒ‫ ٭‬䢕–”ƒ‘ˆ ‹‫ƒ•ƒ–ډ ›”ƒ–‡‘ Š–‹™ƒŽƒ‰پ‬ӌʃÄ‘ˆ ƒŽ¢›—†Šƒ Šƒ‫ƒڒڒ‬, 3rd
‡†Ǥǡ —„ƒ‹ǡ ͳͻ͵ͺǤ
‘Žƒ Šƒƒǡ Ǥǡ ƒŠ‡•Š Ǥ ƒ† ƒƒ•—„”ƒƒ‹ƒǡ Ǥ ȋʹͲͳͻȌǤ Dz ‹†— ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ‹ –Š‡ •‡˜‡–Š
‡–—”› ƒ• ˆ‘—† ‹ Š¢•ƒ”ƒ ǯ• ‘‡–ƒ”› ‘ –Š‡#”›ƒ„Šƒ‫ڒ‬ěƒȋ Ȍdzǡ ǣ ‘Žƒ Šƒƒ Ǥǡ ƒŠ‡•Š Ǥǡ
ƒƒ•—„”ƒƒ‹ƒ Ǥ ȋ†•Ȍǡ –—†‹‡• ‹ †‹ƒ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ƒ† •–”‘‘›ǡ Sources and Studies in
–Š‡ ‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ƒ† Š›•‹ ƒŽ  ‹‡ ‡•ǡ ’”‹‰‡”ǡ ‹‰ƒ’‘”‡Ǥ
ƒ†Š—•—†ƒƒ ƒ•–”‹ǡ ȋͳͻͻͶȌǤ ‫–ƒ”ƒ––ډ‬¢ƒ”ƒ ‘ˆ ‡†¢”ƒ ™‹–Š ‘‡–ƒ”‹‡• ¢”¢›ƒ‫ٿ‬Ä ƒ† ‡–—”,
Šƒ—Šƒ„ƒǡ ƒ”ƒƒ•‹Ǥ
ƒ”ƒ‡•™ƒ”ƒǡ Ǥ ȋͳͻͻͺȌǤ Š‡ ‘Ž†‡ ‰‡ ‘ˆ †‹ƒ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ •ǡ ™ƒ†‡•Š‹  ‹‡ ‡ ‘˜‡‡–ǡ ‡”ƒŽƒǤ
Ž‘ϐ‡”ǡ Ǥ ȋͳͻ͸͵ȌǤ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ • ‹ †‹ƒǡ ”‹ ‡–‘ ‹˜‡”•‹–› ”‡••ǡ ‡™ ‡”•‡›ǡ Ǥ
ƒƒ•—„”ƒƒƒ‹ƒǡ Ǥ ȋʹͲͳͷȌǤ Dz ƒᒤ‹–¢ƒ†ƒdzǣ ‡Ž‡ –‡† ™‘”• ‘ˆ ƒ†Šƒ Šƒ”ƒ —’–ƒ ‘ ‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ
Mathematics, †‹ƒ ‘ ‹‡–› ˆ‘” ‹•–‘”› ‘ˆ ƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ •ǡ ‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹Ǥ
ƒ”ƒ•˜ƒ–‹ ƒǡ ǤǤ ȋͳͻͻͻȌǤ ‡‘‡–”› ‹  ‹‡– ƒ† ‡†‹‡˜ƒŽ †‹ƒǡ ‘–‹ŽƒŽ ƒƒ”•‹†ƒ••ǡ ʹ† ‡†Ǥǡ
‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹Ǥ
‡ǡ ǤǤ ƒ† ƒ‰ǡ ǤǤ ȋͳͻͺ͵ȌǤ DzŠ‡ —Ž„ƒ•—–”ƒ•dzǡ ǡ ‡™ ‡ŽŠ‹Ǥ
xxvi Preface

Our work in developing a textbook for IKS is perhaps the first of its kind. IKS is a generic
phrase that covers practically everything pertaining to India. For a nation with more than 5000
years of recorded history, defining what constitutes IKS is itself a huge challenge. Literature,
oral knowledge, societal practices, and knowledge assets in all Indian languages will technically
fall under the ambit of IKS. We have taken a certain view on what constitutes IKS to make it
manageable for a university-level course. We are aware that alternative views can be taken
on this issue. We believe that our work will encourage other authors to bring more textbooks
taking alternative perspectives on IKS.
B. Mahadevan
Vinayak Rajat Bhat
Nagendra Pavana R.N.
 Acknowledgements

The need for developing a textbook on Indian Knowledge System is increasingly felt in the
Indian society at large and the Higher Education institutions in particular. When we approached
the then Honourable Union Minister for Education, Shri Ramesh Pokhriyal, with our proposal to
develop a textbook, he readily agreed to fund and directed AICTE to coordinate the same. We
are grateful to the Honourable Minister for this gesture and support to textbook development.
We are grateful to Prof. Anil Sahasrabudhe, Chairman, AICTE, for providing us with the
required funding, encouragement, and moral support. He has constantly been monitoring the
progress of the book and ensuring the timely completion of the book project. This has gone a
long way in enabling us to focus on the project unhindered. We are also thankful to Professor
Dilip Malkhede, Advisor – I, Policy and Academic Planning Bureau, AICTE, for his constant
support and encouragement during the development of this textbook. Dr. Shamasundar was
one of our co-investigators in the textbook development project, which preceded the textbook
development. He was instrumental in initiating this entire exercise, contributing to certain
parts of the textbook.
We are thankful to Swami Advayananda ji of Chinmaya International Foundation, Ernakulam,
for his encouragement. Developing a course outline for the Indian Knowledge System during
the formative stages of Chinmaya Vishwavidyapeeth (CVV) was Swamiji’s idea. It culminated
in this textbook, and we are grateful to him. We are also thankful to the Indian Institute of
Management Bangalore (IIMB) and CVV for their support to us in many ways to complete this
project.
A project of this magnitude is beyond our normal means, given the vastness of the subject
matter to be covered. While we were self-motivated and focused on the task, a group of experts
in IKS could play a significant role in ensuring we do not miss out on the essentials. It also
required someone to closely monitor, go through the material, and offer critical comments
for improving it. We were indeed fortunate to have a team of high-profile and accomplished
academic colleagues in the area of the Indian knowledge system, who, despite their busy
schedules, agreed to serve in our expert committee. The expert committee consists of the
following members:
1. Professor Michel Danino, Visiting Professor, Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT,
Gandhinagar.
2. Professor R N Iyengar, Distinguished Professor and Director, Centre for Ancient History
and Culture, Jain University, Bangalore.
3. Professor Subhash C Kak, Regents Professor, School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Oklahoma State University–Stillwater, USA.
xxviii Acknowledgements

4. Professor K Ramasubramanian, Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Bombay.

5. Vidwan Chamu Krishna Shastry, Sanskrit Promotion Foundation, New Delhi.
6. Professor M.D. Srinivas, Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai.
We are grateful to every one of them for their support. Needless to say, we were greatly
benefited from their advice, support, views, and suggestions on the material that we were
developing. While all improvements are due to them, any errors and omissions are ours.
Professor M S Sriram of K V Sarma Research Foundation, Chennai, gave critical inputs for
the chapter on Astronomy. We gratefully acknowledge the support rendered by Prof Sriram.
When we sent our manuscripts to several subject matter experts, they were kind enough to go
through them and patiently offer valuable comments and suggestions. Although it is impossible
to name every one of them, we do want to mention a few names: Professors Gauri Mahulikar,
Amba Kulkarni, Shrinivasa Varakhedi, R Venkataraghavan, B. Narsing Rao, Srinath Mohandas,
Ashok Nene, Manoj Gundanna, Rama Jayasundar, P.L.T. Girija, and Mala Sinha. We are grateful
to them.
We also acknowledge the support rendered by Dr. Poonam Purohit, Senior Research
Associate, who put together diverse material into a clean format. She played a key role both
administratively and academically in supporting the project. Namrata Praveen and the Library
Staff at IIMB and CVV supported us by procuring the required material and archiving them in
the library. We are thankful for their support. Ms. Shivani Garg, Senior Editor at PHI Learning,
played a very important role in bringing out this book. Due to her constant attention to the
project, we could publish the book faster. Our special thanks are due to her and her editorial
team, who did a wonderful job of bringing out this book. We also thank Ms. Babita Misra,
Editorial Coordinator PHI Learning for her support to this project.
The support of our family members enabled us to stay afloat and push us to our limits
repeatedly. Without their support, we would have abandoned the project long back. We are
thankful for their moral support, and we were encouraged when they steadfastly supported
us throughout the project.
Finally, in the best traditions of India, we believe in the maxim of Gita–“ दै वं चैवा पमम् ”
(daivaṃ caivātra pañcamam). Several forces have played an invisible role in the development of
this textbook, and we realize that we are merely instruments in giving it a shape and structure.

B. Mahadevan
Vinayak Rajat Bhat
Nagendra Pavana R.N.
 Guide to Transliteration Symbols
Used in the Book

All Sanskrit words used in this book are presented using roman scripts as transliteration.
The transliteration schema used in this book is based on International Alphabet of
Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST). IAST is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless
romanization of scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language. The details are given below.

Vowels

Consonants

Others
 Part 1
INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
AN INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER

1 Indian Knowledge System:

An Overview

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After finishing this chapter, you will be able to:
 Understand and appreciate the importance of ancient knowledge to a society
 Understand the term ‘Indian Knowledge System’ (IKS)
 Familiarise with the key components of the IKS
 Develop some appreciation of IKS historicity

Built by Raja Raja Chola I. The construction was completed in 1010. This is one of the earliest
granite temples in the world. Around 60,000 tons of granite is said to be used to build the temple.
It has one of the tallest vimānam (temple tower) and its kumbham (the structure on the top)
weighs approximately 80 tons.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Brihadeeswarar_Temple_Full_View.jpg
4 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications

IKS IN ACTION 1.1

Do We Need Indian Knowledge System?
There is a question ruminating over our minds, of turmeric powder to heal surgical wounds and
“Why should we bother so much about Indian ulcers.
Knowledge System (IKS)?” IKS is not about merely Turmeric is a native Indian plant, and Indians
knowing about some ancestral knowledge. If we have been using it for centuries for wound healing.
closely follow the emerging patenting regime and With the support of several documents including
the economic power arising out of a knowledge books on home remedies and Āyurvedic texts, CSIR
society, it becomes clear that the issue merits was able to argue the case. Das and Kohli contested
serious attention. It is about protecting received CSIR’s objections, but the patent office rejected
wisdom, economic security, and national pride. all their claims. The patenting of indigenous
Efforts by an international coalition of knowledge by foreign corporations is a cultural
environmentalists to get the US patents on threat to countries like India as well as an economic
products of the neem tree cancelled did not fructify. one. The case of turmeric is a perfect example since
We all know that we use neem leaves to keep away it plays such an extensive role in India’s culinary and
insects from our kitchen garden. Every farmer in health practices, among its other uses.
India knew for time immemorial that it was a good As the turmeric patent case makes it evident,
pesticide among other things. Yet, a few years ago, the current patent system seems to allow biopiracy.
a US company was awarded a patent for neem as Patents on Neem, Amla, Jar Amla, Anar, Salai,
a pesticide. The company claimed it had developed Dudhi, Gulmendhi, Bagbherenda, Karela, Rangoon-
an agent that would make the active pesticide ki-bel, Erand, Vilayetishisham, and Chamkura all
agent in neem last for more than the normal two need to be revoked based on the logic that these
weeks. Although our scientists had been tinkering are part of Indian indigenous knowledge and ‘prior
around with research on neem for years, they art’.
had not applied for this specific process and the India’s fight for the turmeric patent was
battle was lost. Nor we were able to bring our vast necessary to uphold ‘national pride’ and to dispel
knowledge system to argue against the case. The unfounded fears that India was incapable of
patenting of traditional remedies from developing protecting its traditional knowledge base. The
countries became a global issue after patents were then CSIR’s director, Dr. Mashelkar highlighted the
granted for neem. importance of documenting traditional knowledge,
On the other hand, after a legal battle for to provide evidence of prior knowledge. Our
more than a year India's Council of Scientific and scientists and technologists need to wake up and
Industrial Research (CSIR), has successfully forced focus their efforts on building scientific data on
the US Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) to many of these traditional knowledge treasures
revoke a contentious patent it granted two years that we possess and work towards getting them
ago to researchers in the United States on the use patented. Knowledge of IKS becomes critical in this
of powdered turmeric (Curcuma longa) for wound journey.
healing. The turmeric patent was granted in 1995 to Source: Jayaraman, K.S., US patent office withdraws
two researchers, Soman K. Das and Harihar Kohli of patent on Indian herb. Nature 389, 6 (1997). https://doi.
the University of Mississippi Medical Center. Their org/10.1038/37838 and several other reports available
six patent claims covered the oral and topical use on the Internet.

India is a country with a long-surviving civilisational history and practice known to mankind.
While the modern western scholars date the civilisation to at least 5000–8000 years, the
indigenous sources and belief systems in India date the civilisation to a very ancient period,
almost time immemorial. Notwithstanding these differences, a country with such a long history
ought to have accumulated some knowledge over its long period of existence. There is an
impression in contemporary society that all knowledge that we benefit from has originated
from the West. Since the western civilisation is of relatively recent origin compared to Indian
 Indian Knowledge System – An Overview 5

or other civilisations such as the Chinese and the Egyptian, this also implies that all knowledge
is of recent origin. This idea is counterintuitive and illogical.
Human beings are inherently knowledge generating in nature endowed with unique
capabilities. By using the power of discrimination, reasoning, and rational thinking, human
beings constantly process the newly acquired knowledge. Therefore, it is not surprising
that a rich repository of knowledge accumulated in the Indian subcontinent and manifested
in terms of traditions and practices. One or two examples help us understand this aspect.
Indians were good in steel making until the 17th century. The Indian ‘wootz’ steel was used to
manufacture what was famously known as ‘Damascus blades’ and despite several attempts by
the metallurgists in the past, it was not possible to replicate the properties of the wootz steel.
Indian’s contributions in the fields of Number Systems, Mathematics, and Astronomy in the first
millennia of CE contributed to several other developments. These ideas were percolating into
the West via the Arabic countries, and they ought to have influenced the scientific developments
in the West beginning 15th century CE. Unfortunately, in our current educational system, we do
not have an inkling of the nature of the contributions made by the Indians. This raises several
questions. Where has all this knowledge gone today? Have we lost this knowledge totally? Is it
of no use or interest to us today? Is there a sudden loss of continuity? What has caused this?
As many of us are aware, the ancient knowledge in India was preserved and transmitted
‘orally’ until a few centuries back. There was an uninterrupted lineage of ‘Guru–Śiṣya’ that took
responsibility for the preservation and transmission of
knowledge down the generations. Quite often, the teacher- ♦ Indians were extraordinary in steel
student was a father-son combination and a group of making until the 17th century. The
related family members. These people formed a clan, who Indian ‘wootz’ steel was used to
preserved the knowledge, practiced it by making a living, manufacture what was famously
and transmitted it to their offsprings. The use of print known as ‘Damascus blades’.
media in recent history and the palm leaf scripts earlier ♦ Due to major changes in the
educational system in India
have served to formally capture this oral knowledge and introduced about 200 years back,
store it. there was a rather abrupt end
Unfortunately, due to major changes in the educational to the process of knowledge
system introduced in India about 200 years back, there was transmission.
an abrupt end to this process of knowledge transmission
and the continuity is mostly lost. The newly introduced educational system demanded the
society acquire only such knowledge as made available through the educational system. Those
who aligned themselves to the new educational system were assured of jobs and salaries by
the ruling class. Arguably, it would have taken about 50 years for most of the population to
abandon old ways of doing things and come ‘on board’ the new system that promises economic
prosperity. Once this transition happened, the oral transmission dwindled dramatically, created
a sudden void and loss of continuity, thereby confining the knowledge to whatever was available
in palm leaf manuscripts and other archives and personal collections.
We have continued with the British system of education in independent India, by keeping
the ancient knowledge repository out of consideration. Therefore, today’s formal educational
system in India has, for historical reasons partly attributable to the British policymakers on
education, has kept the ancient Indian knowledge heritage out of the reach of the education
system, arguably citing reasons of lack of rigour and scientific value. This textbook is an effort
to bring snippets of the Indian knowledge by providing a fresh relook at the corpus and culling
out relevant portions that may generate renewed interest in the subject and motivate several
to engage in a study of the knowledge repository of interest.
6 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE

Ancient knowledge is the accrued knowledge over several generations and preserved in formal
and informal means. Formal means include documented knowledge and informal means
include shared values and practices through oral traditions. Sadly, as explained above, ancient
Indian knowledge has been relegated to millions of palm manuscripts lying scattered all over
the country and it is gathering dust. While several scholars are engaged in the process of
bringing the hidden knowledge out of these manuscripts by researching and republishing such
works, it does not match the scale required to make a meaningful impact. It is a herculean
proposition to uncover the knowledge and bring it to the attention of modern society. On the
other hand, the oral traditions continue in some rural
♦ If the underlying knowledge pockets and are at the threat of getting extinct for want of
systems are abruptly withdrawn patronage. The question in front of us is, “Does any society
from society, the cultural practices need to preserve, protect and pass on the ancient knowledge
will be rudely jolted. to the future generations?”
♦ Ancient knowledge provides a
The thinking patterns and the repository of knowledge
head start to a society to march
on the highway of innovation and created by the forefathers in any society enable the current
new knowledge creation. generation to understand the thought processes and
frameworks of the previous generations. It will allow them
to analyse the received wisdom in a contemporary context and identify new opportunities to
assimilate the accrued wisdom and synthesize new knowledge. Therefore, keeping the current
generation in the dark about the contributions of the ancestors is an inefficient, and a short-
sighted option for society. Ancient knowledge serves multiple roles for society. Figure 1.1
schematically captures these.

Identity

Economic Ancient
Culture
Value Knowledge

Received
Wisdom

FIGURE 1.1 Importance of Ancient Knowledge

Identity
The quintessential value that ancient knowledge brings to society is the identity it provides
to fellow members of the society. Essentially it defines the context for several aspects of the
day-to-day living of every individual. The social practices and norms have continuity as most
 Indian Knowledge System – An Overview 7

of them are transmitted from generation to generation through practices and supporting
knowledge repositories. Therefore, preserving this knowledge and baton passing them on
to the next generation is an important step for contemporary society. In the absence of this
continuity, individuals lose their conviction on several living practices. They lose their ability
to ‘meaning making’ of much of the knowledge. Eventually it challenges one’s own identity
and that of the society.

Culture
Culture has several dimensions. In a direct sense, it is the manifestation of human intellectual
achievement regarded collectively by society over time. From a social perspective, culture is
nothing but the set of ideas, customs, and behaviour of society. In other words, culture provides
a sense of identity at a societal level by providing a common medium for communication and
the transaction of ideas. The prevailing knowledge and the literary traditions play a significant
role in shaping the culture of the society. If the underlying knowledge systems are abruptly
withdrawn from society, the cultural practices will be rudely jolted. It may create distortions
and discontinuities in societal progress.

Received Wisdom
Knowledge and innovation are in a continuum. Innovation and new knowledge creation in
any society is ‘path-dependent’. What it essentially means is that the road travelled so far
determines the future path. Without the continuity of thoughts, it is very difficult to make
further progress in terms of new ideas. The other equally important issue is the risk of
reinventing the wheel. When the benefit of prior knowledge and the thought process is lost by
society, it will lead to reinventing the wheel, making innovation and new knowledge creation
inefficient. In this context, ancient knowledge plays the valuable role of ‘received wisdom’ and
provides a head start to a society to march on the highway of innovation and new knowledge
creation.

Economic Value
One of the compelling arguments in support of the ancient knowledge systems is the huge
potential it offers from an economic value standpoint. The emerging world order puts greater
emphasis on knowledge society. The prevailing ‘military power’ will give way for ‘knowledge
power’ and such nations who demonstrate the superiority of knowledge traditions are bound
to lead the rest of the world. Transforming knowledge into economic value has been fully
formalized with the global intellectual property rights regulations and patent laws. Therefore,
the ancient knowledge system will be beneficial to a country
♦ The prevailing ‘military power’
like India (see IKS in Action 1.1 at the beginning of the
will give way for ‘knowledge
chapter for an illustration of this idea). power’ and such nations who
Let us see an example to understand this aspect. The demonstrate the superiority of
US patent and trademark office granted patent rights on knowledge traditions are bound
knowledge of the usage of pigeon pea extracts for treating to lead the rest of the world.
diabetes, hypoglycemia, obesity, and arthero-sclerotic ♦ Unless we preserve the ancient
cardiovascular disease (clogged arteries) to Insmed Inc, knowledge, we will not be able
based in Richmond in Virginia. The company claimed to prevent the spillover of our
its novelty in the invention of pigeon pea extracts for economic value arising out of our
ancient knowledge.
treating these diseases. In the patent applications, Insmed
8 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications

acknowledged only a handful of uses of pigeon peas in traditional medicines by citing some
references of journal articles that appeared in 1957 and 1968 that describe the effects of pigeon
pea and its extracts on blood sugar. The patent application did not include references to the
traditional use of pigeon peas in the treatment of the mentioned diseases.
Pigeon pea (botanical name Cajanus cajan) is commonly known as arhar or red gram in
India. There are several instances of the use of pigeon pea extracts in traditional medicines
in India. A study of plant medicines by researchers in the department of pharmacology at
the All-India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) tested pigeon pea extracts as they are
used to treat diabetes in Ayurvedic medicines. The scientists at the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) observed that there is a need to gather strong evidence from our
traditional texts to challenge such patent rights. Unless we preserve and be aware of the ancient
knowledge, we will not be able to prevent the spill over of our economic value arising out of
our ancient knowledge1.

1.2 DEFINING INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) is a generic phrase that covers practically everything about
India. For a nation with more than 5000 years of recorded history, abundant cultural and
archaeological artifacts, literature, and social and community practices defining what constitutes
Indian Knowledge is itself a huge challenge. Literature, cultural and social practices, historical
evidence, and other such knowledge assets available in all Indian languages, dialects, and
geographical regions will all technically fall under the ambit of IKS. The other aspect of the
issue is the time dimension. Knowledge is continuously synthesized by any society. Knowledge
assets available in India from the pre-historic times to the current day will all qualify to be
part of the IKS. Therefore, it requires an unambiguous scope for defining IKS for this book.
Arguably, IKS can evoke different meanings to different stakeholders. The term IKS has
three words in it. To better understand what we mean by IKS in the context of this book, we
shall analyse each of these words separately.

Indian
By this term, we mean the indigenous sources of knowledge generated by the Indian society.
The current political formation called ‘India’ is of recent origin and it alone does not qualify
to be called ‘Indian’. The term ‘Indian’ points to the undivided Indian subcontinent (Akhaṇḍa
Bhārata). We mean the geographical area spanning from Burma on the east to modern-day
Afghanistan in the west and Himalayas in the North to the Indian Ocean in the south. This region
has common cultural, literary, and social practices, and has witnessed a continuous exchange
of people, and ideas among them throughout the history of undivided India. Despite several
political formations and princely states ruling this entire region for the last several hundred
years until the consolidation begun from the 16th century CE, the society was unified under the
common umbrella of social practices. Cāṇakya could get educated in Takṣaśilā in the western
part of the sub-continent and be instrumental in establishing a powerful Mauryan empire with
Pāṭalīputra as the capital in the Eastern part. Similarly, Pāṇini, a Sanskrit Grammarian from
Gāndhāra in the North-Western corner of undivided India (now in Pakistan) could influence
the thinking of people in the entire country on the Sanskrit language.
A second aspect to this is only such knowledge synthesized, codified, and made available
by the ‘Indians’ is considered Indian knowledge. This implies that they ought to have been part
 Indian Knowledge System – An Overview 9

of the Indian subcontinent, born and lived there, and are part of the knowledge system in an
integral fashion. This is especially important because India witnessed several foreign travellers
who visited its universities, stayed for some time and wrote about the country, the knowledge,
and cultural practices. These have significantly contributed to the export of this knowledge to
the west and other parts of the world. For example, some reports have extensively studied the
role of such authors in taking mathematical thinking to the west via the Arab world2. These
are considered as ‘about IKS’ rather than IKS itself.

Knowledge
The second component of IKS is the ‘knowledge’, which is always tacit. It primarily arises
in the form of the wisdom of the knowledge seekers. It is obtained by the insights gained
by personal experiences with life situations, facing problems, and coming up with means
of solving them. At other times, one obtains knowledge by means of intense observation of
events, experimentation, conjecturing, and analysis. Knowledge may or may not be converted
to a literary format. The tacit knowledge can be preserved and transmitted through an oral
tradition without loss. India has a rich tradition of folklore practices even to date, that belongs
to this category. While both these forms of knowledge are equally important and valuable
it is impossible to formally study knowledge transmitted through oral traditions. Therefore,
by ‘knowledge’, we mean in this book, a formal repository of knowledge available in literary
sources.
The tacit knowledge gained by a seeker is eventually transmitted systematically in the form
of some ‘explicit’ knowledge. This happens by way of proposing a new theory, framework, or
literary work. Furthermore, knowledge pervades all three domains: spiritual, religious, and
others addressing social and day-today issues. We can summarise the term ‘knowledge’ as
that emanating from the wisdom and insights arising out of deep experiences, observation,
experimentation, and analysis and validated, improved, and augmented further.

System
By ‘System’ in IKS, we mean a structured methodology and a classification scheme to access
the available corpus of knowledge. By its inherent nature, knowledge could be accessed in
any manner depending on the interest, purpose, and capacity of the seeker. For an uninitiated,
this vastness could throw a challenge as the seeker may be clueless as to where to begin
and how to proceed. Therefore, the available knowledge needs to be collected, grouped, and
arranged logically. Codification and classification of the available knowledge using a definite
framework would constitute one dimension of the word ‘System’ in IKS. The other important
requirement is the interconnection between the part of the knowledge in the classification
framework. The framework used to represent should also provide some logical relationships
between the different parts of the proposed framework. This helps easy understanding of the
overall contribution of the knowledge and how the different components of the knowledge
complement each other. We take up this issue for discussion in the next section and present
a systematic approach to classifying IKS for this book.

1.3 THE IKS CORPUS – A CLASSIFICATION FRAMEWORK

There are many ways to define and identify what constitutes IKS. For example, one approach is
to merely pick the important topics representative of the knowledge corpus such as the Vedas,
10 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications

Yoga, Vāstu, Śilpa Śāstras, Āyurveda, Buddhism, and Jainism to define IKS. Another approach
is to select phrases such as Indian Psychology, Indian Arts, Dance, and Architecture and put
together related works into it to construct IKS. These examples bring out the components of
IKS. However, whether they will qualify to be a good framework for IKS depends on their ability
to meet the requirements of a classification framework for IKS.
The usefulness of a classification framework depends on three factors: completeness,
compactness, and inter-connectedness.
♦ Completeness ensures that all important components of the IKS are included in the
proposed framework. If significant omissions are found in the classification, it makes
the IKS non-exhaustive and non-representative.
♦ Compactness indicates the efficacy of the grouping of various topics in IKS in a
congruent and logical fashion. This makes the representation simple, concise, and
easy to understand and remember.
♦ Inter-connectedness brings logical relationships among the various sub-classifications.
The classification framework will identify how the different components are logically
connected. Thus, it presents a unified picture of the entire knowledge.
Closer scrutiny of the IKS knowledge repository provides us the following details:
(a) As already noted, the knowledge is available in both formal literary sources and
informal non-literary sources.
(b) Among the literary sources, we can broadly identify three categories. One of the major
sources is the Vedic and allied literature, which we shall designate as Sanātana-dharma
literature, presented mainly in the Sanskrit language. This comprises the religious and
philosophical part consisting of the Vedic and allied corpus, which forms the core and
a good repository of other literature spanning areas such as sciences, architecture, and
aesthetics. The second major source is the literature on other dharmic traditions. The
third group is a large repository of knowledge in other Indian languages and dialectics.
(c) The non-literary source is predominantly available through a rich set of oral traditions
found throughout the country.
Figure 1.2 pictorially presents the classification scheme based on the above observations.
Let us see some details of these categories.

Sanātana-dharma – Core Literature

This comprises a vast repository of knowledge starting with the Vedas, known as Śruti. Although
the Vedic corpus is oral in nature and is still transmitted using oral methods, these have been
later systematically documented in written form. The Vedas are considered foundational by the
Indian society and several important literary works were developed later, which substantially
added to the Vedic corpus by facilitating better understanding and implementation of the ideas
presented in the Vedas. This literature owed its allegiance to the Vedas and extracted their
cardinal assumptions and principles from the Vedas. For example, six schools of philosophical
thought, known as Darśanas developed their basic assumptions from the Vedas while stating
their prescriptions. The Vedic and allied repository has several sub-components and divisions
and is best understood from a classification methodology adopted, which we will see in the
Section 1.4.
 Indian Knowledge System – An Overview 11

FIGURE 1.2 The IKS Corpus – A Classification Framework

Sanātana-dharma – Other Literature

The other literature consists of works that addressed key issues of day-to-day life such as
health, wellness, science, engineering, technology that aided societal progress and development,
and aesthetics and art forms. Although they were primarily addressing a variety of issues, they
still owed their allegiance to Sanātana-dharma and acknowledged the core assumptions laid out
in the Vedas as the ultimate source for valid knowledge and drew relevant ideas wherever it
applied to their work. For example, the work on astronomy of Āryabhaṭa recognizes the ideas
of what constitutes a year, and the notion of four yugas from the Vedic corpus while proceeding
with specific discussions on the mathematical aspects.
This literature flourished from the first millennia in the BCE and was continuously
augmented by multiple works. Several areas were covered in this category, and the following
are prominent among them:
♦ Basic and applied sciences (Mathematics, Astronomy, Plant Sciences). A series of studies
were carried out continuously from the beginning of CE. Later works improved,
expanded, and added new components to the existing knowledge repository as evident
from the literary sources. We discuss these aspects in Chapters 6, 8, and 9 of the book
in some detail.
♦ Engineering and Technology (Metalworking Technology, Shipbuilding, Dams and
Watershed Management, Alchemy, Cosmetics, Perfumes, Dyes, Town Planning, and
Architecture). The literature presents both evidence of these as well as specific ideas
and techniques developed in many of these topics. Chapters 10, 11, and 12 look at
these aspects of IKS.
12 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System – Concepts and Applications

♦ Health, Wellness, and Psychology addressed the crucial issue that we face in contemporary
society. Three important works on Āyurveda (Caraka-saṃhitā, Suśruta-saṃhitā, and
Aṣtāṇga-hṛdaya) provide a wealth of information on health and wellness. Other related
works dealing with alchemy such as Rasaratna-samuccaya provide information on
āyurvedic formulations. The philosophical systems such as Yoga and Sāṃkhya and the
Upaniṣads have discussed the issue of psychology. Chapter 13 of the book discusses
the issues related to this theme.
♦ Nīti-śāstras is a collection of literature that informs the society of the good code of
living through poetic verses and stories. The sāmānya-nīti deals with elements of
good living, and the role of ethics and morality in life. Several life situations and wide-
ranging topics are addressed through stories, parables, and short poetic works. The
famous pañcatantra and the works of Bhartṛhari are some representative examples of
this category of literature. An extensive collection of such ideas scattered in the various
works is compiled into what is known as subhāṣitas. Chapter 4 of the book introduces
glimpses of this literature. Another aspect of nīti-śāstra is the Rāja-nīti, dealing with
public administration and governance.
♦ Public administration deals with the idea of governance of state and public policy
measures required for administration. Manu-smṛti provides rich information on
governance and administration. Arthaśāstra compiled during the 3rd century BCE is
a seminal work and it triggered further works in the area. Notable among them is
the Nīti-sāra of Kāmandaka. Chapter 14 of the book takes up this issue for discussion.
♦ Aesthetics, Kāvyas, and Performing Arts is another area with rich contributions. The
Sanskrit language is the vehicle through which the entire knowledge corpus of the
Sanātana-Dharma (both the core and the other) is presented. Linguistics and phonetics
of the Sanskrit language is a fundamental work that sets the stage for rich literature
development. Chapter 5 of the book introduces some concepts related to the Sanskrit
language. Works of great poets such as Kālidāsa, Daṇḍin, and Bāṇabhaṭṭa, works such
as Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyana, and Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata are some of the examples.

Other Dharmic Traditions

Other dharmic traditions have stayed out of the Vedic framework but have immensely
contributed to IKS in the religious, philosophical, and other domains. Two of them, the Buddhist
and the Jain literature are noteworthy, and they have contributed right from 500 BCE to IKS.
While the religious and philosophical part of the literature is based on the respective tenets
of the school of thought, other literature has applications in areas of science, technology, and
other areas.
Buddhist literature has dealt with the religious concepts in its canonical texts. However,
there are several Buddhist works in which many issues such as mathematical concepts,
maritime activities and alchemy are also discussed. The work of Nāgārjuna, Rasaratnākara
in the 1st century CE is an early contribution to alchemy. The Jain sacred literature consists
of canonical texts. They considered mathematics as an integral part and have dedicated
‘Gaṇitānuyoga’, a portion of their literature to mathematics3. Tattvārtha-sūtra, composed by
Umāsvāti during 2nd–3rd century CE is an important Jain literature. Some popular Jain texts
dealing with mathematics include Anuyogadvāra-sūtra, Vyavahāra-sūtra, and Sūrya-prajñapti.
Mahāvīrācārya’s work, Gaṇita-sāra-saṃgraha (850 CE) is one of the important contributions
to the development of mathematics in India.
 Indian Knowledge System – An Overview 13

Regional Literature
The separation of regional languages in this figure is only convenience. Ideally, it could be
included under Sanātana-dharma. Indian subcontinent has a rich and diverse mix of cultural
and linguistic variations. The 8th schedule of the Indian
constitution has listed 22 languages of the country. In each ♦ The Buddhist and the Jain literature
of these languages, there is a huge corpus of religious, have contributed significantly to
philosophical, and other literature. For example, Tamil IKS right from 500 BCE.
literature has several contributions in the Sangam period ♦ The 8th schedule of the Indian
(first millennium BCE). Several of the works in the regional constitution has listed 22
languages of the country and in
literature have drawn from the Sanskrit resources and have
each of these there is a huge
either explained them in detail in the chosen regional corpus of sacred and other
language or extrapolated them further with some more literature.
ideas. The new literature created broadly follows the
Sanātana-dhārmic literature and utilises the basic framework laid in the Sanātana-dharma
literature. The sheer volume and vastness of the regional literature introduces constraints in
drawing substantially from this corpus for the present book.

Oral Traditions
The diversity of cultural practices and regional preferences have paved the way for oral
traditions to preserve and transmit knowledge across generations. These have been primarily
in the form of folklore artistic endeavours, skilful jobs, food and life practices, and health. The
64 Kalās mentioned in the IKS literature are mostly skill-based and artistic chores that are
orally transmitted.
Sanskrit has been the dominant language for transacting knowledge for a long time in
India. Therefore, for the purpose of the book, the main sources of knowledge to discuss various
aspects of IKS are drawn from the Sanskrit literature. As we have already seen, the Sanātana-
dharma literature, the Jain and some of the Buddhist literature are presented using Sanskrit as
the medium of language. The choice of a Sanskrit-based knowledge repository does not imply
that similar knowledge was not available in other regional languages in the country. However,
as noted earlier, the process becomes complex and unwieldy to present all these in a single
book. The other aspect for inclusion is that the knowledge shall be quoted, cross-referenced,
and acknowledged by the indigenous people in the domain. This provides internal consistency
and validation of the knowledge by the indigenous society.
The other issue that merits attention is, “how recent a history we must include in the
definition?” The culture of new knowledge creation is an unhindered process in the country
until the early 19th century. However, beginning the 16th century CE, there has been a wave
of invasions in the country, introducing newer dimensions and priorities in society. Therefore,
there is a greater focus to preserve the existing knowledge repository. Further, beginning the
16th century the ascend of the Western knowledge systems and scientific discoveries had its
influence on the native knowledge practices also. Therefore, the knowledge sources dated up
to the 16th century CE are mainly considered for the purpose of this book.

1.4 CATURDAŚA-VIDYĀSTHĀNA
A classification framework for the Sanātana-dharma literature as we have defined in the
previous section is available within the resources itself4. In this framework, the literature
 ISBN:978-93-91818-21-0

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