Building with Earth

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Gernot Minke

BUILDING
WITH EARTH
Design and Technology of
a Sustainable Architecture

Fifth and revised edition

Birkhäuser
Basel
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Table of contents
Preface 7 6 Working with earth blocks 60
History 60
1 Introduction 9 Production of earth blocks 61
History 9 Material composition 64
Earth as a building material: the essentials 11 Laying earth blocks 64
Improving indoor climate 13 Surface treatment 65
Prejudices against earth as a building material 16 Fixing fasteners to walls 65
Lightweight earth blocks 65
2 The properties of earth as a building material 17 Special acoustic green bricks and adobes 66
Composition 17
Tests used to analyse the composition of loam 19 7 Large blocks and panels 67
Effects of water 22 Large blocks 67
Effects of vapour 26 Earth-filled wall panels 67
Influence of heat 29 Clay panels 69
Strength 30 Heating panels 71
pH-value 32 Floor slabs 71
Radioactivity 33 Floor tiles 72
Shelter against high-frequency electromagnetic Extruded loam slabs 72
radiation 33
8 Direct forming with wet loam 73
3 Preparing of loam 34 Traditional wet loam techniques 73
Soaking, crushing and mixing 34 The “Dünne loam loaf” technique 75
Sieving 36 The stranglehm technique 75
Mechanical slurrying 36
Water curing 36 9 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures 80
Thinning 36 Thrown loam 80
Sprayed loam 80
4 Improving the characteristics of loam by special Rolls and bottles of straw loam 81
treatment or additives 37 Lightweight loam infill 81
Reduction of shrinkage cracks 37 Infill with stranglehm and earth-filled hoses 82
Stabilisation against water erosion 38 Sprayed loam in steel-reinforced walls and ceilings 82
Enhancement of binding force 40
Increasing compressive strength 40 10 Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight loam 85
Strength against abrasion 45 Formwork 85
Increasing thermal insulation 45 Tamped lightweight straw loam walls 85
Lightweight loams 46 Tamped lightweight wood loam walls 87
Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight mineral loam
5 Rammed earthworks 50 walls 87
Formwork 51 Pumped lightweight mineral loam floors 88
Tools 52 Loam-filled hollow blocks 88
Method of construction 53 Loam-filled hoses 90
Shaping of openings 53
Wall construction techniques 54 11 Loam plasters 92
Rammed earth domes 59 Preparation of substrate 92
Drying 59 Composition of loam plaster 92
Labour input 59 Guidelines for plastering earth walls 94
Thermal insulation 59 Sprayed lightweight plaster 94
Surface treatment 59 Lightweight mineral loam plaster 95

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 Thrown plaster 95 Built examples
Plastered straw bale houses 95
Wet formed plaster 97 Residences
Protection of corners 97 Vineyard residence, Mornington Peninsula, Victoria,
Stabilised loam plasters 97 Australia 148
Characteristics of different loam plasters 97 Residence cum office, Kassel, Germany 150
Residence, Helensville, New Zealand 152
12 Weather resistance, coatings and coverings 100 Residence, Palo Alto, California, USA 154
Consolidating the surface 100 Weekend house, Ajijic, Mexico 156
Paints 100 Desert Outpost residence, Paradise Valley, Arizona, USA 158
Making surfaces water-repellent 103 Artist’s residence, Boulder, Colorado, USA 160
Lime plasters 104 Casa Martha, La Misión, Baja California, Mexico 162
Shingles, planks and other covers 105 Condominiums Los Maitenes, Peñalolén, Santiago de Chile,
Structural methods 105 Chile 164
Residence at Valle Tucán, Emboscada, Paraguay 168
13 Repair of loam structures 106 Barrel-vaulted residential buildings at Valle Tucán,
Occurrence of damage 106 Emboscada, Paraguay 170
Repair of cracks and joints with loam fillers 106
Repair of cracks and joints with other fillers 107 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
Repairing larger damaged areas 107 National Environment Centre at Thurgoona Campus, Albury,
Retrofitting thermal insulation with lightweight loam 107 New South Wales, Australia 174
School, Rudrapur, Bangladesh 176
14 Customised design solutions 109 Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin, Germany 178
Joints 109 WISE Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynleth,
Special wall constructions 111 Wales, UK 180
Intermediate floors 113 Primary school, Tanouan Ibi, Mali 182
Rammed earth floorings 113 Cemetery, Bushey, Hertfordshire, UK 186
Inclined roofs filled with lightweight loam 115 The Village Nursery, Bellingdon, Buckinghamshire, UK 190
Earth-covered roofs 115 Centre for People with Disabilities and Dipdii Textiles Studio,
Earth block vaults and domes 117 Rudrapur, Bangladesh 194
Earthen storage wall in winter gardens 129 Adobe Dome Music Space, Aiguá, Uruguay 198
Loam in bathrooms 129 Burkina Institute of Technology, Koudougou,
Built-in furniture and sanitary objects from loam 131 Burkina Faso 202
Passive solar wall heating system 132 Maison pour tous, Four, Isère, France 206

15 Earthquake-resistant building 133 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings

Structural measures 134 Rivergreen Centre, Aykley Heads, Durham, UK 210
Openings for doors and windows 136 High Country Visitor Information Centre, Mansfield, Victoria,
Bamboo-reinforced rammed earth walls 139 Australia 212
Steel-reinforced sprayed loam walls 139 Mii Amo Spa, Sedona, Arizona, USA 214
Steel-reinforced adobe wall system 141 Bayalpata Hospital, Acham, Nepal 216
Domes 141 Office pavilion Earthbox, Asunción, Paraguay 220
Vaults 141 Alnatura Office Building, Darmstadt, Germany 224
Textile walls with loam infill 144 Prototype building TECLA, Massa Lombarda, Italy 228
Steel-reinforced earth walls 146 Dior Pop-up Store, Jumeirah, Dubai 230

Bibliography 234
About the author 237
Illustration credits 237
Subject index 238

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 Preface

This handbook was written in response to bor für Experimentelles Bauen (Building Re-
an increasing worldwide interest in building search Institute – BRI) at the University of
with earth. While in Europe and North Amer- Kassel in Germany from 1978 to 2011. More-
ica earthen architecture may never play the over, the specialised techniques that the au-
dominant role as in warmer regions, we nev- thor developed and the practical experience
ertheless find an increasing tendency to build he gathered in the course of designing earth
with loam also in cooler climate zones. One buildings in a number of countries have also
reason for this is the growing environmental found their way into this book.
awareness as well as the desire to live in a
balanced and healthy indoor environment. This volume is loosely based on the German
Thus this fifth edition is timely and should publication Handbuch Lehmbau (Publisher:
encourage architects to explore the potential Ökobuch Verlag, Staufen), first published in
of this sustainable building material further. 1994 and now in its tenth edition (2022).
The publication provides a survey of all ap- Besides this English edition, the publication
plications and construction techniques of was translated into numerous languages
earth as a building material, including the such as Spanish, Russian, Japanese, Czech,
relevant physical data, while explaining its Farsi, Arabic and Rumanian.
specific qualities and the possibilities of op-
timising them. On many accounts, earth can While this is first and foremost a technical
offer an interesting alternative to industrial- book, the introductory chapter also provides
ised building materials. The data and expert the reader with a short survey on the histo-
knowledge contained in this volume may be ry of earth architecture. In this fifth English
used as guidelines for a variety of construc- edition, the relatively recent technology of
tion processes and possible applications by prefabricated rammed earth elements is in-
engineers, architects, builders and clients troduced and the growing segment of clay
who seek to use humanity’s oldest building panels is documented. The book’s final chap-
material for their purposes. ter depicts a number of attractive earth build-
ings from various regions of the world. These
Earth as a building material comes in many dif- constructions demonstrate the impressive
ferent compositions and can be variously pro- versatility of earth architecture and the many
cessed. Loam, or clayey soil, as it is referred to different uses of the building material earth.
scientifically, has different names when used Within this chapter, several older built exam-
in various applications, for instance rammed ples were replaced by seven new projects.
Left page:
earth, soil blocks, mud bricks or adobe. This
Minaret of the Al-Mihdar Mosque in Tarim, Yemen; it book documents the results of experiments Kassel, March 2025
is 38 m high and built of handmade adobes. and research conducted at the Forschungsla- Gernot Minke

7 Preface
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1.1

1.2

8 Introduction
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 1 Introduction

is the most important natural building ma-

terial, and it is available in most regions of
the world. It is frequently obtained directly
from the building site when excavating foun-
dations or basements. In the industrialised
countries, careless exploitation of resources
and centralised capital combined with ener-
gy-intensive production is not only wasteful;
it also pollutes the environment and increas-
es unemployment. In these countries, earth
is being revived as a building material.
Increasingly, people when building homes
demand energy- and cost-effective buildings
that emphasise a healthy, balanced indoor
climate. They are coming to realise that mud,
as a natural building material, is superior to
industrial building materials such as con-
crete, brick and lime-sandstone. Newly de-
1.3 veloped, advanced earth building techniques
In nearly all hot-arid and temperate climates, demonstrate the value of earth not only in
earth has always been the most prevalent do-it-yourself construction, but also for indus-
building material. Even today, one third of trialised construction involving contractors.
the human population resides in earthen This handbook presents the basic theoret-
houses; in developing countries this figure ical data concerning this material, and it
is more than one half. It has proven impos- provides the necessary guidelines, based on
sible to fulfil the immense requirements scientific research and practical experience,
for shelter in the developing countries with for applying it in a variety of contexts.
industrial building materials, i.e. brick, con-
crete and steel, nor with industrialised con- History
struction techniques. Worldwide, no region
1.1 Citadel of Bam, Iran, before earthquake of
is endowed with the productive capacity or Earth construction techniques have been
December 2003 financial resources needed to satisfy this known for over 9000 years. Mud brick (ado-
1.2 Tulou of the Hakka in Fujian, Nanjing, China: demand. In the developing countries, re- be) houses dating from 8000 to 6000 BC
A timber roof construction with a courtyard and quirements for shelter can be met only by have been discovered in Russian Turkestan
rammed earth walls. using local building materials and relying on (Pumpelly, 1908). Rammed earth founda-
1.3 Fortified City, Draa valley, Morocco, 15th century do-it-yourself construction techniques. Earth tions dating from ca. 5000 BC have been

9 Introduction
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1.4 1.5

discovered in Assyria. Earth was used as the ple live in underground houses or caves that 15th to the 19th centuries. Near the city of
building material in all ancient cultures, not were dug in the silty soil. Lyon, there are several buildings that are
only for homes, but for religious buildings Bronze Age discoveries have established more than 300 years old and are still inhab-
as well. Illustrations 1.1 and 1.5 show the that in Germany earth was used as an ited. In 1790 and 1791, François Cointeraux
citadel of Bam in Iran, parts of which are infill in timber-framed houses or to seal published four booklets on this technique
ca. 2500 years old; 1.3 shows a fortified walls made of tree trunks. Wattle and that were translated into German 2 years
city in the Draa valley in Morocco, which is daub was also used. The oldest exam- later (Cointeraux, 1793). The technique
around 250 years old. The 4000-year-old ple of mud brick walls in northern Europe, came to be known all over Germany and in
Great Wall of China was originally built sole- found in the Heuneburg Fort near Lake neighbouring countries through Cointeraux
ly of rammed earth; only a later covering of Constance, Germany (1.11) dates back to and through David Gilly who described the
stones and bricks gave it the appearance the 6th century BC. We know from the an- rammed earth technique as the most advan-
of a stone wall. China has a long tradition cient texts of Pliny that there were rammed tageous earth construction method.
of building with earth; well-known are for earth forts in Spain by the end of the year In Germany, the oldest inhabited house
instance the Tulou ("house of earth") build- 100 BC. In Mexico, Central America and with rammed earth walls dates from 1795
ings (1.2; 15.1) in Fujian, Nanjing (Schittich, South America, adobe buildings are known (1.13). Its owner, the director of the fire de-
2019). Illustration 1.4 shows vaults in the in nearly all pre-Columbian cultures. The partment, claimed that fire-resistant houses
Temple of Ramses II at Gourna, Egypt, built rammed earth technique was also known in could be built more economically using this
from mud bricks 3200 years ago. The core many areas, while the Spanish conquerors technique, as opposed to the usual timber
of the Sun Pyramid in Teotihuacan, Mexico, brought it to others. Illustration 1.10 shows frame houses with earth infill.
built between the 300 and 900 AD, con- a rammed earth finca in the state of São The tallest house with solid earth walls in Eu-
sists of approximately 2 million tonnes of Paulo, Brazil, which is 250 years old. In Af- rope is at Weilburg, Germany. The so-called
rammed earth. rica, nearly all early mosques are built from Pisé House (referring to French piser or to
Many centuries ago, in dry climatic zones earth. Illustration 1.12 shows one from the stamp) by architect Wilhelm Jacob Wimpf
where wood is scarce, construction tech- 12th century, 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8 show later ex- was completed in 1828, has six storeys and
niques were developed in which buildings amples in Mali and Iran. is still in use today (1.14). All ceilings and
were covered with mud brick vaults or In the Medieval period (13th to 17th centu- the entire roof structure rest on the solid
domes without formwork or support dur- ries), earth was used throughout Central Eu- rammed earth walls that are 75 cm thick at
ing construction. While the splendid Shah rope as infill in timber-framed buildings, as the bottom and 40 cm thick at the top floor
Mosque was built from earth bricks (1.8), well as to cover straw roofs to make them (the compressive force at the bottom of the
illustration 1.9 shows the bazaar quarter of fire-resistant. walls reaches 7.5 kg/cm2). Illustration 1.15
Sirdjan in Persia, which is covered by such In France, the rammed earth technique, shows the facades of other rammed earth
domes and vaults. In China, 20 million peo- called terre pisé, was widespread from the houses at Weilburg, built around 1830.

10 Introduction
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1.6

1.7

Earth as a building material: the pare the mixture (moisture is required to acti-
essentials vate its binding strength and to achieve work-
1.8 ability), shrinkage cracks will occur. The linear
Earth, when used as a building material, is shrinkage ratio is usually between 3% and
often given different names. Referred to in 12% with wet mixtures (such as those used for
scientific terms as loam, it is a mixture of clay, mortar and mud bricks), and between 0.4%
silt (very fine sand), sand and occasionally and 2% with drier mixtures (used for rammed
larger aggregates such as gravel or stones. earth, compressed soil blocks). Shrinkage can
When speaking of handmade unbaked be minimised by reducing the clay and the wa-
bricks, the terms “mud bricks” or “adobes” ter content, by optimising the grain size distri-
are usually employed; when speaking of bution, and by using additives (see p. 37).
compressed unbaked bricks, the term “soil
blocks” is used. When compacted within a 3 Loam is not water-resistant
1.9 formwork, it is called “rammed earth”. Loam Loam must be sheltered against rain and
has three disadvantages when compared to frost, especially in its wet state. Earth walls
common industrialised building materials: can be protected by roof overhangs, damp-
proof courses, appropriate surface coatings
1 Loam is not a standardised building etc. (see p. 38).
material
Depending on the site where the loam is dug On the other hand, loam has many advan-
out, it will be composed of differing amounts tages in comparison to common industrial
and types of clay, silt, sand and aggregates. building materials:
Its characteristics, therefore, may differ from
site to site, and the preparation of the cor- 1 Loam balances air humidity
rect mix for a specific application may also Loam is able to absorb and desorb humid-
1.4 Storage rooms, temple of Ramses II, Gourna,
differ. In order to judge its characteristics ity faster and to a greater extent than any
Egypt
and alter these, when necessary, by apply- other building material, enabling it to bal-
1.5 Citadel of Bam, Kerman, Iran, detail ing additives, one needs to know the specific ance indoor climate. Experiments at the
1.6 Large Mosque, Djenne, Mali, built 1935 composition of the loam involved. Forschungslabor für Experimentelles Bau-
1.7 Mosque, Kashan, Iran en (Building Research Institute – BRI) at
1.8 Shah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran, 17th century 2 Loam mixtures shrink when drying the University of Kassel, Germany, demon-
1.9 Bazaar, Sirdjan, Iran Due to evaporation of the water used to pre- strated that when the relative humidity in

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1.10 1.11

1.12

a room was raised suddenly from 50% to that the relative humidity in this house was
80%, unbaked bricks were able, in a two-day a nearly constant 50% throughout the year.
period to absorb 30 times more humidity It fluctuated by only 5% to 10%, thereby pro-
1.10 Rammed earth finca, São Paulo, Brazil
than baked bricks. Even when standing in ducing healthy living condition with reduced
1.11 Reconstruction of mud-brick wall, Heuneburg,
Germany, 6th century BC
a climatic chamber at 95% humidity for 6 humidity in summer and elevated humidity in
months, adobes do not become wet or lose winter. (For more details, see p. 13).
1.12 Mosque at Nando, Mali, 12th century
their stability; nor do they exceed their equi-
1.13 Rammed earth house, Meldorf, Germany, 1795
librium moisture content, which is about 5% 2 Loam stores heat
1.14 Rammed earth house (Pisé house), Weilburg,
Germany, 1828
to 7% by weight. (The maximum humidity a Like all heavy materials, loam stores heat.
dry material can absorb is called its “equi- As a result, in climatic zones with high di-
1.15 Around 1830, a number of rammed earth
houses were built in Weilburg, Germany. librium moisture content”). Measurements urnal temperature differences, or where it
1.16 Section through trachea with sane mucous
taken in a newly built house in Germany, becomes necessary to store solar heat gain
membrane (left) and dried out one (right) (Beckert, all of whose interior and exterior walls are by passive means, loam can balance indoor
1986) from earth, over a period of 8 years, showed climate.

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 3 Loam saves energy and reduces 60). Similarly, loam can preserve small quan-
environmental pollution tities of straw that are mixed into it. Howev-
The preparation, transport and handling er, if lightweight straw loam with a density of
of loam on site requires only ca. 1% of the less than 500 to 600 kg/m3 is used, then the
energy needed for the production, transport loam may lose its preservative capacity due
and handling of baked bricks or reinforced to the high capillarity of the straw when used
concrete. Loam, then, produces virtually no in such high proportions. In such cases, the
environmental pollution. straw may rot when remaining wet over long
1.13 periods (see 10.3, p. 86).
4 Loam is always reusable
Unbaked loam can be recycled an indefinite 8 Loam absorbs pollutants
number of times over an extremely long pe- It is often maintained that earth walls help
riod. Old dry loam can be reused after soak- to clean polluted indoor air, but this has yet
ing in water, so loam never becomes a waste to be proven scientifically. It is a fact that
material that harms the environment. earth walls can absorb pollutants dissolved
in water. For instance, a demonstration plant
5 Loam saves material and transportation exists in Ruhleben, Berlin, which uses clay-
costs ey soil to remove phosphates from 600 m3
Clayey soil is often found on site, so that the of sewage daily. The phosphates are bound
soil excavated for foundations can then be by the clay minerals and extracted from the
used for earth construction. If the soil con- sewage. The advantage of this procedure is
tains too little clay, then clayey soil must be that since no foreign substances remain in
added, whereas if too much clay is present, the water, the phosphates are converted into
sand is added. The use of excavated soil calcium phosphate for reuse as a fertiliser.
means greatly reduced costs in comparison
1.14 with other building materials. Even if this soil Improving indoor climate
is transported from other construction sites,
it is usually much cheaper than industrial In moderate to cold climates, people usually
building materials. spend about 90% of their time in enclosed
spaces, so indoor climate is a crucial factor
6 Loam is ideal for do-it-yourself in well-being. Comfort depends upon the tem-
construction perature, movement, humidity, radiation to
Provided the building process is supervised and from surrounding objects, and pollution
by an experienced individual, earth construc- content of the air contained in a given room.
tion techniques can usually be executed by Although occupants immediately become
non-professionals. Since the processes in- aware when room temperatures are too high
volved are labour-intensive and require only or too low, the negative impacts of excessively
1.15 inexpensive tools and machines, they are elevated or reduced humidity levels are not
ideal for do-it-yourself building. common knowledge. Air humidity in contained
spaces has a significant impact on the health
7 Loam preserves timber and other of inhabitants, and earth has the ability to
organic materials balance indoor humidity like no other building
Owing to its low equilibrium moisture content material. This fact, only recently investigated,
of 0.4% to 6% by weight and its high capillar- is described in detail later in this section.
ity, loam conserves the timber elements that
remain in contact with it by keeping them Air humidity and health
dry. Normally, fungi or insects will not dam- Research performed by Grandjean (1973)
age such wood, since insects need a mini- and Beckert (1986) has shown that a relative
mum of 14% to 18% humidity to maintain humidity of less than 40% over a long period
1.16 life, and fungi more than 20% (Volz, 2004, p. may dry out the mucous membrane, which

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 Relative humidity
Water content in air in g/m³

48 hours 48 hours
1 Lime-sand brick 4 Solid brick 1 Clayey loam 4 Lime-cement plaster
2 Porous concrete 5 Porous hollow brick 2 Clayey loam plaster 5 Gypsum plaster
Temperature in °C 3 Cement concrete M 25 6 Clinker brick 3 Spruce, planed

1.17 1.18

can decrease resistance to colds and relat- The impact of air exchange on air humidity
ed diseases. This is so because normally the In moderate and cold climates, when the
mucous membrane of the epithelial tissue outside temperatures are much lower than
within the trachea absorbs dust, bacteria, vi- inside temperatures, the greater degree of
ruses etc. and returns them to the mouth by fresh air exchange may make indoor air so
the wavelike movement of the epithelial hair. dry that negative health effects can result.
If this absorption and transportation system For example, if outside air with a tempera-
is disturbed by drying, then foreign bodies ture of 0°C and 60% relative humidity enters
can reach the lungs and may cause health a room and is heated to 20°C, its relative
problems (1.16). A high relative humidity of humidity decreases to less than 20%. Even
up to 70% has many positive consequenc- if the outside air (temperature 0°C) had
es: it reduces the fine dust content of the 100% humidity level and was warmed up to
air, activates the protection mechanisms of 20°C, its relative humidity would still drop
the skin against microbes, reduces the life to less than 30%. In both cases, it becomes
of many bacteria and viruses, and reduces necessary to raise the humidity as soon as
odour and static charge on the surfaces of possible in order to attain healthy and com-
objects in the room. fortable conditions. This can be done by reg-
A relative humidity of more than 70% is nor- ulating the humidity that is released by walls,
mally experienced as unpleasant, probably ceilings, floors and furniture (1.17).
because of the reduction of oxygen intake by
the blood in warm-humid conditions. Increas- The balancing effect of loam on humidity
ing rheumatic pains are observed in cold Porous materials have the capacity to absorb
humid air. Fungus formation increases sig- humidity from the ambient air and to deso-
nificantly in closed rooms when the humid- rb humidity into the air, thereby achieving
ity rises above 70% or 80%. Fungus spores humidity balance in indoor climates. The
in large quantities can lead to various kinds equilibrium moisture content depends on
of pain and allergies. From these considera- the temperature and humidity of the ambi-
tions, it follows that the humidity content in a ent air (see 2.29, p. 28). The effectiveness
room should be a minimum of 40%, but not of this balancing process also depends upon
more than 70%. the speed of the absorption or desorption.

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 48 hours 16 days

1 Clayey loam 4 Spruce planed

2 Clayey loam plaster 5 Limba planed
3 Loamplaster with 6 Lime-cement plaster
coconut fibre 7 Gypsum plaster

1.20 1.21

16 days Experiments conducted at the BRI show, for 3 × 4 m, a height of 3 m, and a wall area of
1 Silty loam 7 Lime-sand-brick
2 Clayey loam 8 Porous concrete
instance, that the first 1.5-cm-thick layer of a 30 m2 (after subtracting doors and windows),
(1900 kg/m³) 9 Loam with expanded mud brick wall is able to absorb about 300 g if indoor air humidity were raised from 50%
3 Straw loam clay
(1400 kg/m³) 10 Hollow brick
of water per m2 of wall surface in 48 hours if to 80%, unplastered mud brick walls would
4 Straw loam
(700 kg/m³)
11 Cement concrete the humidity of the ambient air is suddenly absorb about 9 litres of water in 48 hours. (If
M 15
5 Straw loam 12 Porous hollow brick
raised from 50% to 80%. However, limesand- the humidity were lowered from 80% to 50%,
(550 kg/m³)
6 Pine
13 Solid brick stone and pinewood of the same thickness the same amount would be released). The
absorb only about 100 g/m2, plaster 26 to same walls, if built from solid baked bricks,
1.19 76 g/m2, and baked brick only 6 to 30 g/ would absorb only about 0.9 litres of water
m2 in the same period (1.18). The absorp- in the same period, which means they are
tion curves from both sides of 11.5-cm-thick inappropriate for balancing the humidity of
unplastered walls of different materials over rooms.
16 days are shown in 1.19. The results show Measurements taken over a period of 5 years
that mud bricks absorb 50 times as much in various rooms of a house built in Germa-
moisture as solid bricks baked at high tem- ny in 1985, all of whose exterior and interior
peratures. The absorption rates of 1.5-cm- walls were built of earth, showed that the
1.17 Water vapour content of the air in relation to thick samples, when humidity was raised relative humidity remained nearly constant
temperature from 30% to 70%, are shown in 1.20. over the years, varying from 45% to 55%.
1.18 Absorption of samples, 15 mm thick, at a The influence of the thickness of a clayey soil The owner wanted higher humidity levels of
temperature of 21°C and a sudden increase of on absorption rates is shown in 1.21. Here 50% to 60% only in the bedroom. It was pos-
humidity from 50% to 80% we see that when humidity is raised sudden- sible to maintain this higher level (which is
1.19 Absorption curves of 11.5-cm-thick interior ly from 50% to 80%, only the upper 2 cm ab- healthier for people who tend to get colds or
walls with two sides exposed at a temperature of sorbs humidity within the first 24 hours, and flues) by utilising the higher humidity of the
21°C after a sudden rise in humidity from 50% to
that only the upper layer 4 cm in thickness adjacent bathroom. If bedroom humidity de-
80%
is active within the first 4 days. Lime, casein creased too much, the door to the bathroom
1.20 Absorption curves of 15-mm-thick samples,
and cellulose glue paints reduce this absorp- was opened after showering, recharging the
one side exposed, at a temperature of 21°C after
a sudden rise in humidity from 30% to 70% tion only slightly, whereas coatings of double bedroom walls with humidity.
1.21 Effect of the thickness of loam layers at a
latex and single linseed oil can reduce ab-
temperature of 21°C on their rate of absorption after sorption rates to 38% and 50% respectively,
a sudden rise in humidity from 50% to 80% as seen in 1.22. In a room with a floor area of

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 48 hours 48 hours

M Silty loam, 2 Sand without coating M Loam plaster without aggregate

KQ 2x 1 Lime : 1 Quark : 1.7 Water I2 with 2.0% coconut fibres
KL 2x Chalk cellulose glue paint C1 with 2.0% cellulose fibres
LE 1x Double-boiled linseed oil E1 with 2.0% water glass
1.22 Influence of coatings on 1.5-cm-thick, oneside-
D2 2x Biofa dispersible paint I1 with 1.0% coconut fibres
LA 1x Biofa glaze with primer L1 with 3.0% saw dust
exposed loam plasters at a temperature of 21°C
AF 2x Acrylic paint J1 with 2.0% wheat straw (clay 4%, silt 25%, sand 71%) after a sudden rise in
DK 2x Synthetic dispersion paint exterior F1 with 3.0% cement humidity from 50% to 80%. Thickness of coating is
LX 2x Latex D2 with 2.0% boiled rye flour 100 ± 10 μm.
UD 2x Dispersion paint without solvent B1 with 0.5% cellulose glue
1.23 Influence of different aggregates on the ab-
D1 2x Dispersion paint for interior H1 with 6.0% casein/lime++
sorption of humidity. Same conditions as mentioned
1.22 1.23 in 1.22

Prejudices against earth as a to handle as there are no sharp corners.” and bathrooms) can be dealt with by painting
building material The anxiety that mice or insects might live them with casein, lime-casein, linseed oil or
in earth walls is unfounded when these are other coatings, which makes them nonabra-
Owing to ignorance, prejudices against loam solid. Insects can survive only provided there sive. As explained on p. 129, bathrooms with
are still widespread. Many people have diffi- are gaps, as in “wattle-and-daub” walls. In earth walls are more hygienic than those
culty conceiving that a natural building mate- South America, the Chagas disease, which with glazed tiles, since earth absorbs high
rial such as earth need not be processed and leads to blindness, comes from insects that humidity quickly, thereby inhibiting fungus
that, in many cases, the excavation for foun- live in wattle-and-daub walls. Gaps can be growth.
dations provides a material that can be used avoided by constructing walls of rammed
directly in building. The following reaction by earth or mud bricks with totally filled mud
a mason who had to build an adobe wall is mortar joints. Moreover, if the earth con-
characteristic: “This is like medieval times; tains too many organic additives, as in the
now we have to dirty our hands with all this case of lightweight straw clay, with a density
mud.” The same mason, happily showing his of less than 600 kg/m3, small insects such
hands after working with adobes for a week, as wood lice can live in the straw and attack
said, “Have you ever seen such smooth ma- it. Common perceptions that loam surfaces
son’s hands? The adobes are a lot of fun are difficult to clean (especially in kitchens

16 Introduction
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a_3_korr_an_bp_part_1 24.10.12 15:45 Seite 17

2
The properties of earth
as material
2 The properties of earth as a building a building material

dis- 2.1 Clay Silt Sand Gravel Composition

with 100 Composition 15% by weight, the soil is termed a lean clay-
90

on- 80
General ey soil. If it is more than 30% by weight, it is
Loam is a product of erosion from rock in
Percentage passing

high 70
General termed a rich clayey soil. Components that
w) 60 the earth’s crust. This erosion occurs mainly
50 Loam is a product of erosion from
through the mechanical grinding of rock via
rock in form less than 5% of the total by weight are
40 the earth’s crust.
the movement This
of glaciers, watererosion
and wind, occurs mainly not mentioned when naming the soils. Thus,
30
or through the
through thermal expansion andgrinding
mechanical contrac- of rock via for instance, a rich silty, sandy, lean clayey
20
tion of rock, or through the expansion of
10 the movement of glaciers, water and wind, or soil contains more than 30% silt, 15% to 30%
0 freezing water in the crevices of the rock.
0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 20 60 through
Due to organicthermal expansion
acids prevalent in plants,and contraction sand, and less than 15% clay with less than
Grain size (mm)
of rock, chemical
moreover, or through reactionsthedueexpansion
to water of freez- 5% gravel or rock. However, in earth con-
and oxygen also lead to rock erosion. The
100
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
ing water in the crevices of the rock. Due to struction engineering, this method of naming
composition and varying properties of loam
90
organic
depend onacids prevalent
local conditions. in plants,
Gravelly moun- moreover, soils is less accurate because, for example,
80
chemical
tainous loams, reactions
for instance,due to water
are more suit- and oxygen a loam with 14% clay which would be called
Percentage passing

70
able for rammed earth (provided they con-
60
also lead to rock erosion. The composition lean clayey in soil mechanics, would be con-
50 tain sufficient clay), while riverside loams are
40 and varying properties of loam depend on lo-
often siltier and are therefore less weather-
sidered a rich clayey soil from the point of
30 cal conditions.
resistant and weakerGravelly mountainous loams,
in compression. view of earth construction.
20
Loam is a mixture of clay,
for instance, are more suitable silt and sand, and for rammed
10
sometimes contains larger aggregates like
0
earth (provided they contain sufficient clay), Clay
0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 20 60 gravel and stones. Engineering science
Grain size (mm) while
definesriverside
its particles loams
accordingare often siltier and are
to diameter: Clay is a product of the erosion of feldspar
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
therefore less weather-resistant and weaker
particles with diameters smaller than and other minerals. Feldspar contains alu-
100 0.002 mm are termed clay, those between
90
in compression. Loam is a mixture of clay, minium oxide, a second metal oxide and sili-
0.002 and 0.06 mm are called silt, and
80 silt
thoseand sand,0.06
between andandsometimes
2 mm are called contains larger con dioxide. One of the most common types
Percentage passing

70
60
aggregates
sand. Particles oflike gravel
larger diameter and arestones.
termed Engineer- of feldspar has the chemical formula Al2O3 ·
gravels and stones.
50 ing science defines its particles according to K2O · 6SiO2. If easily soluble potassium com-
40 Like cement in concrete, clay acts as a
diameter: particles with diameters smaller
binder for all larger particles in the loam. Silt,
pounds are dissolved during erosion, then
30
20 than
sand and0.002 mm constitute
aggregates are termed clay,
the fillers in those be- clay called Kaolinite is formed, which has the
10 the loam.0.002
Depending on which
0
tween and 0.06 ofmm the three
are called silt, formula Al2O3 · 2SiO2 · 2H2O. Another com-
components is dominant, we speak of a
0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 20 60 and those between 0.06 and 2 mm are mon clay mineral is Montmorillonite, whose
Grain size (mm) clayey, silty or sandy loam. In traditional soil
2.1 called sand. Particles of larger diameter are formula is Al2O2 · 4SiO2. There also exists a
17 Properties of earth termed gravels and stones. variety of less common clay minerals such
Like cement in concrete, clay acts as a bind- as Illite. The structure of these minerals is
er for all larger particles in the loam. Silt, shown in 2.2.
sand and aggregates constitute the fillers in Clay minerals are also found mixed with oth-
the loam. Depending on which of the three er chemical compounds, particularly with hy-
2.1 Soil grain size distribution of loams with
components is dominant, we speak of a drated iron oxide (Fe2O3 · H2O) and other iron
high clay content (above), high silt content clayey, silty or sandy loam. In traditional soil compounds, giving the clay a characteristic
(middle), and high sand content (below) mechanics, if the clay content is less than yellow or red colour. Manganese compounds

17 The properties of earth as a building material

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 Kaolinite Illite Montmorillonite

2.2

impart a brown colour; lime and magnesi- a logarithmic scale. The curve is plotted cu-
um compounds give white, while organic mulatively, with each grain size including all
substances give a deep brown or black col- the fine components.
our. Clay minerals usually have a hexagonal The upper graph characterises a rich clayey
lamellar crystalline structure. These lamel- loam with 28% clay, 35% silt, 33% sand and
las consist of different layers that are usually 4% gravel. The middle graph shows rich silty
formed around silicon or aluminium cores. loam with 76% silt, and the bottom graph a
In the case of silicon, they are surrounded rich sandy loam containing 56% sand. An-
by oxygenations; in the case of aluminium, other method for graphically describing loam
by hydroxyl (ions) groups (-HO). The layers composed of particles no larger than 2 mm
of silicon oxide have the strongest negative is shown in 2.4. Here the percentage of clay,
charge, which endows them with a high inter- silt and sand can be plotted on the three
lamellary binding force (2.3). Because each axes of a triangle and read accordingly. For
layer of aluminium hydroxide is connected example, the loam indicated by an asterisk
to a layer of silicon oxide, the double-lay- in this graph is composed of 22% clay, 48%
ered Kaolinite has a low ion-binding capac- silt and 30% sand.
ity, whereas with the three-layered mineral
Montmorillonite, one aluminium hydroxide Organic constituents
layer is always sandwiched between two Soil dug from depths of less than 40 cm
layers of silicon oxide, thereby displaying a usually contains plant matter and humus
higher ion binding capacity. Most of the clay (the product of rotting plants), which con-
minerals have interchangeable cations. The sists mainly of colloidal particles and is acid-
binding force and compressive strength of ic (pH-value less than 6). Earth as building
loam is dependent on the type and quantity material should be free of humus and plant
of cations. matter. Under certain conditions, plant mat-
ter like straw can be added, provided it is dry
Silt, sand and gravel and there is no danger of later deterioration
The properties of silt, sand and gravel are (see 10.3, p. 86).
totally different from clay. They are simply
aggregates lacking binding forces, and are Water
formed either from eroding stones, in which Water activates the binding forces of loam.
case they have sharp corners, or by the Besides free water, there are three different
movement of water, in which case they are types of water in loam: water of crystallisa-
rounded. tion (structural water), absorbed water, and
water of capillarity (pore water). Water of
Grain size distribution crystallisation is chemically bound and is
2.2 Structure of the three most common clay miner-
als (Houben and Guillaud, 1984) Loam is characterised by its components: only distinguishable if the loam is heated to
2.3 Lamellar structure of clay minerals (Houben and
clay, silt, sand and gravel. The proportion of temperatures between 400°C and 900°C.
Guillaud, 1984) the components is commonly represented Absorbed water is electrically bound to
2.4 Soil grain size distribution depicted on a on a graph of the type shown in 2.1. Here, the clay minerals. Water of capillarity has
triangular grid (Voth, 1978) the vertical axis represents weight by per- entered the pores of the material by capil-
2.5 Soil grain size distribution of two loams tested centage of the total of each grain size, which lary action. Absorbed and capillary water
in the sedimentation test in turn is plotted on the horizontal axis using are released when the mixture is heated

18 The properties of earth as a building material

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 2.3

to 105°C. If dry clay gets wet, it swells be- attain maximum compaction, the earth must
cause water creeps in between the lamel- have a specific water content, the so-called
lary structure, surrounding the lamellas with “optimum water content”, which allows parti-
a thin film of water. If this water evaporates, cles to be moved into a denser configuration
the interlamellary distance is reduced, and without too much friction. This is measured
the lamellas arrange themselves in a par- by the Proctor test (see p. 42).
allel pattern due to the forces of electrical
attraction. The clay thus acquires a “bind- Tests used to analyse the
ing force” (see p. 30), if in a plastic state, composition of loam
and compressive and tensile strength after
drying. To determine the suitability of a loam for a
specific application, it is necessary to know
2.4 Porosity its composition. The following section de-
The degree of porosity is defined by the to- scribes standardised laboratory tests and
Sample Content by vision Real
tal volume of pores within the loam. More simple field tests that are used to analyse
% (vol.) % (mass) % (mass)
important than the volume of the pores are loam composition.
K1 Clay 45 14 6
the dimensions of the pores. The larger the
Silt 18 26 38
porosity, the higher the vapour diffusion and Combined sieving and sedimentation
Sand 37 60 56
the higher the frost resistance. Specific sur- analysis
K2 Clay 36 17 2
face The specific surface of a soil is the sum The proportion of coarse aggregates (sand,
Silt 24 19 16
of all particle surfaces. Coarse sand has a gravel and stones) is relatively easy to distin-
Sand 40 64 82
specific surface of about 23 cm2/g, silt about guish by sieving. However, the proportion of
2.5 450 cm2/g and clay, from 10 m2/g (Kaolinite) fine aggregates can only be ascertained by
to 1000 m2/g (Montmorillonite). The larger sedimentation. This test is specified in detail
the specific surface of clay, the higher the in- in the German standard DIN 18123.
ternal cohesive forces which are relevant for
binding force as well as compressive Water content
and tensile strength. The amount of water in a loam mixture can
be easily determined by weighing the sample
Density and than heating it in an oven to 105°C. If
The density of soil is defined by the ratio of the weight stays constant, the mixture is dry,
dry mass to volume (including pores). Freshly and the difference of the two weights gives
dug soil has a density of 1000 to 1500 kg/m3. the weight of all water not chemically bound.
If this earth is compressed, as in rammed This water content is stated as a percentage
earthworks or in soil blocks, its density var- of the weight of the dry mixture.
ies from 1700 to 2200 kg/m3 (or more, if it
contains considerable amounts of gravel or Simple field tests
larger aggregates). The following tests are not very exact, but
they can be performed on site relatively
Compactability quickly, and are usually exact enough to esti-
Compactability is the ability of earth to be mate the composition of loam and ascertain
compacted by static pressure or dynamic if the mixture is acceptable for a specific ap-
compaction so that its volume is reduced. To plication.

19 Tests used to analyse the composition of loam

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 Smell test coincide with the actual defined limits be-
Pure loam is odourless, however it acquires tween clay and silt, and between silt and
a musty smell if it contains deteriorating hu- sand (2.7).
mus or organic matter.
Ball dropping test
Nibble test The mixture to be tested has to be as dry as
A pinch of soil is lightly nibbled. Sandy soil pro- possible, yet wet enough to be formed into
duces a disagreeable sensation as opposed a ball 4 cm in diameter. When this ball is
to silty soil, which gives a less objectionable dropped from a height of 1.5 m onto a flat
sensation. Clayey soil, on the other hand, surface, various results can occur, as shown
gives a sticky, smooth or floury sensation. in 2.9. If the ball flattens only slightly and
shows few or no cracks, like the sample on
Organic material
Wash test the left, it has a high binding force due to
A humid soil sample is rubbed between the high clay content. Usually this mixture must
Clay hands. If the grains can be distinctly felt, it be thinned by adding sand. If the test looks
Silt indicates sandy or gravelly soil. If the sample like the sample on the right, it has very low
Sand
is sticky, but the hands can be rubbed clean clay content. Its binding force is then usu-
Gravel
when dry, this indicates silty soil. If the sam- ally insufficient, and it cannot be used as
2.6 ple is sticky, so that water is needed to clean a building material. In the case of the third
the hands, this indicates clayey soil. sample from the left, the mixture has a rela-
tively poor binding force, but its composition
Cutting test usually enables it to be used for mud bricks
A humid sample of the earth is formed into (adobes) and rammed earth.
a ball and cut with a knife. If the cut surface
is shiny, it means that the mixture has high Consistency test
clay content; if it is dull, it indicates high silt- Moist earth is formed into a ball 2 to 3 cm in
content. diameter. This ball is rolled into a thin thread
3 mm in diameter. If the thread breaks or
Sedimentation test develops large cracks before it reaches
The mixture is stirred with a lot of water in a 3 mm diameter, the mixture is slowly mois-
glass jar. The largest particles settle at the tened until the thread breaks only when its
bottom, the finest on top. This stratification diameter reaches 3 mm. This mixture is then
allows the proportion of the constituents to formed into a ball. If this is not possible, then
be estimated. It is a wrong to assert that the sand content is too high and the clay
the height of each layer corresponds to the content too low. If the ball can be crushed
2.7 proportion of clay, silt, sand and gravel, as between the thumb and forefinger only with
is claimed by many authors (e.g. CRATerre, a lot of force, the clay content is high and
1979, p. 180; International Labour Office, has to be thinned by adding sand. If the ball
1987, p. 30; Houben and Guillaud, 1984, crumbles very easily, then the loam contains
p. 49; Stulz and Mukerji, 1988, p. 20; Unit- little clay.
ed Nations Centre for Human Settlements,
1992, p. 7) (2.6). Cohesion test (ribbon test)
Several experiments at the Building Research The loam sample should be just moist
Institute – BRI, University of Kassel, showed enough to be rolled into a thread 3 mm in di-
2.6 Sedimentation test (CRATerre, 1979)
that the margin of error could be higher than ameter without breaking. From this thread, a
2.7 Sedimentation test 1000%, see 2.5. The clay content in sample ribbon approximately 6 mm in thickness and
2.8 Grain size distribution of test loams K2 appears to be 36% by vision, but in real- 20 mm wide is formed and held in the palm.
2.9 Loam balls after the dropping test ity was only 2%. In fact, one can only distin- The ribbon is then slid along the palm to
2.10 Ribbon test guish successive strata at sudden changes overhang as much as possible until it breaks
2.11 Cohesion test developed at the BRI of grain-size distribution, and these may not (2.10). If the free length before breakage is

20 The properties of earth as a building material

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 2.8 Grain size distribution
Moist earth is formed into a ball 2 to 3 cm breaks (2.10).
of test loams
2.9 Loam balls after the in diameter. This ball is rolled into a thin If the free length before brea
dropping test thread 3 mm in diameter. than 20 cm, then it has a hig
2.8
implying a clay content that
Sedimentation Sieving
building purposes. If the ribb
Clay Silt Sand Gravel

100
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse only a few centimetres, the m
90 little clay. This test is inaccura

Percentage passing
80 BRI it was known to have m
70
of greater than 200% if the
60
50 well-kneaded and the thickn
40 of the ribbon varied.
30
For this reason, a new, more
20
10 was developed in which a 2
0 and 6-mm-high profile was
0.001 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60

Grain size (mm)

pressing the loam with the f
the groove between two led
face is smoothened by rollin
Sedimentation Sieving
Clay Silt Sand Gravel (2.11). To prevent the loam p
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
100 sticking, the base is lined wit
90
of plastic or oilpaper. The len
Percentage passing

80
70
ribbon, when it breaks unde
60 weight, is measured by push
50 over a rounded edge with a
40
30
of 1 cm (2.11, right). For each
20 five samples were taken and
10 measured at the point of rup
0
0.001 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60 The longest rupture lengths
2.8 Grain size (mm) have been plotted in 2.12, ag

21 Properties of earth

2.9 2.10

2.11

21 Tests used to analyse the composition of loam

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 more than 20 cm, then it has a high binding according to the equation CaCO3 + 2HCl =
force, implying a clay content that is too high CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O. This CO2 production is ob-
for building purposes. servable because of the efflorescence that
If the ribbon breaks after only a few centime- results; if there is no efflorescence, the lime
tres, the mixture has too little clay. This test content is less than 1%. If there is a weak,
is inaccurate, and at the BRI it was known to brief efflorescence, the lime content is be-
have margins of errors of greater than 200% tween 1% and 2%; if the efflorescence is
if the loam was not well-kneaded and the significant though brief, the lime content is
thickness and width of the ribbon varied. between 3% and 4%; and if the efflorescence
For this reason, a new, more precise test is strong and long lasting, the lime content is
Ribbon rupture length (cm) was developed in which a 20-mm-wide and more than 5% (Voth, 1978, p. 59).
2.12 6-mm-high profile was produced by press- It should be noted that a dark lime-free loam
ing the loam with the fingers into the groove with a high content of humus could also ex-
between two ledges. The surface is smooth- hibit this phenomenon.
ened by rolling with a bottle (2.11). To pre-
vent the loam profile from sticking, the base Effects of water
is lined with a thin strip of plastic or oilpaper.
The length of the ribbon, when it breaks un- If loam becomes wet, it swells and changes
der its own weight, is measured by pushing from a solid to a plastic state.
it slowly over a rounded edge with a radius
curvature of 1 cm (2.11, right). For each type Swelling and shrinking
of soil, five samples were taken and ribbon The swelling of loam when in contact with
lengths measured at the point of rupture. water and its shrinkage through drying is
2.13 The longest rupture lengths from each disadvantageous for its use as a building
set have been plotted in 2.12, against the material. Swelling only occurs if loam comes
binding force according to the standard into direct contact with so much water that
DIN 18952 test (see p. 30), with a slight it loses its solid state. The absorption of hu-
change: here the maximum strength of five midity from the air, however, does not lead
samples was also considered. to swelling.
This is because it was found that the lower The amount of swelling and shrinkage de-
values were usually due to insufficient mix- pends on the type and quantity of clay (with
ing, inaccurate plasticity or other preparation Montmorillonite clay this effect is much larg-
mistakes. In order to guarantee that different er than with Kaolinite and Illite), and also on
loam mixtures are comparable, the chosen the grain distribution of silt and sand. Experi-
consistency of the samples was defined by ments were conducted at the BRI using 10 ×
a diameter of 70 mm (instead of 50 mm) of 10 × 7 cm samples of different loam mix-
the flat circular area, which forms if a test tures that were soaked with 80 cm3 of water
ball of 200 g weight is dropped from a height and then dried in an oven at 50°C in order
of 2 m. (With sandy loam mixtures with little to study shrinkage cracks (2.13). Industrially
clay content, a diameter of 50 mm is not at- fabricated unbaked blocks (2.13, top left),
tainable.) whose granularity curve is shown in 2.1 (up-
per left), display shrinkage cracks. A similar
Acid test mixture with the same kind and amount of
Loams that contain lime are normally white clay, but with “optimised” distribution of silt
in appearance, exhibit a low binding force and sand, exhibited hardly any cracks after
and are therefore inappropriate for earth drying out (2.13, top right). The mud brick
construction. In order to define the lime con- made of silty soil (2.13, bottom right) (granu-
tent, one drop of a 20% solution of HCl is add- larity curve shown in 2.1, middle) shows sev-
ed using a glass or a timber rod. In the case eral very fine cracks, whereas the mud brick
of loam with lime content, CO2 is produced of sandy soil (2.13, bottom left) (granularity

22 The properties of earth as a building material

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 curve shown in 2.1, bottom) shows no cracks 1. The material is pressed and repeatedly
at all. On p. 37 it is explained how shrinkage rammed by a piece of timber about 2 × 2 cm
might be minimised by changing grain distri- in section into the form shown in 2.14, which
bution. rests on a flat surface.
2. Three samples have to be made and the
Determining linear shrinkage form has to be taken off at once.
Before the shrinkage ratio of different loam 3. Template marks at a distance of 200 mm
samples can be compared, they must have are made with a knife.
2.14 comparable plasticity. 4. The three samples are dried for three days
The German standard DIN 18952 describes in a room. They are then heated to 60°C
the following steps required to obtain this in an oven until no more shrinkage can be
standard stiffness: measured. The DIN mentions that they are
to be dried on an oiled glass plate. The BRI
1. The dry loam mixture is crushed and suggests lining the plate with a thin layer of
sieved to eliminate all particles with diame- sand to make the drying process more even
ters larger than 2 mm. and avoiding friction.
2. About 1200 cm3 of this material is slightly 5. The average shrinkage of the three sam-
moistened and hammered on a flat surface ples in relation to the length of 200 mm gives
to produce a continuous piece (like a thick the linear shrinkage ratio in percentages. If
2.15 pancake). the shrinkage of one sample differs more
3. This is then cut into 2-cm-wide strips, than 2 mm from the other two, the sample
placed edge-to-edge touching each other, has to be remade.
then hammered again. This procedure is
repeated until the lower part shows an even Plasticity
structure. Loam has four states of consistency: liquid,
4. Loam with high clay content must then rest plastic, semisolid and solid. The limits of
for 12 hours, and one with low clay content these states were defined by the Swedish
for about 6 hours, so that the water content scientist Atterberg.
is equally distributed throughout the sample.
5. From this mixture, 200 g are beaten, to Liquid limit
compact into a sphere. The liquid limit (LL) defines water content
6. This ball is dropped from a height of 2 m at the boundary between liquid and plastic
onto a flat surface. states. It is expressed as a percentage and is
7. If the diameter of the flattened surface determined by following the steps explained
thus formed is 50 mm, standard stiffness is below using the Casagrande instrument
said to be reached. The difference between shown in 2.15:
the largest and smallest diameters of this
disc should not be more than 2 mm. Other- 1. The mixture must remain in water for an
wise the whole process must be repeated extended period (up to 4 days if the clay
until the exact diameter in the drop test is content is high) and then pressed through a
reached. If the disc diameter is larger than sieve with 0.4 mm meshes.
50 mm, then the mixture has to be dried 2. 50 to 70 g of this mixture in a pasty con-
slightly and the whole process repeated until sistency is placed in the bowl of the appara-
2.12 Binding force of different loams of equal
consistency in relation to their rupture lengths, the exact diameter is attained. tus and its surface smoothened. The maxi-
tested according to the BRI cohesion test 8. If the diameter of the disc is less than mum thickness in the centre should be 1 cm.
2.13 Swelling and shrinkage test 50 mm, then a few drops of water should be 3. A groove is then made using a special de-
2.14 Tools to distinguish the linear shrinkage added. vice, which is always held perpendicular to
according to the German standard DIN 18952 the surface of the bowl.
2.15 Apparatus to obtain the liquid limit, according to With this standard stiffness, the shrinkage 4. By turning the handle at a speed of 2
Casagrande method test is to be executed as follows: cycles per second, the bowl is lifted and

23 Effects of water
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 at portion
Water content W
0.35 dropped until the groove is closed over a mixture, then the water content can be calcu-
ht of the length of 10 mm. lated using the following formula:
ntent can 5. The numbers of strokes are counted and a
0.30 L
formula: sample of 5 cm3 is taken from the centre in W 0=
1-A
order to determine the water content. When
0.25 the groove closes at 25 strokes, the water where W0 is the calculated water content, L
content of the mixture is equal to the liquid the determined water content LL or PL, and
content, limit. A the weight of grains larger than 0.4 mm ex-
0.20
LL or PL, 15 20 25 30 35 40
pressed as a percentage of the dry weight of
r than Strokes It is very time-consuming to change the wa- the total mixture.
ge of the 2.16 2.16 ter content repeatedly until the groove closes
2.16 Deriving the liquid
at exactly 25 strokes. A special method de- Plasticity index
limit by the multi-point
method according scribed in the German standard DIN 18122 The difference between the liquid limit and
Type of loam LL [%] PL [%] PI = LL–PL
to the German standard allows the test to run with four different wa- the plastic limit is called the plasticity index
sandy
DIN 18122 10–23 5–23 <5
d limit and ter contents if the number of strokes is be- (PI). The table in 2.17 gives some typical val-
silty 15–35
2.17 Plasticity index of 10–25 5–15
city index loams (after Voth, 1978)
tween 15 and 40. Illustration 2.16 shows ues for LL, PL and PI.
clayey 28–150 20–50 15–95
typical val- 2.18 Test assembly to how the liquid limit is obtained using these
Bentonite 40of 8 32
obtain the w -values four tests. The four values are noted in a di- Consistency number
loam samples (Boemans,
2.17 agram whose horizontal co-ordinate shows The consistency number (C) can be calculat-
1990)
the stroke numbers in a logarithmic scale, ed for any existing water content (W) of the
be calculat- and the vertical co-ordinate shows the water plastic stage by using the following formula:
t (W) of the Type of loam LL [%] PL [%] PI = LL–PL content as a percentage. The liquid limit is
ng formula: obtained by drawing a line through the four C = LL – W = LL – W
sandy 10–23 5–23 <5 LL – PL PI
values and reading the interpolated value at
–W silty 15–35 10–25 5–15 the co-ordinate of 25 strokes. The consistency number is 0 at the liquid lim-
I it and 1 at the plastic limit.
clayey 28–150 20–50 15–95
he liquid Plastic limit
Bentonite 40 8 32 The plastic limit (PL) is the water content, ex- Standard stiffness
2.17 pressed as a percentage, at the boundary be- As the definition of the plastic limit in Atter-
tween plastic and semisolid states. It is deter- berg is not very exact, Niemeyer proposes
mit in Atter- mined by means of the following procedure: “standard stiffness” as a basis for the com-
proposes the same mixture that was be used to define parison of mixtures of equal consistency.
Acrylic glass plate
the com- the liquid limit is rolled by hand onto a wa- The method for obtaining this stiffness is de-
Polyurethene foam
sistency. ter-absorbent surface (cardboard, soft wood scribed on p. 23.
Filter paper
ffness is or similar material) into small threads of
Loam sample
3 mm diameter. Then the threads are mould- Slump
Glass-fibre reinforced polyester layer
ed into a ball and rolled again. This procedure The workability of mortar mixtures is defined
Water
is repeated until the threads begin to crumble by the slump. This can be specified by a
es is 2.18 at a diameter of 3 mm. Ca. 5 g are removed method described in the German standards
e specified from this mixture and immediately weighed, DIN 1060 (Part 3) or DIN 1048 (Part 1). Here,
rman then dried to obtain the water content. This the mortar is poured through a standard fun-
IN 1048 test is repeated three times. The average nel onto a plate that is lifted and dropped by
2.16 Deriving the liquid limit by the multi-point
d through method according to the German standard value of three samples that do not deviate a defined type and number of strokes. The
at is lifted DIN 18122 by more than 2% is identical with the plas- diameter of the cake thus formed is meas-
and number 2.17 Plasticity index of loams (Voth, 1978) tic limit. As the liquid and the plastic limits ured in centimetres and is called the slump.
Acrylic glass plate have been defined using a mixture contain-
ake thus 2.18 Test assembly to obtain the w -values of loam
samples (Boemans, 1990) Polyurethene foam ing only particles smaller than 0.4 mm, the Shrinkage limit
es and is Filter paper
2.19 Water absorption coefficient ‘w’ of loams in test results must be corrected if larger grains The shrinkage limit (SL) is defined as the
Loam sample
comparison with common building materials have been sieved out earlier. If that portion is boundary between the semi-solid and solid
Glass-fibre reinforced polyester layer
2.20 Water absorption curves of loams
Water
less than 25% of the dry weight of the entire states. It is the limit where shrinkage ceases
2.18

24 The properties of earth as a building material

@arclib
@arclib
 Silty loam (1900 kg/m3) (3) 3.7 0.32 toShrinkage
occur. Withlimitclayey soil, it can be identified surface ispolyester
inforced operative.resin. To avoid the erosion
Clayey loam (1940 kg/m3) (3) 1.6 0.27 The shrinkage
optically when the limitdark
(SL) colour
is defined as the
of the humid of particlessamples,
With loam from the problems
submerged are caused
surface,by a
Lightweight mineral loam (470 kg/m3) (3) 1.3 0.13
boundary
mixture turns between
a lighterthe semi-solid
shade due toand solid
evapora- areaspaper
filter that swell and erode
is attached underwater
beneath and gluedover to
Lightweight mineral loam (700 kg/m3) (3) 2.8 0.15
3 0.20
states. It is the limit where shrinkage
tion of water in the pores. Still, this is not an ceases time. The BRI developed a
the polyester resin sides. To preempt defor-special method
Lightweight straw loam (450 kg/m ) (3) 2.4
Lightweight straw loam (850 kg/m3) (3) 3.6 0.26 to occur.
exact method Withofclayey soil, it can be identified
measurement. to avoidof
mation this:
thetoweakened
prevent the penetration
loam at the bottomof
Lightweight straw loam (1150 kg/m3) (3) 3.1 0.29 optically when the dark colour of the humid water from the sides as well
during weighing, a 4-mm-thick sponge over as the swelling
Spruce axial (2) 1.2 0 0.2 0.4 mixture turns
Capillary actiona lighter shade due to evapo- andacrylic
an deformation glass plateof the iscube,placedsamples are
underneath
Spruce tangential (2) 0.2 (m3/m3)
ration of water in the pores. Still, this is not coveredAon
(2.18). testallwith
fourasides
baked by brick
a glass-fibre
sample com-
Cement concrete (2290 kg/m3) (1) 1.8

Hollow brick (1165 kg/m3) (1) 8.9

an
Water exact method of measurement.
movement reinforced polyester
paring both methods showed that resin. To avoid thetheero-BRI
Solid brick (1750 kg/m3) (1) 25.1 All materials with open porous structures like sion of particles from
method reduced results by only 2%. the submerged sur-
0 10 20 30 Capillary
loam action
are able to store and transport water face, coefficient
The a filter paperw isofattached different beneath
loams and tested
2.19 glued to the polyester resin sides. To pre-
2.19 w (kg/m2 h0.5) within their capillaries. The water, therefore, along with the w-values of common building
Watertravels
always movementfrom regions of higher humid- empt deformation
materials is listed of inthe2.19.weakened loam at
Interestingly, the
2.19 Water absorption All materials with
ity to regions of lower open porous The
humidity. structures
capacity the bottom during weighing,
silty soil samples gave higher w-values than a 4-mm-thick
coefficient ‘w’ of loams in like loam are able to store and transport spongeofover an soil.
acrylic glass plate comparison
is placed
of water to respond to suction in this way is those clayey Surprisingly,
Water absorption w (kg/m2) comparison with com-
water “capillarity”
termed within their capillaries. The water,
and the process of water underneath
with baked bricks (2.18). shows
A test withthat aloam baked hasbrick
w-val-
mon building materials
2.20 Water absorption therefore, always travels
transportation “capillary action”. from regions of sample comparing both
ues that are smaller by a factor of 10. methods showed
curves of loams higher humidity to regions of
The quantity of water (W) that can be ab-lower humidi- that theabsorption
Water BRI methodinreduced relationresults
to time by is also
ty. Theover
sorbed capacity of water
a given periodtoofrespond
time is to suc-
defined only 2%.
very interesting as shown in 2.20. Visible
Water absorption w (kg/m2) 2.20
tion in this
by the formula: way is termed “capillarity” and The coefficient
here is the amazing w of different
effect ofloams tested
a tremendous
the process of water transportation “capil- along withintheabsorption
increase w-values ofcaused commonbybuild- adding
lary action.”
W = w √t [kg/m2] ing materials is listed
small quantities of cement. in 2.1 9. Interestingly,
The quantity of water (W) that can be the silty soil samples gave higher w-values
absorbed
where w is over a givenabsorption
the water period of time is
coefficient than thosewater
Capillary of clayey soil. Surprisingly, com-
capacity
defined by the formula:
measured in kg/m h and t, the time in
2 0.5
The maximum amount ofshows
parison with baked bricks water that thatloam
can be
hours. Determination of the water absorption absorbed in comparison to the factor
has w-values that are smaller by a volume or
coefficient W = w √ t to
According the ]German stand-
[kg/m 2
of
mass10. of the sample is called “capillary water
ard DIN 52617, the water absorption coeffi- Water
capacity” absorption
([kg/m3in relation
] or [m3/mto 3 time is also
]). This is an im-
where
cient (w)wisisobtained
the waterinabsorption
the following coefficient
way: a very
portantinteresting
value when as shown in 2.20. the
considering Visible
conden-
sample cube of loam is placed on a inplane
measured in kg/m h and t, the time here is the amazing effect of a tremendous
2 0.5
sation phenomena in building components.
hours. and immersed in water to a depth of
surface increase
Illustration in absorption
2.19 showscaused these by adding
values with the
about 3 mm, and its weight increase meas- small
w-values.quantities of cement.
Determination
ured periodically.of thecoefficient
The water absorption
(w) is then
coefficient
calculated by the formula: Capillary
Water water capacity
penetration test after Karsten
According to the German standard DIN TheKarsten’s
In maximum amount
water of watertest,
penetration that acan be
spheri-
52617, the W
w =water absorption
[kg/m2hcoefficient
0.5
] (w) absorbed in comparison to the volume
cal glass container with a diameter of 30 mm or
√t
is obtained in the following way: a sample massan of attached
the sample is called “capillary
and measuring cylinderwater
is fixed
Time t (min)m cube of loam
is theis increase
placed onina weight
plane surface capacity” ([kg/m ] or [m /m ]). This is an
2) 3 3 3
where W per unit with silicone glue to the test sample so that
1 Clayey loam + sand
2 Clayey loam + 2% cement
surface area and t the time indepth
and immersed in water to a hoursof about
elapsed. important
the value when
test surface considering
in contact with thethewater
con- is
3 Clayey loam + 4% cement 3 mm,
With thisand its weight
test, all fourincrease
sides measured
of the cube densation
3 phenomena
cm2 (Karsten, 1997,insee building
2.21).compo-
The usual
4 Clayey loam + 8% cement periodically. The coefficient
should be sealed so that no water (w) is thenenters
calcu- nents. Illustration 2.1 9 shows these
method using water is problematic, since the values
5 Lightweight mineral loam 650 Time t (min)
1 Clayeymineral
6 Lightweight loam + loam
sand 800 lated by the formula:
from these surfaces, and only the bottom with thedissolves
sample w-values. at the joint. Therefore, the
2 Clayeystraw
7 Lightweight loamloam
+ 2%450
cement surface is operative. BRI modified the method by closing the open-
w = W [kg/m
3 Clayeystraw
8 Lightweight loamloam
+ 4%850
cement
With loam samples, h ] are caused by
2 0.5
problems Water
ing of penetration test afterwith
the glass container Karsten
filter paper
4 Clayeystraw
9 Lightweight loamloam
+ 8%1150
cement √t
5 Lightweight
10 Clayey loam mineral loam 650 areas that swell and erode underwater over In Karsten’s
(2.22, right).water penetration
Results test,
using this a
method were
6 loam
Lightweight mineral loam 800 where
11 Silty
7 Lightweight straw loam 450
time. TheW BRI
is thedeveloped
increase inaweight
specialper unit
method spherical glass container with a diameter
comparable to those using the method given of
12 Sandy loam
8 Lightweight straw loam 850 surface area and t the time in hours
to avoid this: to prevent the penetration of elapsed. 30 mm and an attached measuring
in the German standard DIN 52617 (2.23). cylinder
2.20 9 Lightweight straw loam 1150 With from
water this test,
the all fouras
sides sides
wellofas
thethe
cube
swelling is fixed with silicone glue to the test sample
10 Clayey loam
11 Silty loam
should be sealed so that no water
and deformation of the cube, samples are enters so that the
Stability intest surface
static in contact with the
water
12 Sandy loam from these
covered on allsurfaces, and by
four sides onlya the bottom re-
glass-fibre Stability in static water 1983,
water is 3 cm 2
(Karsten, can beseedefined
2.21). The
after

25 Effects of water
25 Properties of earth @arclib
@arclib
 Water absorption w (kg/m2)

1 Clayey loam, w-value

2 Clayey loam (Karsten, 1997)
3 Silty loam, w-value
4 Silty loam (Karsten, 1997)

Filter paper

Silicone seal
Sealing

Time t (min)
2.21 2.22 2.23

the German standard DIN 18952 (Part 2), to the weather, the clayey soil showed a spe- content and increasing shrinkage of a sandy
as follows: a prismatic sample is immersed cial kind of scaling caused by frost. This was mud mortar dried in a closed room at a tem-
5 cm deep in water and the time it takes for due to thin hairline cracks that appeared perature of 20°C and with a relative humidity
the submerged part to disintegrate is meas- during drying, and through which rainwater of ambient air of 81% and 44% respective-
ured. According to this standard, samples that was absorbed by capillary action. When this ly is shown in 2.26. With 44% humidity, the
disintegrate in less than 45 minutes are un- water freezes, its volume increases, causing drying took about 14 days, while with 81%
suitable for earth construction. But this test is the upper layers to burst. In areas where humidity, about 30. Illustration 2.27 shows
unnecessary for earth construction practices, no hairline cracks were found, this effect the drying process of different loam samples
since earth components would never be per- did not occur. Furthermore, no rain erosion compared to other building materials. In this
manently immersed in water in any case. Sig- was observed in these areas. The sample on test, conducted at the BRI, brick-size samples
nificant instead is resistance to running water. the left does not show this type of erosion were immersed in 3 mm of water for 24 hours
after 3 years. Here we see that some loam and then kept in a room with a temperature
Resistance to running water is washed away by rain, so that the horizon- of 23°C and relative humidity of 50% in still
During construction, earth building elements tal shrinkage crack is partially filled by these air conditions. Interestingly, all loam samples
are often exposed to rain and sensitive to particles, but no frost erosion is observa- dried out after 20 to 30 days, whereas baked
erosion, especially if still wet. It is important, ble. This is because there were no hairline clay bricks, sand-lime bricks and concrete
hence, to determine their resistance to run- cracks, and because the loam contained had not dried out even after 100 days.
ning water. To compare the degrees of resist- pores large enough to allow the freezing wa-
ance of different loam mixtures, the BRI de- ter to expand. Effects of vapour
veloped a test apparatus capable of testing The test resulted in the following conclusions:
up to six samples simultaneously (2.24). In • sandy loam has little resistance against While loam in contact with water swells and
this apparatus, water jets with diameters of rain, but is frost-resistant when free of cracks; weakens, under the influence of vapour it
4 mm are sprayed onto the samples from a • loam with high clay content tends to devel- absorbs the humidity but remains solid and
45° angle and with a velocity of 3.24 m/sec, op hairline cracks, and is therefore suscepti- retains its rigidity without swelling. Loam,
simulating the worst driving rain conditions ble to frost. If there are no hairline cracks, it hence, can balance indoor air humidity, as
in Europe. is almost rain-resistant. described in detail on pp. 13–16.
The higher the porosity and the larger the
Rain and frost erosion pores, the higher loam’s resistance to frost. Vapour diffusion
Illustration 2.25 shows two samples: each is Therefore, extruded common clay bricks pro- In moderate and cold climates where indoor
shown prior to testing (left), and after 3 years duced in a factory are not frost-resistant and temperatures are often higher than outside
of weathering (right). The earth mixture of the should not be used on outer exterior walls in temperatures, there are vapour pressure dif-
sample on the right contained 40% clay; the climates with frost. By contrast, handmade ferences between interior and exterior, caus-
one on the left was mixed with sand, reduc- adobes made from sandy loam are usually ing vapour to move from inside to outside
ing the clay content to 16%. Both mixtures frost-resistant. through the walls. Vapour passes through
were tested with a mortar consistency in walls, and the resistance of the wall material
single layers 5 cm in thickness. After drying, Drying period against this action is defined by the “vapour
large shrinkage cracks appeared. The clayey The period during which wet loam reaches diffusion resistance coefficient”. It is impor-
mixture showed 11% shrinkage, the sandy its equilibrium moisture content is called tant to know the value of vapour resistance
mixture only 3%. After 3 years of exposure the “drying period.” The decreasing water when the temperature difference between

26 The properties of earth as a building material

@arclib
@arclib
2.24 2.25

0 0.5 0.5

1 Solid brick 1850 kg/m3

0.5 1 Sandy loam 1900 kg/m3 2 Hollow brick 1200 kg/m3
2 Silty loam 1950 kg/m3 3 Lime-sand brick 1800 kg/m3
3 Straw loam 1200 kg/m3
Water content W (%)

4 Porous concrete (Hebel) 600 kg/m3

1 0.4 4 Straw loam 550 kg/m3 0.4 5 Porous concrete (Ytong) 450 kg/m3
5 Straw loam 450 kg/m3 6 Cement concrete M25 2200 kg/m3
6 Loam with expanded clay 750 kg/m3
1.5 7 Loam with expanded clay 600 kg/m3

0.3 0.3
Water content (g/m3)

Water content (g/m3)

2

2.5

Drying time t (days) 0.2 0.2

2.26

0.1 0.1

017_033_kap_2_earth_NA_3a_3_korr_an_bp_part_1 24.10.12 15:45 Seite 29

0.0 0.0

Drying time t (days) Drying time t (days)

2.27

2.21 Modified water penetration test according

to BRI Vapour
Vapourdiffusion resistance
diffusion coefficient
resistance µ (–)μ (–)
coefficient
Thermal con
2.22 Modified water penetration test according 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
The heat tra
to BRI (left without filter, right with filter paper) Clayey
Clayey loamloam(clay(clay = 28%,
= 28%, silt =silt = 34%,
34%, sand
sand = 38%)
= 38%)
Silty loam
Silty loam (clay(clay = 12%,
= 12%, silt =silt = 78%,
78%, sand
sand = 56%)
= 56%) terised by it
2.23 Water absorption according to Karsten (1997) SandySandy
loamloam(clay(clay = 15%,
= 15%, silt =silt = 29%,
29%, sand
sand = 56%)
= 56%)
and the German standard DIN 52617 3
This indicate
StrawStraw
loamloam
450450 kg/m
kg/m 3

2.24 Water spraying test apparatus developed at

StrawStraw
loamloam
750750 kg/m
kg/m 3 3
sured in wa
StrawStraw
loamloam
950950 kg/m
kg/m 3 3

the BRI StrawStraw

loamloam
12501250 kg/m
kg/m 3 3
thick wall at
LoamLoam
with with expanded
clay clay
800800 kg/m 3
expanded kg/m 3

2.25 Loam samples before (left) and after (right) LoamLoam with expanded
with expanded glassglass
500500 kg/m
kg/m 3 3
1°C.
LoamLoam with expanded
glassglass
750750 kg/m 3
being exposed to weather for 3 years with expanded kg/m 3

In 2.31, the
Clayey
Clayey loamloam plaster
plaster
2.26 Linear shrinkage and drying period of lean loam
SiltySilty
loamloam plaster
plaster DIN 4108-4
mortar (clay 4%, silt 25%, sand 71%) with a slump of Cowdung-loam-lime-sand
Cowdung-loam-lime-sand plaster
plaster (12/4/3/20)
(12/4/3/20)
42 cm according to the German standard DIN 18555 High High hydraulic lime plaster
hydraulic lime plaster shown. 2 ar
LimeLime plaster
plaster
(Part 2) Lime-casein
Lime-casein plasterplaster (10/1)
(10/1) 3 and 4 of t
Lime-linseedoiloilplaster
Lime-linseed plaster(20
(20/1)
2.27 Drying period of loams and other building
(( )) Volumetric
Volumetric proportion
proportion
At the BRI, a
materials 2.28 2.28
a density of
2.28 The vapour diffusion coefficient μ of different
on the inside due to the vapour barrier. 0.20 W/mK,
loams and plasters according to the German stand-
ard DIN 52615, wet method In this case, the wall remains damp for a ed clay loam
longer period than it would without a gave a value
27 Effects of vapour
@arclib
@arclib vapour barrier.
Specific hea
Influence of heat The amount
specific
 Water content W (%) Water content W (%)

Relative humidity (%) Relative humidity (%)

1 Clayey loam 5 Loam brick 1 Straw loam 450 kg/m3 6 Loam with expanded
2 Silty loam 6 Kaolinite, pulverised 2 Straw loam 850 kg/m3 clay 700 kg/m3

3 Sandy loam 7 Bentonite, pulverised 3 Straw loam 1200 kg/m3 7 Expanded clay particles

4 Granular clayey loam 4 Loam with expanded 8 Expanded glass particles

clay 450 kg/m3 9 Rye straw
5 Loam with expanded
clay 550 kg/m3
2.29

inside and outside is so high that the indoor rium moisture content”, which depends on
air condenses after being cooled down in the the temperature and humidity of the ambi-
wall. ent air. The higher temperature and humidi-
The German standard DIN 52615 describes ty levels are, the more water is absorbed by
the precise test procedure used to deter- the material. If temperature and air humidity
mine these values. The product of m with are reduced, the material will desorb wa-
the thickness of the building element s gives ter. The absorption curves of different loam
the specific vapour diffusion resistance sd. mixtures are shown in 2.29. The values vary
Still air has an sd-value of 1. Illustration 2.28 from 0.4% for sandy loam at 20% air humid-
shows some of the μ-values determined ity to 6% for clayey loam under 97% air hu-
by the BRI for different kinds of loam. It is midity. It is interesting to note that rye straw
interesting to note that silty loam has an under 80% humidity displays an equilibrium
μ-value about 20% lower than that of clayey moisture content of 18%. In contrast, ex-
and sandy loams, and that lightweight loam panded clay, which is also used to achieve
with expanded clay weighing 750 kg/m3 has lightweight loam, reaches its equilibrium
a value 2.5 times higher than that of loam moisture content at only 0.3%. In 2.30, four
mixed with straw and having the same over- values of loam mixtures are shown in com-
all density. Chapter 12 (p. 100) describes parison to the values of other common build-
how painting reduces the permeation of va- ing materials.
2.29 Absorption curves of solid (left) and lightweight pour through walls. Here, one can see that the higher the clay
(right) loams content of loam, the greater its equilibrium
2.30 Equilibrium moisture content of different loams Equilibrium moisture content moisture content. Additionally, it should be
and other building materials Every porous material, even when dry, has mentioned that Bentonite, which contains
2.31 U-values of loam a characteristic humidity, called its “equilib- 70% Montmorillonite, has an equilibrium

28 The properties of earth as a building material

@arclib
@arclib
 Water content (g/dm3)

Specific
weight
U-value (W/mK) (kg/m3)
1 Spruce, planed
2 Limba, planed
3 Earth block, clayey

Lightweight loam
4 Earth block, silty
5 Cement plaster
6 Lime-cement plaster
7 Lime-casein plaster
8 Silty loam plaster
9 Clayey loam plaster
10 Solid brick
11 Clinker brick

Solid loam
12 Porous brick
13 Lime-sand brick
14 Porous concrete

Relative humidity (%)

2.30 2.31

moisture content of 13% under 50% humidi- tion to the surface of the walls, where it can Influence of heat
ty, whereas the equilibrium moisture content evaporate. Therefore, materials like loam with
of Kaolinite under the same conditions is a high capillarity are advantageous. The common perception that earth is a very
only 0.7%. In order to reduce the danger of condensa- good material for thermal insulation is un-
The graph shows that silty earth blocks or tion in walls, vapour transmission resistance proven. A solid wall of rammed earth without
adobes (no. 4 on the graph) reach a mois- should be higher inside than outside. On straw or other light aggregates has nearly
ture content five times higher than a sandy the other hand, resistance to heat transfer the same insulating effect as a solid wall of
loam plaster (no. 9 on the graph) at a relative should be higher outside than inside. Though baked bricks. The volume of air entrained
humidity of 58%. the above principles normally suffice to in- in the pores of a material and its humidity
It should be noted that for the humidity bal- hibit the formation of condensation in walls, are relevant for the thermal insulation effect.
ancing effect of building materials, the speed it is also possible to create a vapour barrier The lighter the material, the higher its ther-
of absorption and desorption processes is on the inside by utilising paints or sheets. mal insulation, and the greater its humidity
more important than the equilibrium mois- It should be mentioned, however, that vapour level, the lower its insulating effect.
ture content, as explained on p. 12. barriers have two important disadvantages. The heat flowing through a building element
• Vapour barriers are never fully sealed in is defined by the overall heat transfer coeffi-
Condensation practice, especially at joints, as in walls with cient U.
In moderate and cold climatic zones, the water doors, windows and in ceilings. Harmful con-
vapour contained in indoor air diffuses through densation can occur in these joints. Thermal conductivity
the walls to the exterior. If the air is cooled down • With monolithic wall sections, water pen- The heat transfer of a material is charac-
in the walls and reaches its dew point, conden- etrates in the rainy season from the outside terised by its thermal conductivity k [W/
sation occurs. This dampness reduces thermal into the wall, and then cannot evaporate on mK]. This indicates the quantity of heat,
insulation capacity and may lead to fungus the inside due to the vapour barrier. In this measured in watts/m2, that penetrates a
growth. In such cases, it is important that this case, the wall remains damp for a longer pe- 1-m-thick wall at a temperature difference
humidity be transported quickly by capillary ac- riod than it would without a vapour barrier. of 1°C.

29 Influence of heat
@arclib
@arclib
 In 2.31, the different k-values according to only temperature amplitude. In climates with
DIN 4108-4 (1998), indicated by a 1, are hot days and cold nights, where average tem-
shown. 2 are measurements of (Vanros, peratures lie within the comfort zone (usu-
1981), 3 and 4 of the BRI. ally 18° to 27°C), thermal capacity is very
Temperature °C

The comfort zone for Cairo

At the BRI, a lightweight straw loam with important in creating comfortable indoor
a density of 750 kg/m3 gave a k-value of climates. In 2.32, the effect of material and
0.20 W/mK, whereas a lightweight expand- building shape on interior climate is shown
Outdoor air
Indoor air temperature ed clay loam with a density of 740 kg/m3 by readings taken from two test buildings of
temperature
gave a value of 0.18 W/mK. equal volume constructed in Cairo, Egypt, in
1964. One was built of 50-cm-thick earth
Specific heat walls and mud brick vaults, and the other
Time of day
The amount of heat needed to warm 1 kg of of 10-cm-thick pre-cast concrete elements
a material by 1°C is called its “specific heat”, with a flat roof. While the diurnal variation
represented by c. Loam has a specific heat of of the outside temperature was 13°C, the
1.0 kJ/kgK which is equal to 0.24 kcal/kg°C. temperature inside the earth house varied
Indoor air temperature
only by 4°C; in the concrete house, the varia-
Thermal capacity tion was 16°C. Thus, the amplitude was four
Temperature °C

The comfort zone for Cairo The thermal capacity (heat storage capacity) times greater in the concrete house than in
S of a material is defined as the product of the earth house. In the concrete house, tem-
specific heat c and the density r: peratures at 4 pm were 5°C higher than out-
Outdoor air
side, whereas inside the earth house, they
temperature S = c · ρ[kJ/m3K] were 5°C lower than outside temperatures
at the same time (Fathy, 1986).
Time of day
The thermal heat capacity defines the
2.32 amount of heat needed to warm 1 m3 of ma- Thermal expansion
terial by 1°C. The heat storage capacity Qs The expansion of a material caused by rais-
for a unit area of wall is S multiplied by the ing its temperature is relevant for mud plas-
Measurements in mm
thickness s of the element: ters on stone, cement or brick walls, and for
lime or other plasters on earth walls. The
Qs = c · ρ · c [kJ/m2K] coefficients of linear expansion measured by
the BRI for heavy loam range from 0.0043
Heat intake and release to 0.0052 mm/m·K; for mud brick masonry
The speed at which a material absorbs or up to 0.0062 mm/m·K; and for sandy mud
releases heat is defined by the thermal dif- mortar up to 0.007 mm/m·K. Soft lime mor-
2.33 fusivity b which is dependent on the specific tar has a value of 0.005 mm/m·K, and strong
heat c, density r and the conductivity k: cement mortar 0.010 mm/m·K, the same as
2.32 Comparison of indoor and outdoor air tempera- concrete (Knöfel, 1979 and Künzel, 1990).
ture of a building with adobe vaults (above) with one b = √c · ρ · k [kJ/Km2h0.5 ]
using prefabricated concrete slabs (below) (Fathy, Fire resistance
1986) The larger the b-value, the quicker the pene- In the German standard DIN 4102 (Part 1,
2.33 Mould for preparing test samples for the bind- tration of heat. 1977) loam, even with some straw content,
ing strength test according to the German standard
is “not combustible” if the density is not less
DIN 18952
Decrement factor and time lag than 1700 kg/m3.
2.34 Test apparatus to measure the binding force,
“Decrement factor” and “time lag” refer to
developed at the BRI
the way the exterior wall of a building reacts Strength
2.35 Relation of the binding force to the permissible
to damp and to the period of delay before out-
compressive stress in loam elements, according to
Niemeyer side temperatures reach the interior. A wall Binding force
2.36 Relation of binding force to compressive
with a high thermal storage capacity creates The tensile resistance of loam in a plastic
strength of various test loams according to Gotthardt, a large time lag and heat decrement, while state is termed its “binding force”. The bind-
1949, and tests of the BRI a wall with high thermal insulation reduces ing force of loam depends not only on clay

30 The properties of earth as a building material

@arclib
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 content, but also on the type of clay minerals missible stresses for use in buildings (2.35),
present. As it is also dependent on the water is disproved by Gotthardt (1949) and by the
content, the binding force of different loams BRI. By Niemeyer’s extrapolations, a loam
can only be compared if either water content with a binding force of 60 g/cm2 would have
2.32 2.33 or plasticity are equal. According to the Ger- a permissible compression of 2 kg/cm2, and
man standard DIN 18952 (Part 2), published a loam with a binding force of 360 g/cm2
in 1956 as a pre-norm, the loam must have would have a permissible compression of
the defined “standard stiffness”. How this is 5 kg/cm2. Experiments at the BRI resulted in
Measurements in mm
obtained is described in this chapter on p. samples of a silty loam with a binding force of
e for Cairo
23. The samples to be tested have a special 80 g/cm2 but a compressive strength of 66
figure-8-shape made from a mixture of stand- kg/cm2, while they also found samples of silty
utdoor air ard stiffness. The samples are filled and clay with a binding force of 390 g/cm2 which
mperature
rammed with a tool in a formwork in three only displayed a compressive strength of 25
layers (2.33). At least three samples have to kg/cm2. Some of these results are shown in
be made from each mixture in this way for 2.36. The permissible compressive strength
immediate loading in the special testing ap- of earth building elements according to DIN
paratus seen in 2.34. Here, sand is poured 18954 (pre-norm 1956) is between 3 and 5
2.34 2.35 into a container hanging on the lower part of kg/cm2 (2.37). By this reasoning, the over-
the sample at a rate of not more than 750 all factor of safety in earth components is
g per minute. The pouring is stopped when about 7. This implies that actual compres-
the sample breaks. The weight under which sive strength is seven times higher than the
Solid loam
e for Cairo up to 0.5 the sample breaks, divided by the section of stress allowed in the element. Going by the
N/mm2
the sample, which is 5 cm2, gives the binding actual stresses in the building illustrated in
Loam with force. Then an average is derived from the re- 1.14, built in 1828 and still in use, we have
fibres upt to
0.3 N/mm2 sults of three samples that do not differ by five-storey-high solid rammed earth walls,
more than 10%. Typically, values vary from and the maximum compression at the bot-
Loamy
sand
Lean loam Nearly rich
loam
Rich
loam
V. rich
loam
Clay 25 to 500 g/cm2. Though in DIN 18952, soils tom is 7.5 kg/cm2 (Niemeyer, 1946).
Binding force after Niemeyer, DIN 18952
with binding forces below 50 g/cm2 were not In Yemen, there are examples of solid earth
2.35 recognised for building purposes, tests on a houses as much as twice the height of the
variety of historic rammed earth walls in Ger- one mentioned above. Obviously, it is pos-
Compressive strength (N/mm2) many showed that some of these, in fact, had sible to build a ten-storey-high earth house.
art 1,
much lower binding forces, and one sample According to Indian standards for stabilised
ontent,
was even as low as 25 g/cm2. soil blocks, the wet compressive strength
not less
of the block has to be tested as well. Here,
Compressive strength the block has to be immersed to a depth of
The compressive strength of dry building el- 3 mm in water for 24 hours.
ements made of earth, such as earth blocks
and rammed earth walls, differ in general Tensile strength
from 5 to 50 kg/cm2. This depends not only The tensile strength or binding force of a plas-
on the quantity and type of clay involved, tic loam was described on p. 30. For earth
astic
but also on the grain size distribution of silt, construction, the direct tensile strength of
sand and larger aggregates, as well as on the the dry material is of no relevance, because
not only
method of preparation and compaction. earth structures must not be under tension.
of clay
2.36 The methods for treatment and additives for Table 2.38 shows that dry tensile strength
dent on
increasing the compressive strength of loam is about 10% of compressive strength with
of dif-
are discussed on p. 39. Niemeyer’s asser- blocks, and 11% to 13% with earth mortars.
f either
tion (1946) that the compressive strength
Accord-
is proportionate to the binding force, and Bending tensile strength
52
therefore that loams with equal binding forc- The bending tensile strength of dry loam is of
ned
es should fall within the same range of per- little importance for earth construction. Still,
ned
31 Strength
cial @arclib
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of
lled
2.34
 40 The “soft” rays cannot penetrate the human

Cushioning effect in dB /
2.41 Amount of abrasion 99.99%
of different earth plasters
body as they are absorbed by the skin, but
2.42 Apparatus to mea- can be inhaled by breathing and, therefore,
30
sure the strength of 99.9%
may cause lung cancer. The following table
corners against dynamic
Specific weight Compressive showscompressive
Allowable the exhalation
forcerate of radon
[kg/cm 2
] given
impacts 20 strength
2.43 Shelter effect of dif- 99% by the OECD (1979) for Germany, measured
[kg/m3] [kg/cm2] wall column height/thickness
ferent building materials
11
in m12becquerel/kg
13
h. 14 15
against high-frequency 10
90% 1600 20 3 3 2 1
electromagnetic radiation
1900 30 4 4 3 Natural
2 gypsum1 25.2
0 2200 40 5 5 4 Cement
3 2 57.6 1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Sand 54.0
2.37 Frequency in GHz
Baked clay bricks 5.0
1 Vegetation roof with 16 cm of substrate, 20 cm Lime-sand bricks 13.3
it has athermal
certain significance
insulation, when
24 cm green bricks judging
(earth blocks) the loaded by a weight of about 5 kg, and move
2 Vegetation
Porous concrete 18.0
quality of mudroof as in 1, without
mortar and thegreenedge
bricks rigidity of it over the loam sample from side to side.
mud3bricks.
24 cm green bricks (1600 kg/m , 15 cm loam plaster) 3
The material that comes off after a certain
Strength [N/mm2] 4 2 cm tensile
lime plaster, 25 cm lightweight loam (800 kg/m ), 3 This shows that a clay brick from a clayey
Bending strength depends main- number of cycles is weighed and compared
Compression Bending Tension 1.5 cm loam plaster soil discharges very little radon.
tension ly on5 the10 cmclay content
lightweight and
loam block (1400the
kg/mtype) of the 3
with that of other samples. A plate covered
3
6 17.5 cm porous concrete (500 kg/m )
Green Brick A 3.5 1.1 0.4 clay minerals involved. Montmorillonite clay 3
with sand paper can also be used in place of
7 24 cm hollow bricks (1200 kg/m )
Green Brick B 4.4 1.3 0.5 has 8 a much higher bending (1800 kg/mtensile strength 3 a metal brush. At the BRI, a special test for
24 cm lime-sand-stone )
Shelter against high-frequency elec-
Green Brick C 6.1 1.6 0.6 than9 Kaolinite.
1.3 cm tile The lowest value investigat- loam surfaces was developed: a strong plas-
10 aluminium sunshade element tromagnetic radiation
Mortar D 2.02 0.69 0.21 ed 11 by metal
Hofmann, Schembra et. al. (1967)
insect grid (1x1 mm mash)
tic brush of 7 cm diameter is rotated on the
Mortar E 2.63 0.85 0.35 with12Kaolinite
double glazing,reached 1.7 kg/cm2, the high-
gold film covered surface under a pressure of 2 kg. After 20
2.43 Illustration 2.43 shows the differing degrees
2.38 est with Montmorillonite clay 223 kg/cm2. cycles, the amount of abrasion is weighed.
of effectiveness of solid building materials in
2.41
Clays without Montmorillonite tested by Illustration 2.41 shows the apparatus and
screening (reducing) high-frequency electro-
Hofmann, Schembra et. al. (1967) showed 2.39 the results with different earth plasters
Samples Abrasion in g pH-value magnetic radiation, as measured at the Uni-
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
tensile bending strengths between 17 and available on the German market.
versity of the Federal Armed Forces at
918 N/cm2.
0.7 Clayey soil is usually basic, with pH-values Munich.
Loam mortars

0.2 Modulus of elasticity

between 7 and 8.5. Nowadays, due to acid In the area of 2 gigahertz frequencies at
3.2
Bond strength The dynamic modulus of elasticity of loam
2.5 rain, earth dug from industrial areas may be which most cellular (mobile) phones are
0.1 Adhesive or bond strength is important only usually lies between 600 and 850 kg/mm2.
slightly acidic just below the topsoil. The working, a 24-cm-thick mud brick wall
0.1 with mud mortars. It depends on the rough-
0.0 basic state usually prevents fungus growth creates a reduction of 24 dB (decibels),
1.3 ness of the base and the bending tensile Impact strength of corners
(the favourable pH-value for fungus usually whereas an equal tick wall of a lime-sand
1.5 strength of the mortar. While the German Due to mechanical impacts, corners often
0.3 lies between 6.5 and 4.5). stone only absorbs 7 dB.
0.3 standard DIN 18555 (Part 6) gives a com- break during the handling of mud bricks.
0.5
plex standard testing method to obtain this, In practise, therefore, this kind of strength
2.3
2.4 a very simple test to check the bond strength is more important than either compressive
0.3
is shown in 2.40: two baked bricks are joined or bending strength. At the BRI, a special
2.39 by a 2-cm-thick mortar, the upper skewed at test was developed to measure this kind of
90° to the lower. After the mortar is dry, the strength against shocks (2.42): a weight is
33 Properties of earth
upper brick is laid on brick supports at both dropped onto the surface at a 60° angle,
ends, while the lower is loaded with a sand- 10 mm distant from the corner. Its bottom is
filled container. When the mortar breaks, the formed by a semi-spherical steel ball 30 mm
weight of the lower brick and the sand-filled in diameter.
2.37 Permissible compressive stresses in loams
according to the German standard DIN 18954 container divided by the mortar area gives
2.38 Strength of green bricks and earth mortar
the adhesive strength. However, this is rele- pH-value
vant only if failure occurs at the joint. If it oc-
2.39 Amount of abrasion of different earth mortars
curs within the mortar, then this represents Clayey soil is usually basic, with pH-values
2.40 Field test to derive the bond strength of mud
mortar the direct tensile strength of the mortar, between 7 and 8.5. Nowadays, due to acid
2.41 Apparatus to test the resistance against
which is less than that of the bond. rain, earth dug from industrial areas may be
abrasion, BRI slightly acidic just below the topsoil. The ba-
2.42 Apparatus to measure the strength of corners Resistance to abrasion sic state usually prevents fungus growth (the
against dynamic impacts Loam surfaces like mud mortar and mud favourable pH-value for fungus usually lies
2.43 Shelter effect of different building materials floors are sensitive to abrasion. One simple between 6.5 and 4.5).
against high-frequency electromagnetic radiation test for abrasion is to use a metal brush,

32 The properties of earth as a building material

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_an_bp_part_1 24.10.12 15:46 Seite 33

2.40 2.41 2.42

Radioactivity
Reduction of high-frequency electromagnetic radiation
Radioactivity Shelter against high-frequency
mobile network, 1950/2150 MHz

Measurements of the radiation of beta and

electromagnetic radiation
mobile network, 1760 MHz
mobile network, 900 MHz

gamma rays show that loam has values no

Measurements of the radiation of beta and
GPS satellite navigation

higher on average than concrete or baked

gamma rays showsome thatbricks
loamtestedhas values no Illustration 2.43 shows the differing degrees
radio link system

radio link system

radio link system

bricks. On the contrary,

byhigher on exhibited
this author averagemuch thanmore
concrete
radia- or baked of effectiveness of solid building materials in
radar

bricks.
tion, On caused
probably the contrary, some
by additives like flybricks tested screening (reducing) high-frequency electro-
60
99.9999% ash or blast furnace slag.
by this author exhibited muchMuch more impor-
more radia- magnetic radiation, as measured at the Uni-
tant than the beta and gamma rays are the
50
tion, probably caused by additives like fly versity of the Federal Armed Forces at Mu-
99.999% alpha rays emitted by the radioactive gas
ash and
radon or blast furnace
its short-lived slag.
decay Much more im-
products. nich. In the area of 2 gigahertz frequencies
portant
The than
“soft” rays the penetrate
cannot beta and thegamma
human rays are at which most cellular (mobile) phones are
Cushioning effect in dB / %

40
99.99%
the asalpha
body rays
they are emitted
absorbed by thebyskin,
thebutradioactive working, a 24-cm-thick mud brick wall cre-
can be inhaled by breathing and, therefore,
gas radon and its short-lived decay products. ates a reduction of 24 dB (decibels), where-
30
99.9%
may cause lung cancer. The following table
The “soft” rays cannot penetrate the human as an equal tick wall of a lime-sand stone
shows the exhalation rate of radon given
20 body as they are absorbed by the skin, but
by the OECD (1979) for Germany, measured
only absorbs 7 dB.
99%

incan be inhaledh. by breathing and, therefore,

m becquerel/kg
10
90%
may cause lung cancer. The following table
Natural
shows the exhalation 25.2
gypsum rate of radon given by
Cement 57.6
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
the OECD (1979) for Germany, measured in
Sand 54.0
Frequency in GHz m becquerel/kg h.
Baked clay bricks 5.0
1 Vegetation roof with 16 cm of substrate, 20 cm Lime-sand bricks 13.3
thermal insulation, 24 cm green bricks (earth blocks)
NaturalPorous
gypsum 25.2 18.0
concrete
2 Vegetation roof as in 1, without green bricks
Cement 57.8
3 24 cm green bricks (1600 kg/m3, 15 cm loam plaster)
4 2 cm lime plaster, 25 cm lightweight loam (800 kg/m3),
This
Sand shows54.0
that a clay brick from a clayey
1.5 cm loam plaster soil discharges very little radon.
5 10 cm lightweight loam block (1400 kg/m3) Baked clay bricks 5.0
6 17.5 cm porous concrete (500 kg/m3)
7 24 cm hollow bricks (1200 kg/m3) Lime-sand bricks 13.3
8 24 cm lime-sand-stone (1800 kg/m3) Porousagainst
Shelter concrete 18.0
high-frequency elec-
9 1.3 cm tile
10 aluminium sunshade element tromagnetic radiation
11 metal insect grid (1x1 mm mash)
12 double glazing, gold film covered This shows that a clay brick from a clayey soil
Illustration 2.43 shows the differing degrees
2.43 2.43 discharges very little radon.
of effectiveness of solid building materials in
33 screening (reducing) high-frequency electro-
Radioactivity
n in g pH-value @arclib
magnetic radiation, as measured at the Uni-
@arclib
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
versity of the Federal Armed Forces at
Clayey soil is usually basic, with pH-values Munich.
3.2
between 7 and 8.5. Nowadays, due to acid In the area of 2 gigahertz frequencies at
 3 Preparing of loam

It is not always easy to produce building ma- The easiest way to prepare the right loam
terial out of a clayey soil, and experience is mixture is by mixing the wet loam with a hoe
required. The right preparation depends on or moulding it with the feet. Animal power
the type of earth, its consistency and its ex- can also be used. Straw, chaff, coarse sand
pected application. and other additives can be mixed during the
Moist crumbled earth with less clay and more same operation.
sand content can be used immediately to At the Building Research Institute – BRI at the
build a rammed earth wall even as it is dug University of Kassel in Germany, an effective
out. Clods of earth with high clay content can- mud wheel was built (3.1) in which two pairs
3.1 not be used as a building material; they must of old truck tyres were filled with concrete
either be crushed or dissolved in water and and used to prepare the mixture. The tyres
thinned with sand. This chapter describes were mounted on a horizontal beam fixed to
the different possibilities of preparing earth a vertical central post and powered by a trac-
for specific applications. tor or by animal or manual power. With an
adequate addition of water, 1 m3 of usable
Soaking, crushing and mixing loam could be produced in about 15 minutes
(with the help of two or three people, mainly
There are several methods available for to scoop the overflowing mud back into the
making workable building material out of track). If a tractor is available, it is easy and
clods of earth. One of the easiest methods more effective to simply spread earth on a
for reducing the size of clods and making field and drive back and forth over it.
their consistency workable without mechan- For small quantities, a small garden cultiva-
ical labour is to place the earth clods in wa- tor is very useful (3.2). In modern earth con-
ter so that they can become plastic on their struction technology, forced mixers are used.
own. The loam-clods are placed in large flat Here, the mixing is done with the help of re-
containers in a layer 15 to 25 cm high and volving arms that are fixed either to a vertical
then covered with water. After 2 to 4 days, (3.3) or horizontal axis (3.6). It is convenient
a soft mass is obtained which can be easi- to have a mechanical device for filling this
ly moulded and mixed by hand, feet or ma- mixer, as seen in 3.5.
chines, together with aggregates such as Old mortar mixing machines can also be
sand and gravel. used, like ones that have rotating rollers
In cold climates where there is sufficient frost, (3.4). The machine in 3.6 was specially devel-
a traditional method is to stack the moistened oped for preparing loam from any kind of soil
earth 20 to 40 cm high and allow it to freeze (by the German firm Heuser). A quicker meth-
over winter so that disintegration occurs due od of preparing a loam from dry clods of clay-
to the expansion of freezing water. ey soil is to crush them in a machine (3.8).

34 Preparing of loam
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 3.3

3.2 3.4 3.5

3.6

3.7 3.8

3.1 Mixing unit used at the BRI, Kassel

3.2 Garden cultivator
3.3 Forced mixer
3.4 Mortar mixer with rollers
3.5 Forced mixer with loading device
3.6 Forced loam mixer (by Heuser)
3.7 Electrical crusher
3.8 Electrical hand mixer

35 Soaking, crushing and mixing

@arclib
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 This has steel angles fixed onto a horizontal Mechanical slurrying
plate, which rotates at a rate of 1440 rota-
tions per minute. It requires an electric en- In order to enrich a sandy soil with clay or
gine of 4 kW. The machine does not work if prepare a lightweight loam, slurry is usually
the lumps are wet. Another example can be required. This can be prepared most easily
seen in 3.9, manufactured by Ceratec, Bel- from dry loam powder mixed with water. If
gium, which is able to crush up to 20 m3 of clods of clayey soil are to be used, they have
clods in 8 hours with a three-horse-power en- to remain covered with water for some days
3.9 gine. In this machine, the clods are crushed in large flat containers. After that, slurry
by two counter-rotating cylinders. The ma- can be obtained by using special rakes, as
chine shown in 3.10, manufactured originally shown in 3.12, or by using electrical hand
by the firm Royer Industries, can crush up to mixers, as shown in 3.8. A forced mixer usu-
30 m3 of earth clods in 8 hours. ally used for mixing and spraying plaster is
It is always important to get the readymixed more efficient.
material out of the container fairly soon.
There are different possibilities for doing so: Water curing
the machine shown in 3.5 has an opening
at the bottom through which the mixture can Water curing is a process by which the wet
be pushed automatically into a wheelbarrow, loam mixture is allowed to stand for a peri-
3.10 and the container of the apparatus can be od of 12 to 48 hours. Experience shows that
tilted so that it falls into the flat wheelbarrow this process enhances the binding force of
below. the loam. This phenomenon is probably due
Common concrete mixers where only the to electrochemical attraction between dif-
drum rotates are unsuitable for preparing ferent clay minerals that forces them into a
loam mixtures, because in them, the clods of more compact and ordered pattern.
earth agglomerate instead of breaking down.
The use of an electric hand mixer of the kind Thinning
shown in 3.8 is very time-consuming and
3.11 is recommended only if small quantities of If it is too rich in clay, loam must be made
mud mortar or plaster are to be prepared. lean. Coarse aggregates like sand or grav-
el are added, increasing the compressive
Sieving strength of the loam. The coarse aggregates
should always be moistened before being
For specific earth construction techniques, it mixed into the rich loam. Besides sand and
might be necessary to sieve out larger parti- pebbles, hair, cow dung, heather, straw,
cles. The simplest method that can be used husk, sawdust and other similar materials
is to throw the dry material over a sieve. More can also be used. These also serve to reduce
3.12 effective is an apparatus with a cylindrical the shrinkage; some even serve to increase
sieve that is inclined and turned by hand or the degree of thermal insulation.
engine (3.11).

3.9 Crusher (by Ceratec)

3.10 Crusher (by Royer Industries)
3.11 Sieving device
3.12 Rakes for preparing loam slurries

36 Preparing of loam
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 As a rule, it is only necessary to modify the
hence the shrinkage ratio. The results of this
characteristics of loam for special applica-
method are shown in 4.2 and 4.3. In 4.2, a
tions. As we can see in 4.1, additives that
loam with 50% clay and 50% silt content
improve certain properties might worsen
was mixed with increasing amounts of sand
others. For instance, compressive and bend-
until the shrinkage ratio approached zero.

44 Improving
Improving
4 Improving the earth’s characteristics by special thecharacteristics
characteristics
treatment
the earth’s
of loam
by special treatment
ing strength can be raised by adding starch
To insure comparability, all samples tested
and cellulose, but these additives also
were of standard stiffness (see chapter 2,
Without
Linseed oil 3%

or additives
ISOFLOC 2%

Shrinkage

byorspecial
additives treatment or additives
Cellulose 0.5 %
Cellulose 0.75 %

Compressive strength p. reduce the binding force and increase the

22). Interestingly, a shrinkage ratio of
Gelatine 0.5 %
Gelatine/Alum 0.5 %

Tensile bending strength

Starch 1 %
Starch 2 %

Binding force
shrinkage ratio, which is disadvantageous.
0.1% is reached at a content of about 90%
Whey 2 %
Whey 4 %

sand measuring 0 to 2 mm diameter, while

4.1 the same ratio is reached earlier when using
Reduction of shrinkage cracks sand having diameters of 0.25 to 1 mm, i.e.
at about 80%. A similar effect can be seen
As a rule, it is only necessary to modify the hence
Because theofshrinkage
increased ratio.
erosion, Theshrinkage
results of this
4.1 Influence of various As a rule, it is only necessary to modify the in 4.3 hence withthesiltyshrinkage
loam, where ratio.theTheaddition
results of this
characteristics of loam foradditives special onapplica-
the shrink-
As
method a rule,
are it
shown is only
in 4.2necessary
and 4.3. to4.2,
In modifya the in 4.3 with silty loam, where the addition of
cracks in loam surfaces
characteristics of loam exposed
for specialto rainapplica- of coarse
methodsand are (1 to 2 mm
shown in 4.2in and
diameter)
4.3. In 4.2, a
tions. As we can see in 4.age, binding force,
1, additives thattensile loam characteristics
with 50% clayofand loam forsiltspecial applica- coarse sand (1 to 2 mm in diameter) gives a
shouldtions.beAsprevented.
we can see Asin50%described content
4.1, additives in chap-that givesloam a better
with 50% outcome than50%
clay and normal silt sand
content
improve certain properties might worsen
bending force and com-
was tions.
mixed Aswithwe increasing
can see in 4.1, additives
amounts of sand thatwith better outcome than normal sand with grains
pressive force of a sandy ter 2 (p. 20), shrinkage
improve certain properties might worsenduring drying grains from 0 to 2 mm
was mixed with increasing amounts of sand in diameter.
others. For instance, compressive and bend- untilimprove
the shrinkagecertainratio properties
approached mightzero. worsen oth- from 0 to 2 mm in diameter. Illustration 4.4
loam depends
others.on Forwaterinstance, content, on the kind
compressive andand bend- Illustration
until the4.4 shows the
shrinkage ratioinfluence
approached of differ-
zero.
ing strength can be raised 4.2by addingofstarch
Reduction shrink- To ers. For instance,
insureofcomparability, compressive
all samples and
tested bending shows the influence of different types of clay:
amounting strength clay minerals
can be raised present, and
by adding on starch
the entTo types
insureof clay: one seriesallthinned
comparability, samples with
tested
and cellulose, but these additives age by adding sand to a
also were strength
of standard can be raised(see
stiffness by adding
chapterstarch 2, and one series thinned with sand grains of 0 to
grain and size distribution
cellulose, of theadditives
but these aggregates. also sand weregrains of 0 to 2 stiffness
of standard mm diameter with 2,
(see chapter
Without

e clayey loam cellulose, but these additives also reduce 2 mm diameter with 90% to 95% pure Kao-
Linseed oil 3%
ISOFLOC 2%

Shrinkage
e strength reduce the binding force4.3 andReduction
increase the strength p. 22). Interestingly, a shrinkage ratio of
Cellulose 0.5 %

90% to 95% pure Kaolinite, the other with

Cellulose 0.75 %

g strength Compressive
of shrink- reduce the binding force and increase the p. 22). Interestingly, a shrinkage ratio of
Gelatine 0.5 %
Gelatine/Alum 0.5 %

Tensile bending strength theisbinding

reachedforce and increase the90% shrinkage linite, the other with Bentonite, consisting of
Starch 1 %

shrinkage ratio, which is age disadvantageous. 0. 1% at a content of about

Starch 2 %

by adding sand
force to a Thinning Bentonite, consisting of 71% Montmoril-
Binding
shrinkage ratio, which is disadvantageous. 0.1% is reached at a content of about 90%
Whey 2 %
Whey 4 %

silty loam sand ratio, which is0disadvantageous.

measuring 71% Montmorillonite and 16% Illite.
Addition of sand ortolarger 2 mmaggregates
diameter, while to a lonite
sand and 16% Illite.0 to 2 mm diameter, while
measuring
4.1
4.1 the
loamsame reduces ratiothe is reached
relative clayearlier when and
content using
the same ratio is reached earlier when using
4.1
Reduction of shrinkage cracks sand Reduction
having diameters of shrinkage
of 0.25 to 1cracks mm, i.e. Thinning mediums
Reduction of shrinkage cracks Thinning mediums
sand having diameters of 0.25 to 1 mm, i.e.
Linear shrinkage (%) at about Linear80%.
shrinkage A (%)similar effect can be seen In the ceramic industry, fluid thinning medi-
5 2 In the ceramic
at about 80%.industry,
A similarfluideffect
thinningcan be seen
arious Because
4.5 of increased erosion, shrinkage Because
in 4.3 with silty ofloam, increased
where the erosion,
addition shrinkage ums are used to attain higher liquidity, there-
4.1 Influence of various Because of increased erosion, shrinkage
1.8 mediums
in 4.3 withare used to attain
silty loam, wherehighertheliquidity,
addition
hrink- cracks4
in loam surfaces exposed toon rain cracks sand
of 1.6
coarse in loam (1 to 2surfaces
mm in diameter) exposed to rain by allowing less water to be used (in order
additives the shrink- cracks in loam surfaces exposed thereby allowing
sandless water to in
bediameter)
used
tensile 3.5 should be prevented. As described Sand 1–2to rain in chapter
of coarse (1 to 2 mm
to reduce shrinkage). Typical thinning medi-
should be prevented. As described age, binding in force,
chap-tensile gives 1.4 a better outcome than normal sand (in order to reduce shrinkage). Typical thin-
com- 3 should be prevented. As described
Sanddrying
0–2 in chap- gives a better outcome than normal sand
ter2.52 (p. 20), shrinkage during drying
bending force and com-
with 2 (p. 19), shrinkage during
1.2 grains from 0 to 2 mm in diameter.
depends ums are sodium waterglass (Na2O · 3-4 SiO2),
sandy ter 2 (p. 20), shrinkage during drying ning mediums are sodium
with grains from 0 to 2 mm in diameter.waterglass
pressive force of a sandy
2
depends on water content, loam on the kind and on1 water
Illustration 4.4 content,
shows on thethe kind and
influence amount of
of differ- Soda (Na2CO3), and humus acid and tannic
1.5 depends on water content, on the kind and (NaIllustration 2O · 3-4 SiO 2), shows
4.4 Soda (Na the2CO 3), and of differ-
influence
shrink-
amount of clay minerals present, and onof the
4.2 Reduction
clay
0.8 minerals present,
shrink- ent types of clay: one series thinned with
and on the grain size acid. Tests conducted at the BRI at the Uni-
nd to a
1
amount of clay minerals present, and on the humusent acid and
types of tannic
clay: one acid.
seriesTests conduct-
thinned with
0.5
grain size distribution of theage by adding sand to a sand
aggregates. distribution
0.6
grains of 0oftothe 2 mm aggregates.
diameter with versity of Kassel showed that these methods
0 clayey loam grain size distribution of the aggregates. ed at the BRI at the University
sand grains of 0 to 2 mm diameter with of Kassel
shrink- 0 20 40 60 80 100 90% 0.4
to 95% pure Kaolinite, the other with were of very little relevance to earth as a
4.3 Reduction of shrink- showed
90% that
to 95%these puremethods
Kaolinite, were
the of verywith
other
nd to a Thinning
Sand content (%) Thinning
0.2 building material. But tests with whey were
age by adding sand to a Bentonite, Thinning
consisting of 71% Montmoril- little relevance
Bentonite, to earth
consisting as
of a building
71% materi-
Montmoril-
Sand 0.25–1 Sand 0–2 0
Addition of sand or larger aggregates silty loam to a Addition
lonite 1/2and 16% of sand Illite. or 1/3
larger aggregates 1/4
to a successful.
Addition
4.3 loam reduces the
of sandProportionor larger aggregates to a al. But lonitetests
andwith16% whey
Illite.were successful.
4.2
4.2
loam reduces the relative clay content and relativeloam : clay
sand (bycontent
weight) and
loam reduces the relative clay content and
hencemediums
Thinning the shrinkage ratio. The results of this Addition of fibres
37 Improving the earth Thinning mediums
Linear shrinkage (%)
Linear shrinkage (%) method
In the ceramic are shown
industry,
Linear shrinkage in 4.2
(%) fluid thinning and 4.3. In 4.2, The shrinkage ratio of loam can be reduced
2
5 In the ceramic industry, fluid thinning
a loam2
with 50% clay
mediums are used to attain higher liquidity, and 50% silt content by the addition of fibres such as animal or hu-
1.8 4.5
1.8 mediums are used to attain higher liquidity,
1.6 4
was mixed
thereby allowing with lessincreasing
water to be amounts
used of sand man hair, fibres from coconuts, sisal, agave
Sand 1–2 1.6 thereby allowing less water to be used
3.5 until
(in order the shrinkage ratio approached
Sand 1–2 zero. or bamboo, needles from needle trees and
1.4 to reduce shrinkage). Typical thin-
1.4
3 Sand 0–2 (in order to reduce shrinkage). Typical thin-
1.2
2.5
To
ning mediumsinsure comparability,
are sodium waterglass all samples
Sand 0–2 tested cut straw. This is attributable to the fact that
1.2
ning mediums are sodium waterglass
(Nawere of SiOstandard stiffness (see chapter 2, relative clay content is reduced and a certain
1 2
2O 1 · 3-4 2), Soda (Na2CO3), and
0.8 1.5 (Na2O · 3-4 SiO2), Soda (Na2CO3), and
humusp. 23). Interestingly,
0.8acid and tannic acid. Tests conduct- a shrinkage ratio of amount of water is absorbed into the pores
0.6
1 humus acid and tannic acid. Tests conduct-
0.5 ed 0.1% theisBRI
at 0.6 reached at a content
at the University of about 90%
of Kassel of the fibres. Because the fibre increases the
0.4 0 ed at the BRI at the University of Kassel
100 sand 0.4 measuring 0 to 2 mm diameter, while
showed that these methods were of very binding force of the mixture, moreover, the
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.2 showed that these methods were of very
Sand content (%) the 0.2same ratio is reached earlier when using
little relevance to earth as a building materi- appearance of cracks is reduced. Some re-
0 little relevance to earth as a building materi-
1/2 Sand 0.25–1
1/3 Sand 0–2 1/4 sand
al. But
0 having diameters1/3ofsuccessful.
tests
1/2 with whey were
0.25 to 1 mm, 1/4
i.e. sults of tests conducted at the BRI are shown
4.3 Proportion loam : sand (by weight) al. But tests with whey were successful.
4.34.2 at
4.3 about 80%. A similar Proportioneffect can
loam : sand be seen
(by weight) in 4.5.
37 Improving the earth 37 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives
37 Improving the earth
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 Linear shrinkage (%)
Structural measures sand, as this author has demonstrated using
Bentonite The simplest method for reducing shrinkage three mud bricks (shown in 4.6) onto which
Kaolinite cracks in earth building elements is to re- 10 litres of water were poured for a period of
duce their length and enhance drying time. 2 minutes. The brick in the middle, with high
While producing mud bricks, for instance, silt content, showed extreme erosion up to
it is important to turn them upright and to 5 mm depth. The brick on the right, with a
shelter them from direct sunlight and wind to higher clay content (ca. 30%) showed erosion
guarantee a slow, even drying process. up to 3 mm depth; the brick on the left, with
Another sensible method is to design shrink- the same clay content, but less fine and more
age joints that can be closed separately, thus coarse sand, exhibited very little erosion.
avoiding uncontrolled shrinkage cracks (see
4.4 chapter 5, p. 54; chapter 8, p. 78; and chap- Mineral stabilisers (binders)
ter 14, p. 131).
Cement
Stabilisation against water erosion Cement acts as a stabiliser against water,
especially in soils with low clay content. The
In general, it is unnecessary to raise the wa- higher the clay content, the more cement
ter resistance of building elements made is needed to produce the same stabilising
from earth. If, for instance, an earth wall is effect.
sheltered against rain by overhangs or shin- Cement interferes with the binding force of
gles, and against rising humidity from the the clay and therefore it is possible that the
soil through the foundation by a horizontal compressive strength of cement-stabilised
damp-proof course (which is necessary even soil is less than that of the same soil with-
for brick walls), it is unnecessary to add sta- out cement, as shown in this chapter, p. 43.
bilisers. But for mud plaster that is exposed As with concrete, the maximum water re-
Fibre added (%)
to rain, and for building elements left unshel- sistance of cement-stabilised soil blocks is
Coir Flax straw Rye straw
tered during construction, the addition of reached after 28 days. These blocks must
Silty loam mortar stabilisers may be necessary. Theoretically, cure for at least 7 days, and should not dry
Sandy loam mortar
a weather-resistant coat of paint is sufficient out too soon. If not protected against direct
4.5 as protection, but in practice, cracks often sun and wind, the blocks must be sprayed by
appear on the surface or are created by me- water while curing.
chanical action. Further, there is the danger To hasten and enhance the curing process,
of rainwater penetrating the loam, causing 20 to 40 g sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be
swelling and erosion. The rule of thumb says added to each litre of water. Similar effects
that cement and bitumen as stabilisers are can be obtained with about 10 g per litre of
good for loam with less clay, and lime for water of either NaSO4, Na2CO3 and Na2SiO2.
clayey loams. This rule, however, does not
take into consideration the type of clay. For Lime
instance, Montmorillonite and Kaolinite clay If there is sufficient humidity, then an ex-
4.1 Influence of various additives on the shrinkage,
react quite differently, as described in chap- change of ions takes place in the loam with
binding force, tensile bending force and compressive
force of a sandy loam
ter 4, p. 43. The stabilisers cover the clay lime as stabiliser. The calcium ions of the
minerals and prevent water from reaching lime are exchanged with the metallic ions of
4.2 Reduction of shrinkage by adding sand to a
clayey loam them and causing swelling. In this chapter, the clay. As a result, stronger agglomerations
4.3 Reduction of shrinkage by adding sand to a silty
common stabilisers, used traditionally and of fine particles occur, hindering the penetra-
loam up to the present, are described. Other stabi- tion of water. Furthermore, the lime reacts
4.4 Reduction of shrinkage by adding sand to lisers that mainly increase the compressive with the CO2 in the air to form limestone.
Kaolinite and Bentonite strength are mentioned in this chapter, p. 43 The optimum lime content for loam differs
4.5 Shrinkage ratio of loam mortars with addition of and 45. and should be tested in advance in each
fibres Water resistance can also be raised by case. The explanations on p. 39 show that
4.6 Erosion test on green bricks changing the grain distribution of silt and if only a small amount of lime is added, the

38 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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 compressive strength may be lower than that p. 26) eroded after 4 minutes, whereas a
of unstabilised loam. sample with 3.5% by weight of cow dung
began showing signs of erosion only after
Bitumen 4 hours.
In Babylon, bitumen was used to stabilise
mud bricks as early as the 5th century AD. Mineral and animal products
Normally, bitumen is effective for loam with In former times, it was quite common to en-
low clay content. The stabilising effect is more hance stabilisation against water by adding
4.6 pronounced if the mixture is compressed. For lime and manure, or lime and whey. One tra-
that reason the bitumen is either dissolved ditional recipe, for instance, specifies 1 part
in water with an emulsifier such as naphtha, lime powder mixed with 1 part sandy loam,
paraffin oil or petroleum. It is preferable to which is soaked for 24 hours in horse urine,
use a mixture of 4 to 5 parts bitumen, 1 part after which it can be used for plastering.
paraffin oil and 1% paraffin, which is pre- Obviously, lime reacts chemically with cer-
pared by heating to 100°C. Normally, 3% to tain ingredients of the urine, since one the
6% of this solution is sufficient to stabilise the appearance of some fine crystals is observ-
soil. After the solvent and water evaporate, a able. The casein in urine and the manure
film is formed that glues the particles of loam react with lime to form calcium albuminate
together, thereby preventing water ingress. (which is not water-soluble). The cellulose in
the urine and manure enhances the binding
Soda waterglass force, as the cellulose fibres act as reinforce-
Soda waterglass (Na2O · 3-4 SiO2) is a good ment. The ammoniac compounds act as a
stabiliser for sandy loam, but it must be disinfectant against microorganisms. Two
thinned with water in a 1 : 1 proportion before other recipes successfully tested at the BRI
being added. Otherwise, microcracks will oc- are:
cur which generate strong water absorption. (a) 1 part hydraulic lime, 4 parts wet cow
dung, 3 days old, and 8 parts sandy loam, and
Animal products (b) 4 parts hydrated lime, 1 part fat-free
Animal products like blood, urine, manure, white cheese, and 10 parts sandy loam.
casein and animal glue have been used
through the centuries to stabilise loam. In Plant products
former times, oxblood was commonly used Plant juices containing oily and latex and
as a binding and stabilising agent. In Ger- derived from plants such as sisal, agave, ba-
many, the surfaces of rammed earth floors nanas and Euphorbia herea, usually in com-
were treated with oxblood, rendering them bination with lime, are used as a stabilising
abrasion- and wipe-resistant. In many coun- coating with success in many countries. In-
tries, whey and urine are the most commonly vestigations at the BRI showed that a high
used stabilisers for loam surfaces. If manure degree of weather protection could be ob-
is used, it should be allowed to stand for 1 tained for loam surfaces using doubleboiled
to 4 days in order to allow fermentation; the linseed oil. It must be mentioned, however,
stabilisation effect is then considerably en- that vapour diffusion is heavily reduced in
hanced due to the ion exchange between the these cases (see chapter 2, p. 26). Several
clay minerals and the manure. reports show that cooked starch and molas-
In India, traditional loam plaster (gobar plas- ses can also be used to enhance stability.
ter) has a high content of cow dung, which This effect is more pronounced if a little lime
has been allowed to stand in a moist state is also added.
for at least half a day. This technique is still
in use. Investigations carried out at the BRI Artificial stabilisers
showed that a loam plaster sample subject- Synthetic resins, paraffins, synthetic waxes
ed to the jet test (referred to in chapter 2, and synthetic latex are all known to have a

39 Stabilisation against water erosion

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 stabilising effect on loam. However, because for 10 minutes. A comparison shows that the
they are relatively expensive, prone to ultra- sample that was mixed longer demonstrates
violet degradation, and because they act as much less deformation and tended to crack
vapour barriers, they are not discussed in less.
greater detail in this book. These stabilisers
should be tested before use. Silane, silox- Increasing clay content
ane, silicones, silicate ester and acrylates A simple method for enhancing the binding
4.7 all have water-repellent effects. They are dis- force of very lean earth mixes is to add soil
cussed in chapter 12, p. 103. with a high clay content or even pure clay.
This is easiest if the clay is available in pow-
Enhancement of binding force der form and just mixed into the wet loam.
In some countries, Bentonite is available
The way in which the binding force of loam is in bags like cement. This consists of 80%
gauged has already been described in chap- to 90% pure clay and contains about 70%
ter 2, p. 30. Normally, no specific binding Montmorillonite. The dry density of the pow-
force is needed with loam as a building ma- der is about 800 kg/m3. It should be kept in
terial. But if the binding force is insufficient, it mind that while Montmorillonite has a very
can be increased by adding clay or by better high bending strength, it also has a charac-
preparation, that is, by kneading and water teristically high swelling and shrinking behav-
curing (see chapter 3, p. 36). Mineral, animal iour. It is often easier to get clay powder from
and plant products that are usually added to ceramic industry suppliers or extremely clay-
enhance the weather resistance of loam also ey soils from brick-making plants. Rich clods
normally enhance its binding force, although of clay need to be kept in water to form slurry,
they may sometimes reduce it. This section and then mixed into the loam with a mixer
explains the various methods by which bind- (see chapter 3).
ing force can be increased.
Additives
Mixing and water curing The binding force of lean loams can be in-
It is interesting to note that depending upon creased by whey, fat-free white cheese,
their method of preparation, different loam fresh cheese, urine, manure, double-boiled
samples from the same mix can have differ- linseed oil, or lime-casein glue. The results
ent binding forces. If there is enough water have to be tested in each case before using
for preparation, then kneading, stirring and these additives in a building element. Some
curing enhance binding force. of the data compiled by the BRI may be seen
At the BRI, it was discovered that after being in 4.1.
mixed for 10 minutes in a laboratory mixer,
a silty mud mortar acquired a binding force Increasing compressive strength
that was 57% higher than the same mixture
when mixed for only one minute. Neverthe- Loam for building normally has a compres-
less, there was an 11% reduction in the sive strength of 20 to 50 kg/cm2. The per-
binding force after 20 minutes, which sug- missible compressive stress for walls accord-
gests the existence of an optimum mixing ing to the German standard DIN 18954 is 3
time. The increase in binding force due to to 5 kg/cm2. In practice, it is very seldom
a longer preparation time is demonstrated required to enhance compressive strength,
by a simple test. Illustration 4.7 shows two this being necessary only in highly stressed
earth balls 5 cm in diameter dropped from a elements used in structures taller than two
height of 2 m onto a hard surface. Both were storeys (which are not permissible by most
4.7 Ball dropping test to demonstrate different prepared to the same consistency, as deter- standards anyway). With earth components,
binding forces mined by the plastic limit. The ball on the left the edge strength against impact is very im-
4.8 Modified Fuller’s parabola (Boemans, 1990) was mixed for 2 minutes, the one on the right portant and often needs to be increased. Ri-

40 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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 ing to the German standard DIN 18954 is
3 to 5 kg/cm2. In practice, it is very seldom a = 100 √
required to enhance compressive strength,
4.8 where a is the weig
Sedimentation Sieving diameters less than
Clay Silt Sand Gravel
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse portion of the total
100
90
largest grain of diam
80 Boemans points ou
70 mula is not directly
60 struction, since acco
50 tent given is only 2%
40
ously low for earth
30
1989). He claims th
20
10 only for particles lar
0 while also suggestin
0.001 0.002 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60 100 content of 10%. Th
4.8 the expression:

gidity of corners against breakage 41

dependsImproving the earth low for earth construction (Boe-
is obviously
upon compressive as well as bending tensile mans, 1990). He claims this formula to be
strength. This “edge impact strength” is very valid only for particles larger than 0.002 mm,
important during construction, when bricks while also suggesting a base minimum clay
or blocks are being transported, moved or content of 10%. This modification leads to
stacked. The compressive strength of a loam the expression:
type depends mainly upon its soil grain size
d
distribution, water content, the static or dy- a10 = 100 √ + 10
D
namic compaction imparted to it, and the
type of clay mineral present. If the sand and The curve derived from this modified formula
gravel particles are distributed so as to give for a maximum grain size of 4 mm is
a minimum packing volume, and the silt and shown in 4.8.
clays are such that the inter-granular spac-
es of the sand and gravel are fully filled by Preparation
them, then maximum density (and hence, The compressive strength of a mix is affect-
compressive strength) has been achieved. ed by the type and amount of preparation, as
well as by the proportion of water used in the
Optimum grain size distribution preparation, a fact that is neither wellknown
It is not commonly known that the compres- nor well-researched.
sive strength of a mix can be enhanced by At the Institute for Building Technology of
merely optimising and varying the proportion the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in
of silt, sand and gravel particles, but with- Zurich and at the Building Research Insti-
out increasing the clay content. In concrete tute – BRI, it was proven that a slightly moist
technology, we speak of an ideal grain size loam, when free from lumps and compacted
distribution, the so-called Fuller’s parabola, in a soil block press, usually has a smaller
or well-graded mix, given by the expression: compressive strength than the same loam
combined with sufficient water, mixed by
d
a = 100 √ hand, and then simply thrown into a mould
D
(as is done when making adobes). In one ex-
where a is the weight of all grains with diam- periment at the BRI, handmade adobes had,
eters less than d, expressed as a proportion on an average, a compressive strength 19%
of the total mass which has the largest grain higher than if produced in a soil block press
of diameter D. Boemans points out that this which imparted a pressure of 20 kg/cm2 to
grading formula is not directly useable for the material. The belief of many researchers
earth construction, since according to it, the and practitioners that pressing in a soil block
clay content given is only 2% to 3%, which press leads to an increase of compressive

41 Increasing compressive strength

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 strength may only be true for limited cases. shows the comparative effectiveness of dy-
As a rule, it is not. The “secret” of loam lies in namic versus static compaction. Here it can
the lamellar structure of the various clay min- be seen that the compressive strength of
erals and their internal electrical attraction, a sandy loam under constant pressure for
which is activated only by water and move- 10 seconds and vibrating at 3000 cycles per
ment. This means that by kneading loam in minute is enhanced by 14%. For each tech-
a plastic state, the clay minerals are able to nique of preparation, there is an optimum
come together in a denser, parallel layered water content that can be determined only
packing, achieving greater binding force, and by testing. According to the German stand-
when dry, higher tensile and compressive ard DIN 18127, the optimum water content
strength. is said to be the one at which a maximum
Using the compacting apparatus shown in dry density is achieved. The compaction is to
4.9, developed at the BRI to test samples be done with a Proctor hammer. In order to
of equal defined density, cylindrical samples obtain this optimum water content, samples
were produced that were 76 mm in diameter with varying water contents are compacted
and 100 mm in height. The samples were in this way and their densities determined.
then compacted by ten strokes of a 4.5 kg The water content which gives the highest
weight falling onto them from a height of density is called the optimum water content.
4.9 0.45 m. The volume of a freshly dug earth The curve obtained by connecting these
sample was thus compacted by about 30% points is called the “Proctor Curve” (4.11).
Loam Specific weight Vibration Compressive
[kg/m3] [rpm] strenght [N/mm2] to 40%. The same silty soil was mixed with In earth construction, however, the maxi-
silty 2003 0 3.77 some water in a mechanical force mixer for mum density or compaction, and therefore,
1977 1500 4.11
2 minutes and 15 minutes respectively, and the so-called optimum water content, do not
2005 3000 4.17
then filled in a cylindrical form of the same necessarily lead to maximum density or com-
sandy 2003 0 2.63
size in a pasty state. After drying, the sample paction. Therefore the so-called optimum
2009 1500 2.91
that was not compacted had an average com- water content does not necessarily lead to
2024 3000 3.00
pressive strength of 28% and 38% respec- the maximum compressive strength, nor is
4.10 tively, higher than those that were rammed. it the most decisive parameter. On the con-
This test demonstrates that preparation can trary, the decisive parameters are workability
be much more relevant to the strength than and binding force; hence it is recommended
the compaction. However, it should be noted that loam should not be used with optimum
that the sample mentioned above was silty, water content as per DIN 18127, but instead
whereas this difference is not as large with with a water content somewhat higher than
loams of high clay or sand content. the optimum so derived. In fact, this so-called
optimum water content may be treated, in
Compaction practice, as a minimum water content. With
Compacting loam under static force in order compressed soil blocks, it has been shown
to increase its compressive strength is gen- that a water content 10% higher than the op-
erally less effective than beating or ramming timum gives better results than the so-called
while vibrating (by dynamically applied forc- optimum. Boemans also stated that the op-
4.9 Compaction apparatus for soil samples devel-
es). When a heavy object falls onto it, waves timum water content does not usually result
oped at the BRI
are generated, causing soil particles to vi- in maximum compressive strength. He also
4.10 Compressive strengths after static and dynamic
brate. This in turn creates movements that discovered that if there is lesser compaction
compaction of sandy loam (clay 15%, silt 29%, sand
56%) and silty loam (clay 12%, silt 74%, sand 14%) allow the particles to settle into a denser pat- and higher water, then the same compressive
4.11 Deriving the Proctor Curve with a multi-point
tern. Furthermore, if there is sufficient water, strength may be achieved by using higher
method (Voth, 1978) clay minerals have the ability to form parallel, compaction and less water (Boemans, 1990,
4.12 Proctor Curves of a silty loam with and without denser, and more ordered structures due to p. 60). At the Labor Géomatériaux of the
the addition of lime (Voth, 1978) electrical forces, resulting in higher bind- Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat
4.13 Change in compressive strength of loams with ing and compressive strength. Table 4.10, (ENTPE) in Vaulx-en-Velin, France, it was
the addition of cement based on the various tests done by the BRI, found that the type of clay minerals involved

42 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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 obtained by connecting these points is The addition of lime and cement, usually
called the “Proctor Curve” (4.11). intended to increase the weather resistance
In earth construction, however, the maxi- of loam, also generally increases compres-
mum density or compaction, and therefore, sive strength. As described here, however,
the so-called
also influenceoptimum the compressive water content,
strength doafter compressive
3. When adding strength may alsolime,
hydraulic be an ion ex-
4.11 not necessarily
compaction. Forlead to maximum
instance, density
by raising or
the stat- decreased
change between by these the additives, especiallyand
clay minerals in the
iccompaction.
pressure from Therefore
2 to 8the MPa so-called opti-
when producing amounts
added calciumlower than ions5%. takes Thisplace,
is because lasting be-
mum
soil waterusing
blocks content a does
press,not necessarily
the compressive lime
tweenand4cementand 8 interfere
hours. The withadditional
the bindinghard-
lead to the
strength maximum
rose by about compressive
50% with strength,
Kaolinite, force
ening ofprocess
clay minerals.
caused Thebygreater the clayof the
the reaction
nor is it the most decisive
and by about 100% with Montmorillonite parameter. On the (Oli- content,
hydrated lime with the carbon dioxideoffrom
the higher must be the amount
contrary,
ver the decisive
and Mesbah, parameters are worka-
1985). lime
the or
aircement
occurs added.very slowly.
bility and binding force; hence it is recom- Tests
Evenhave after shown
several thatmonths,
as a rule, smalllime offers increas-
mendedadditives
Mineral that loam should not be used with better
es in stabilisation
strength may withbe richobserved.
clayey loams, A certain
4.11 optimum
Lean clayey water
loam content
can reachas peraDIN 18127,
higher com- while
amount cement gives better
of humidity results with
is essential to this curing
but insteadstrength
pressive with a water withcontent somewhatof
the addition leaner
process,loams. Furthermore,
so the loam or earth cement is morehave
elements
higher than the optimum
Montmorillonite clay. At the so derived.
BRI, tests In fact,
were effective with Kaolinite
to be sheltered against and lime sun
direct withand Mont- wind.
Pd t /m3
this so-called
conducted withoptimum water content
sand enriched with 17%may by morillonite.
4. The optimum In practice,
water it iscontent
alwaysisrecom- raised with
1.83
be treated,
weight in practice,and
of Kaolinite as aBentonite
minimum water respec- mended
the additionthat relevant
of lime, tests
whilebe theconducted.
density at this
1.80
t’Su content.
tively. With compressed
(Bentonite contains soil blocks,
about 70%it Mont-
has When doing so, level
new optimum the following
is less than points that arewithout
to
0.13 t /m3
been shownWith
morillonite). that aKaolinite,
water content 10%
the compressive be kept
lime in mind:
(4.12).
higher than
strength the optimum
reached was 5 gives kg/cm better
2
, andresults
with 1.Results
When loam is stabilisedperformed
of experiments with cement or BRI
at the
1.70 1.70

than the so-called

Bentonite, 12 kg/cm optimum.
2
. Boemans also lime,
(4.13)someshow pores
that should remain. Only the
the compressive strength
stated
The that the
addition of optimum
lime andwater cement,content
usually in- points of contact
of a highly siltyofloam
the larger particles
containing 12% clay,
+ 6%
Kalk does not
tended to usually
increase result
the in maximum
weather com- of
resistance should
74% silt be andcemented
14% sand,together, andbut fewera com-
having
1.60
pressive
loam, alsostrength.
generally He also discovered
increases that if
compressive pores should
pressive be filledofthan
strength with concrete.
50 kg/cm 2
without ce-
+ 3.5%
there is lesser compaction
strength. As described here, however, and higher water,
com- 2.ment,
Whendecreases
the cementwith hydrates, free
the addition limeofissmall
13.0 16.5 then the strength
pressive same compressive
may also strength
be decreasedmay by formed.
quantitiesThisof reacts
cement.with the Thesilicate
original acids of
compres-
1.50
7 10 15 20 25 be achieved
these additives, by using higherincompaction
especially amounts lower the
siveclay minerals
strength is so that in again
reached addition with to the
the addi-
4.12 4.12 and less
than 5%. water
This is(Boemans,
because lime 1990,andp. cement
60). in- early
tion stabilisation
of 2% cement. caused by cement, a
At the with
terfere Laborthe Géomatériaux
binding forceofofthe clayEcole
minerals. longer
As canlasting
be seen hardening
in 4.14,also thisoccurs.
originalUnlikestrength
Nationale
The greaterdes theTravaux
clay content,Publics the
de l’Etat
higher must cement
is reachedconcrete,
only therefore,
at 4% when the adding
strengthlime. of In
be(ENTPE)
the amountin Vaulx-en-Velin,
of lime or cement France, added.
it was cement-stabilised
this case, it decreases loam increases
again after a little
6% of lime
foundhave
Tests that the
shown typethat of clay
as aminerals
rule, limeinvolved
offers even after 28 days.
stabilisation.
also influence the compressive
better stabilisation with rich clayey loams, strength 3.Even
When moreadding hydraulic is
significant lime,theanreduction
ion of
after compaction.
while cement givesFor instance,
better by with
results raising the
leaner exchange
compressive betweenstrengththe clay while minerals
stabilisingand lean
static pressure
loams. Furthermore,from 2 cementto 8 MPaiswhen morepro- effec- the
mud added calcium
mortars, as ions
shown takes place,on
in 4.15 lasting
the right.
ducing
tive withsoil blocks using
Kaolinite and lime a press,
withthe com-
Montmoril- between
The left four sideand eightsame
of the hours.figureThe addi- shows the
pressiveInstrength
lonite. practice,rose it isbyalways
about 50% with
recommend- tional hardening process
corresponding changescaused by thebending
in tensile
edKaolinite, and by about
that relevant tests be 100% with Mont-
conducted. When reaction
strength. of The
the hydrated
values oflime thewithdry theandcar- the wet
morillonite
doing so, the (Oliver and Mesbah,
following points are 1985).
to be kept bon dioxide from
compressive the air occurs
strengths of handmadevery slowly. adobes
in mind: with varying percentages of cement content
43 1. When the
Improving loam
earthis stabilised with cement are shown in 4.16.
or lime, some pores should remain. Only Investigations at the ENTPE show that test-
Cement added (%)
the points of contact of the larger particles ing pure Kaolinite with 4% cement increases
Clayey Silty Sandy
loam loam loam should be cemented together, but fewer compressive strength, while with Montmoril-
pores should be filled than with concrete. lonite, the same amount of cement shows
4.13 2. When the cement hydrates, free lime is a decrease in strength. With the addition of
formed. This reacts with the silicate acids 4% lime and 2% cement, the compressive
of the clay minerals so that in addition to strength of both types of clay is increased
the early stabilisation caused by cement, a by nearly 100% (Oliver and Mesbah, 1985).
longer lasting hardening also occurs. Unlike It should be noted that these tests were
cement concrete, therefore, the strength done with optimum water content and with
of cement-stabilised loam increases a little pure clay. However, in actual practice this in-
even after 28 days. crease may not be so high, as loam used in

43 Increasing compressive strength

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 Tensile bending strength (N/mm2) Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Clayey loam plaster

Clayey loam plaster
Silty loam plaster
Silty loam plaster
Sand
Sand

Lime added (%)

Clayey Silty Sandy

loam loam loam
Cement added (%) Cement added (%)

4.14 4.15

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

construction usually has a clay content of 5% strength of these blocks may be reduced by
Dry strength to 15% and may not be used with optimum as much as 50%. However, if lime is added,
Wet strength water content. Results of tests conducted at this time lag has no negative influence on
the BRI with handmade adobes are shown in the final strength. If less than 5% cement is
4.17 and 4.18. Here, four different mixtures added, the drying process affects the com-
of sand and clay were tested with the addi- pressive strength. If the blocks lie exposed
tion of 6% cement and lime, respectively. It is to direct sun and wind, so that they dry out
interesting to note that the results were near- sooner, then their final strength may be re-
ly the same in the case of sand for plastering duced by 20% compared with blocks kept
and sand with Bentonite. By adding lime to covered with moist stacking. If this moist
these mixes, the compressive strength of Ka- cover is not possible, the blocks should at
4.16 olinite loam is even lower than that contain- least be protected from direct sun and sprin-
ing sand (4.18). kled with water several times a day. When
From these investigations, we derive the fol- 10% cement is added, this protection is of
lowing guidelines: less relevance to the final strength (Houben
1. Loam with high Kaolinite content should and Guillaud, 1984). If pozzolana is added
be stabilised with cement (and not with lime). together with lime, an additional stabilisa-
2. Loam with high Montmorillonite content tion effect is achieved and the quantity of
should be stabilised with lime or with a mix- lime can be reduced. Certain volcanic ash-
ture of lime and cement in the ratio 2 : 1 (and es exhibit pozzolanic properties, as do fly
not with cement). ash and ash of rice husk. Brick dust from
3. Strong compaction increases the com- low-temperature baked bricks also exhib-
4.14 Change in compressive strength of loams with pressive strength of Montmorillonite signifi- its slight pozzolanic properties, but dust of
the addition of lime
cantly. This effect is significant in Kaolinite. high-temperature baked bricks from indus-
4.15 Change in tensile bending strength and com-
CRATerre suggests appropriate stabilisers on trial brick plants do not. An interesting sta-
pressive strength of loam mortars and sand with the
the basis of liquid limit, plastic limit and plas- bilisation effect is observed when clay, chalk
addition of cement
ticity index (4.19), not taking into account the and quartz powder are mixed with water-
4.16 Change in compressive strength of adobes
(clay 11%, silt 14%, sand 75%) with the addition of
type of clay minerals (CRATerre, 1979). glass. This product, called geopolymer, is de-
cement When adding cement to loam, the mixture rived from poly-condensation: a threedimen-
4.17 Compressive strengths of loams and sand with should be used immediately, since the set- sional network, which occurs in an alkaline
the additionof 6% cement ting of cement starts at once. If the mix is state with the release of water. This product
4.18 Compressive strengths of loams and sand with allowed to stand for several hours before be- may be extruded, pressed or foamed with hy-
the addition of 6% lime ing pressed into soil blocks, the compressive drogen peroxide (H2O2).

44 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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 Organic additives periments show that coatings and additional
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

The compressive and binding strengths of application of floor wax increase abrasion
Kaolinite can be significantly increased by resistance considerably.
adding urea and ammonium acetate (Weiss, A traditional German recipe that produces a
1963). Weiss also suggests that the high hard-wearing, strong surface is a coating of

Silty loam : Sand = 6 : 4

Kaolinite : Sand = 1 : 9 strength of porcelain comes from Kaolinite oxblood sprinkled with Fe3O4, which is then
soaked in putrid urine (which contains urea hammered into the loam surface. Coatings
and ammonium acetate). The tensile bend- of cow’s blood, cow’s bile and tar were also
Sand = 1 : 9
Bentonite :
Sand 0- 4

ing force can be increased approximately 10 frequently used in former times.

to 20 times in this way.
4.17 Increasing thermal insulation
Addition of fibres
Fibres are usually added to reduce shrink- The thermal insulation of loam can be in-
age. The oft-mentioned assumption that fi- creased by adding porous substances such
Compressive strength (N/mm2)

bres always increase compressive strength as straw, reeds, seaweed, cork and other
is false. When fine fibres or hair are added in light plant matter. Naturally or artificially
small amounts, tensile strength – and there- foamed mineral particles like pumice, lava,
fore compressive strength – is increased expanded clay, foamed glass, expanded per-
Silty loam : Sand = 6 : 4

slightly. The addition of cut straw, however, lite and foamed plant matter like expanded
has the opposite effect, as shown by inves- cork can also be added. Waste products like
tigations carried out at the BRI (see table sawdust, wood shavings, husk of grains can
Bentonite :

Kaolinite :
Sand 0- 4

4.20). also be used, but given their higher density,

Sand =

Sand =
1:9

1:9

they exhibit inferior insulating properties.

4.18 Strength against abrasion The more porous the mixture, the lighter it is
and the greater its thermal insulation.
Experiments conducted at the BRI intend- According to the German standard DIN
ed to increase the strength of a rammed 18951, loam with lightweight aggregates is
earth sample containing 14% clay, 41% silt called lightweight loam if its density is less
and 45% sand, and involving the addition of than 1200 kg/m3. If straw is used as the fill-
soda waterglass, animal glue, low-fat white er, it is called lightweight straw loam, while
cheese and lime, paraffin, paraffin-petrole- sawdust or wood shavings are referred to as
um, floor wax, and double-boiled linseed oil, lightweight wood loam. Porous mineral ag-
showed that an addition of 10% waterglass gregates are called lightweight mineral loam.
produced the most resistant surface. Howev- Since these three types of lightweight loams
er, several hairline cracks occurred, allowing differ in their properties and methods of
water to penetrate. (It may have been pos- manufacture, they are described separately.
sible to avoid this had the waterglass been Rich clayey slurry is used to produce these
mixed beforehand with water in a proportion lightweight loams. The process of making
of 1 : 1.) slurry depends upon the specific loam mix-
The second highest strength was achieved by ture that has been found, and can be per-
adding 5% linseed oil, whereby the surface formed either manually or mechanically, as
was smoothened with a trowel during curing, described in chapter 3, p. 36.
closing hairline cracks in such a manner that In theory, it is also possible to use loam
the surface remained glossy. The third-best that has been blown up or expanded with
solution was achieved by adding 5% low-fat foam-creating substances to form air-filled
white cheese and 5% lime. Strength against pores. To date, tests with loam have failed to
abrasion can also be increased with coat- do produce corresponding results.
ings. Here, it must be kept in mind that the
coatings must penetrate deep into the ma-
terial and must be renewed periodically. Ex-

45 Strength against abrasion

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 Lightweight loams thick. Even if the straw content were to be
increased threefold, this material is unac-
Lightweight straw loam ceptable for a thickness of 14 cm.
Lightweight straw loam is a mixture of In practice, it is almost impossible to achieve
straw and loam with a density of less than a density less than 500 kg/m3, since the
1200 kg/m3. If this density is higher than straw is softened by moistening caused by
1200 kg/m3, it is called straw loam. There the mixing process, and is compacted when
is worldwide debate over which type of straw placed in the formwork.
is most suitable, and it should be tested in There have been claims of lower density (as
each case. For loam plaster, however, barley low as 300 kg/m3), but these are not usually
straw has proven to be suitable, since it is correct, since they are often based on or pro-
usually softer than the other straws. More duced by inaccurate testing methods. Typi-
important than the kind of straw is the struc- cally, a small brick-size formwork is loosely
ture of its shoots. In order to increase ther- filled with a straw loam mixture. This is then
mal insulation, straws with rigid shoots are weighed after drying and divided by the vol-
4.19
preferred, since they do not deform easily, ume of the mould, which can lead to errors
and hence keep air trapped inside. of about 40%. The only accurate method of
determining density is to sawcut a cuboid
Cutting straw out of a larger block (especially in height) so
The length of the straw shoots should be no that the straws bent at the corners as well as
greater than the thickness of the building el- the air spaces left around the edges of the
ement. Cutting can be managed by a variety mould are eliminated. The larger the sam-
of manual or mechanical methods. ple, the greater the accuracy, since there is
always some edge erosion during cutting and
Preparing the mixture handling.
Loam and straw is mixed together either Due to the above-mentioned errors, unfortu-
by pouring the slurry over the straw or by nately, densities of as low as 300 kg/m3 tend
dipping the straw into the slurry. The straw to be assumed and the k-value computed ac-
shoots must be totally surrounded by loam cordingly. Since, in reality, densities are typ-
slurry. Chapter 10, p. 85 describes how this ically about 700 kg/m3 in built sections, the
mixture is handled subsequently for various k-value of this is 0.21 W/mK, from which, for
applications. a 30-cm-thick wall plastered on both sides,
the U-value can be derived as 0.6 W/m2K.
Thermal insulation This value of heat transmission is double
One widely held misconception is that straw the value that can be claimed by assuming a
loam used as infill in medieval timberframed density of 300 kg/m3.
houses in Europe provided sufficient ther- The following points are to be kept in mind
mal insulation. If 10 parts of cut straw are when working with lightweight straw loam,
mixed with thick loam slurry made of 2 parts for lightweight straw loam has certain un-
of dry clayey loam and 1 part of water, this deniable disadvantages in comparison with
will give a mixture with a dry density of about pure loam:
1300 kg/m3 and a k-value of about 0.53 W/ 1. In a moderate or humid climate, fungus
mK. Thus, a typical element of this material growth occurs after only a few days, emitting
with a thickness of 14 cm covered with 2 cm a characteristic strong smell. This can, in ex-
lime plaster on both sides gives a U-value of treme cases, give rise to allergies. Therefore,
2.1 W/m2K. On the other hand, if a U-value good ventilation during construction must be
4.19 Suggested appropriate stabilisers for loam in of 0.5 W/m2K is to be achieved (as generally provided so that building components dry out
relation to their plasticity (CRATerre, 1979) desired or required by building codes in most quickly. After the walls have dried completely,
4.20 Reduction of the compressive strength of loam central and northern European countries to- which might take several months, or even a
by adding cut straw (5 cm) day), then this wall would have to be 0.95 m year or more, depending upon thickness and

46 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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Straw Weight Compressive
[%/mass] [kh/m3] strenght [N/mm2] climate, the fungus stops producing spores. (i.e., to eliminate shrinkage altogether) by
0 1882 2.2 However, spore formation may be reactivat- choosing the right proportion of aggregates.
1 1701 1.4
ed if water permeates the walls either from All other techniques of earth construction re-
2 1571 1.3
the outside through leakage, or from inside quire consideration of shrinkage.
4 1247 1.1
through condensation. Fungus growth can In comparison with straw loam, the vapour dif-
8 872 0.3
be inhibited by adding lime or borax, but this fusion resistance is two to three times higher
4.20 has the following disadvantages: and, therefore, the probability of condensation
• binding force and compressive strength of water within the wall is low (see chapter 2,
are significantly decreased, p. 28). Another advantage of the material is
• hands become irritated while working with that the mixture can be pumped into a form-
this mixture. work, thereby greatly reducing labour input.
• Walls thicker than 25 cm may appear dry As investments on machines are higher, this
on the surface, even though they are rotting method is recommended only for larger con-
within (see chapter 10, ill. 10.3, p. 86). struction projects. The densities generally
2. The surface strength of the mix for a wall achieved vary from 500 to 1200 kg/m3.
with a density of less than 600 kg/m3 is usu-
ally too low to effectively grip nails or dow- Additives
els, as is often required. Since two layers In some industrialised countries, expanded
are necessary, plastering is more laborious, clay is a low-cost and easily available addi-
sometimes with some reinforcement in be- tive. It has a bulk density of about 300 kg/m3,
tween. and is produced by burning loam in rotary ov-
3. When drying, vertical settling occurs, lead- ens at temperatures up to 1200°C without
ing to gaps on top of wall elements (4.21). any other additive for foaming. Foaming oc-
These must carefully be filled later on in or- curs due to the sudden heating, which caus-
der to prevent heat and sound bridges and es the water of crystallisation and the pore
air infiltration. water to evaporate, creating an expansion in
4. Working with this material is fairly labo- the mass (similar to making pop-corn). The
rious. Without special machines for mixing surface of these expanded clay balls melts
and transportation, the labour input for a and is sintered. Nearly all of the pores in
typical 30-cm-thick wall is about 6 h/m2 these expanded clay balls are closed, and
(20 h/m3). This is four times the labour re- are therefore unsusceptible to water and
quired for typical brick masonry work. The frost. The equilibrium moisture content by
disadvantages mentioned above can be volume is only 0.03%. Foamed glass has
avoided if porous mineral aggregates are characteristics similar to expanded clay, but
used instead of straw, as discussed in the has a lower bulk density. It can be produced
following section. by recycling glass with additional foaming
The potential advantages of lightweight straw agents. Expanded perlite is produced from
loam are the low material costs involved, and volcanic rock (found in Europe, on the Greek
the fact that it can be worked without invest- island of Milos and in Hungary). It contains
ments in special tools and machinery. It is 3% to 6% chemically bound water, and when
especially appropriate, hence, for do-it-your- it is heated up suddenly to 1000°C, this wa-
self construction. ter evaporates and enlarges the former value
15 to 20-fold. The bulk density may be as low
Lightweight mineral loam as 60 kg/m3, the k-value is 0.045 W/mK.
In order to increase thermal insulation, po- The vapour diffusion resistance is about 2.7.
rous mineral aggregates can be added to The specific heat is 1000 J/kgK. With a ma-
loam as an alternative to straw; these in- terial of bulk density 90 kg/m3, a k-value of
clude expanded clay, foamed glass, expand- 0.05 W/mK is achieved. The chemical com-
ed lava, expanded perlite and pumice. It is position of expanded perlite is: SiO2 (60% to
possible to achieve a shrinkage ratio of 0 75%), Al2O3 (12% to 16%),

47 Lightweight loams
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 Na2O (5% to 10%). Expanded lava is similar ods of preparing and handling this mixture
to expanded perlite of volcanic origin, except are explained in greater detail in chapter 10.
that its bulk density is higher.
Pumice is a naturally porous stone that has Thermal insulation
already been “expanded” during its forma- The thermal insulation properties of light-
tion in a volcano. Its bulk density usually var- weight mineral loam depend mainly on its
ies from 500 to 750 kg/m3. density and are equal to that of lightweight
straw loam if the density is higher than
Mixing 600 kg/m3. For mixtures below 600 kg/m3,
While forced mixers are usually required to the thermal insulation properties of light-
produce loam mixtures (see chapter 3, p. weight mineral loams are somewhat better
35), lightweight mineral loam can be pro- than those of lightweight straw loams, since
duced in an ordinary concrete mixer. There, straw has a higher equilibrium moisture con-
aggregates can be placed in advance and tent, and therefore more moisture, which
the loam slurry poured over it. The mix is reduces insulation. The equilibrium moisture
ready in 3 to 5 minutes. The slurry needs to content of rye straw at a relative humidity
have a rich clay content and binding force. of 50% and a temperature of 21°C, for in-
The production of loam slurry is described in stance, is 13%, whereas under the same
chapter 3, p. 36. conditions, it is only 0.1% in the case of ex-
panded clay.
Grain size distribution
The grain size distribution of mineral aggre- Embodied energy
gates affects the properties of lightweight It is often argued that artificially foamed
mineral loam. For example, a density as mineral aggregates like expanded clay re-
low as 500 kg/m3 can be reached with quire considerable energy for production. In
expanded clay fractions of 8 to 16 mm di- this context, one should be aware that the
ameter. The quantity of loam slurry has to embodied energy of timber or bricks used in
be designed so that the volumes between construction is much higher. The embodied
aggregate particles are not completely energy of timber is computed to be 6 times
filled, that is, the aggregates are only glued as high as that of mineral wool, and twice as
together at points of contact. This density high as expanded clay for the same volume
of 500 kg/m3 can be reached if 2.5 parts (Turowski, 1977; Weller and Rehberg, 1979;
of loam are added to 12 parts of expanded Elias, 1980; Marmé and Seeberger, 1982).
clay (8 to 16 mm). However, blocks of this In making an overall assessment of the con-
mixture have a low edge and surface rigid- struction energy entailed by a given project,
ity. A stronger mixture is obtained with 24 then, we must remember that while it may
parts expanded clay (8 to 16 mm), 5 parts be technically true that loams with artifi-
expanded clay (1 to 2 mm), and 5 to 7 parts cially expanded minerals use more energy
loam. The density reached by this mixture than those containing other aggregates, this
will be 640 to 700 kg/m3. To achieve higher difference is negligible when compared, for
density, expanded clay fractions 4 to 8 mm instance, to the total energy input involved
can be chosen, adding enough loam to fill in the processing, production and transpor-
all spaces between the aggregates. In this tation of timber.
case, it is advantageous to thin the loam
with coarse sand. Lightweight cork loam
Expanded cork can be used to form light-
Handling weight loam in place of porous mineral ag-
Lightweight mineral loam, unlike lightweight gregates. The advantage of expanded cork
straw loam, can be poured or even pumped is its low density. The disadvantage is that
if the mix is chosen accordingly. The meth- this material is relatively expensive and has

48 Improving the characteristics of loam by special treatment or additives

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 little compressive strength. Therefore, bricks Foamed loam
made of this mixture break very easily at In order to foam loam, it has to be free of
their edges. The German firm Haacke Cellco sand and gravel, and in a plastic state. As
(today Claytec) developed a mixture of cork, loam in this consistency needs a long period
diatomite and straw, along with some cellu- to dry, it is hardly possible to foam it using the
lose, which can be sprayed on a wall like an regular agents such as those used for foam-
insulating spray plaster. Density is between ing concrete. Therefore, the loam needs to
300 and 450 kg/m3. The measured k-values be given additives which quicken the drying
are 0.07 to 0.08 W/mK, measured vapour process, such as the geopolymers described
4.21 diffusion resistance between 4 and 19, and in this chapter, p. 40, in which clay, quartz
shrinkage ratio between 1% and 2%. and chalk powder are mixed with waterglass
and foamed with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Lightweight wood loam This process produces a foamed loam with
Sawdust, wood shavings and chips can also a density of 90 kg/m3. This material hardens
be used as lightweight aggregates to increase within 2 hours at a temperature of 20°C and
the thermal insulation capacities of loam. in 1 hour at 50°C. This product has a com-
As timber has a higher density than straw or pressive strength of 10 to 20 kg/cm2, specif-
cork, the thermal insulation of that mixture ic heat of 0.2 kJ/kgK, thermal conductivity of
is obviously lower. The minimum density that 0.10 to 0.12 W/mK and pH-value between 9
can be achieved is about 500 kg/m3, but a to 10. It is an ideal material to form pre-cast
dry mix of this density no longer possesses earth elements of a large size. The German
sufficient rigidity. The danger of fungus growth company Lorowerk uses a similar technique
and rotting is much less than with straw, but to produce large elements for thermal insu-
it still exists. lation. Products with densities of 300 kg/m3
It is ecologically desirable to use chips made reach a thermal conductivity of 0.08 W/mK.
of branches and portions of trees not other- The primary energy input is only 5 kWh/m3.
wise used in structural work. However, these
contain fairly large quantities of bark, and
are therefore susceptible to fungus growth
and rotting.

4.21 Setting of a lightweight straw-filled test element

49 Lightweight loams
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 5 Rammed earthworks

On all five continents, rammed earth has de terre or terre pisé in French; the Spanish
been well-known for centuries as a traditional names are barro apisonado or tapial; and the
wall construction technique. In fact, rammed German word is Stampflehmbau.
earth foundations found in Assyria date back Traditional rammed earth techniques are still
as far as 5000 BC. used in many developing countries. Refined
With rammed earth techniques, moist earth formwork systems and electrical or pneumat-
is poured into a formwork in layers of up to ic ramming reduces labour input significantly
15 cm thick, and then compacted by ram- and makes rammed earth techniques rele-
ming. The formwork usually consists of two vant in some industrialised countries as well.
parallel walls separated and interconnected For ecological, and sometimes for economic
by spacers (5. 1). This technique is called pisé reasons as well, mechanised rammed earth

5.1 Formwork for rammed earth

5.2 Formwork without intermediary spacers
5.3 Climbing formwork, BRI
5.4 Typical formwork with bracing used in China
5.5 Formwork for rounded and curved walls 5.1

50 Rammed earthworks
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5.2

5.3

technology may be a viable alternative to thin tensile spacers (4 × 6 mm) penetrating

conventional masonry especially in those in- the wall has been conceived at the Building
dustrialised countries where high standards Research Institute – BRI (5.3). In order to
of thermal insulation are not required. Many completely eliminate this disadvantage, spac-
firms employ this technology in the south- er-free systems have been developed (see
western USA and in Australia. In comparison p. 54 in this chapter). As shown in 5.4, form-
with wet loam techniques (see chapter 9), works without intermediary spacers which are
5.4 the shrinkage ratio of rammed earth is much braced on both sides require a lot of space
lower, and strength much higher. In compar- and hinder site movement considerably.
ison with adobe masonry (see chapter 6), With a special formwork, rounded corners
rammed earth – since it is monolithic – pro- and curved walls can also be formed (5.5). A
vides the advantage of longer life. circular barn built in 1831 in Bollbrügge, Ger-
Techniques for rammed earth wall and dome many, with 90-cm-thick rammed earth walls
construction are described in the following is shown in 5.6.
sections. A special earthquake-resistant bam- Common formwork systems used in concrete
boo-reinforced rammed earth technique as technology can also be used for rammed
well as rammed earth floors are described in earth, but usually turn out to be too heavy
chapter 15. and expensive. In Europe, timber panels of
19 mm thickness are commonly used. They
Formwork need to be stiffened by vertical members at
approximately 75 cm intervals. If this is not
With traditional formworks, the boards on done, they will bend outwards during ram-
both sides are held apart and kept together ming. Therefore, it might be more economi-
by spacers (5.1). These spacers pierce the cal to choose thicker boards of 30 to 45 mm
wall, causing openings that must be filled in thickness, which need stiffening only at inter-
5.5 after removal of formwork. A system with very vals of 100 to 150 cm. If the soil is very clayey,

51 Formwork
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5.6 5.7

the form should not be wrenched off, but in- flat bases (5.8). If conical or wedge-shaped
stead slipped off the rammed earth smooth- rams are used, the different layers are bet-
ly along the surface, thus preventing it from ter mixed and, provided there is sufficient
being spoiled by clayey particles sticking to moisture, a better bond is obtained. Howev-
the form. Furthermore, it is neither desirable er, this takes more time than ramming with
to have a surface that is too rough (such as flat-based rams. Walls rammed with flat-
saw-cut timber), nor one that is too smooth based rams show less lateral shear resist-
(such as varnished and planed timber). ance and therefore should only be loaded
If the formwork is not optimised for this tech- vertically. The base of the ram should not be
5.8 nique, then up to 30% of total labour input too sharp, so that the formwork, if made of
could be invested simply in erecting, adjust- timber, is not damaged. The base should be
ing, and dismantling the formwork. Therefore, no smaller than 60 cm2, and no larger than
the following points should be borne in mind: 200 cm2. The weight of the ram should be
• Boards must be stiff so that they do not between 5 and 9 kg. It is preferable to use
bend outwards while ramming is underway. a two-headed ram with a round head on one
• All parts must be light enough to be carried side and a square one on the other. This al-
by two workers. lows the ram to be used with the round side
• The formwork should be easy to adjust in for general work, and with the square edge
both vertical and horizontal directions. to compact corners effectively. Such a ram
• Variations in the thickness of the wall must can be found even today when labour costs
be controllable within a specified tolerance. are low (5.7).
• It is preferable that the edges require no Electric and pneumatic rams were used as
special formwork. Therefore, the formwork early as the second quarter of the 20th cen-
should allow varying lengths of wall to be tury in Germany, France and Australia. In
cast. Australia in the 1950s, a pneumatic ram was
used (5.9). It acted like a jackhammer, had
Tools a frequency of 160 strokes per minute, and
weighed 11 kg. A petrol hammer, as manufac-
In former times, earth was rammed manual- tured for instance by Wacker Neuson, can be
ly, using rams with conical, wedge-shaped or used together with a ramming shoe (5.10 and

52 Rammed earthworks
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5.9

5.12 5.13

5.11). The ram is very effective; its only disad- fore, there is a higher shrinkage in the upper
vantage might be difficulty in handling, since course than in the lower, leading to horizon-
it weighs 24 kg. Normally, soil compaction tal shrinkage cracks at the joint (5.14). This
tools of the type used in road construction are can be dangerous, since capillary water can
unsuitable for rammed earthwork, because enter this joint and remain, causing swelling
their frequency is too high and their lift too and disintegration. As can be seen in the
low. Tools which only vibrate might be suitable same figure, vertical cracks can also occur
5.10 5.11 for sandy soils, but not for clayey ones. in such walls.
All the rams illustrated require a pressure of With the French pisé technique, this problem
6 bar and an air flow rate of 0.4 to 0.9 m3/ was solved by using a layer of lime mortar
min. Due to their high costs and the infra- above each course before laying a new one.
structure and energy required to run them, A lime mortar cures over several weeks and
these rams are used only for larger building remains plastic until the loam has stopped
projects. An electrical vibration ram was de- shrinking; sometimes even the side joint be-
veloped at the BRI and manufactured for a tween sections of the course is made with
while by the German firm Heuser (5.12). Its mortar at an incline (5.15).
engine had a frequency of 1000 to 1200 cy- Another method to avoiding horizontal
5.14 cles per minute. The most important part of shrinkage cracks is to ram in a way that the
this vibrating ram was its specially shaped wall is produced vertically. This is described
base, which allowed the apparatus to move in greater detail below.
within the formwork by itself while compact-
ing the earth. It could compact loose soil in Shaping of openings
layers 7 cm thick.
5.6 The circular barn, Bollbrügge, Germany (1831) The formwork can be dismantled immediate-
5.7 Two-head ram used at low-cost housing project Method of construction ly after ramming is completed. At the same
in Ecuador time, this rammed earth can be shaped
5.8 Rams used for manual compacting In nearly all traditional rammed earth easily by scraping, cutting, scooping or
5.9 Pneumatic ram, Australia techniques, the formwork is removed and scratching. Normally, inserts are left in the
5.10 Petrol hammer BH 65 (by Wacker Neuson) re-erected horizontally step by step. This formwork to create openings. However, with
5.11 Ramming shoe for petrol hammer (by Wacker means that earth is rammed in layers from rammed earth, the opening can be cut with
Neuson) 50 to 80 cm high, forming courses of that much less effort with a knife or a barbed
5.12 Vibrating ram (by Heuser) height before the formwork is moved. When wire used as a saw. This technique also al-
5.13 Slicing rammed earth directly after the form- one course is complete, the next course that lows shaping of jambs and sills, as shown
work is dismantled is rammed is moister than the one already in 5.13. It should be mentioned that at this
5.14 Shrinkage cracks in a rammed earth wall in place, which is partially dried out. There- stage rammed earth has already achieved

53 Method of construction
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5.15

5.16

sufficient strength to grip nails (they can be The formwork is spaced at the bottom with Earth was filled into the forms by a dumper
driven into the wall without making a guiding only a steel bar, which leaves a very small and compacted by a pneumatic ram. By this
hole with a drill). hole after dismantling. The top space is po- means, the labour input could be as low as
sitioned above the top level of the wall and 2 h/m3. In Australia, several firms are also
Wall construction techniques does not interfere with the process. As the using this type of highly mechanised con-
figures show, it is possible to use either a sim- struction process (5.23 and 5.24). Illustra-
Rammed earth panels pler solution with a timber spacer on top fixed tion 5.25 shows a church in Margaret River
In order to prevent horizontal shrinkage to the vertical members, thus forming a yoke, designed by Hodge and Wilson and built by
cracks at the vertical joints in traditional or a more sophisticated version made from the firm Ramtec. As seen in 5.26, even the
rammed earth construction, a new tech- steel, which also allows fine adjustments of columns supporting the roof structure are
nique was developed at the BRI for produc- distance at the top. The first building using made from rammed earth.
ing one-storey-height panels, with widths of this technique was built at the University of In 1992, the Kooralbyn Valley Hotel was
up to 2.4 m, in a continuous ramming pro- Kassel in 1982 (5.22). The soil contained built in Australia by Ramtec (Greenway Archi-
cess. This technique avoids horizontal joints, about 10% clay and about 50% sand. The tects: I. Hannaford, F. Raadschelders and D.
and the vertical joints that occur are closed earth was compacted by a vibrating ram Oliver), where all walls were made of unplas-
only after the shrinkage is complete. For (5.12). The linear shrinkage of these ele- tered rammed earth (5.27).
lateral stability, the vertical joints are made ments was only 0.4%. After drying, the joints
in a tongue-in-groove pattern. No shrinkage were filled with a loam stabilised with 8% Pre-cast rammed earth panels
cracks occur within the panels for these siz- double-boiled linseed oil. A roof overhang of An innovative development, also by Rammed
es. The reduction of length due to shrinkage 60 cm and a plinth of 50 cm were sufficient Earth Works in Redding, California, for non-
is only visible at the joint. (The joint acts like to ensure that the wall did not erode and that load-bearing applications are thin pre-cast
a pre-designed contraction joint). In order to it required no surface treatment. panels, only 76 mm thick (5.19). The recep-
avoid a formwork that would have to be an tion area of Stadium Tech Center office build-
entire storey in height, a slip form was devel- Mechanised rammed earth construction ing in Santa Clara (5.20) consists of four
oped at the BRI. Illustration 5.18 shows the The firm Rammed Earth Works from Red- panels stacked on top of each other, each
design in steel, while 5.16 and 5.17 show a ding, California, has built several rammed 5 m high and 6.7 m long. These panels are
later design in wood (which proved easier to earth houses utilising a special formwork cast in the factory and allow for relatively fast
work with). made of thick plywood, as shown in 5.21. production. They are also an option when the

54 Rammed earthworks
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5.17 5.19 5.20

5.18

5.22

5.21

5.15 The French pisé technique

5.16 to 5.18 Sliding formwork for rammed earth
panels (BRI)
5.23 5.24
5.19 Thin pre-cast panels (Rammed Earth Works,
Napa, USA)
5.20 Stadium Tech Center, Santa Clara, 2019
5.21 Formwork (Rammed Earth Works, Redding,
USA)
5.22 Test building, University of Kassel, Germany,
1982
5.23 and 5.24 Mechanised rammed earthwork in
progress (Terrastone), Australia

55 Wall construction techniques

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5.25

5.26

5.25 and 5.26 St. Thomas More Catholic Church,

5.27
Margaret River, Australia, Hodge and Wilson, 1983
5.27 Kooralbyn Valley Hotel, Australia, Greenway
Architects, 1992
5.28 Horizontal sections of rammed lightweight loam
walls with inner or outer leaf of earth blocks acting
as lost formwork
5.29 Vertical sections of rammed earth walls with
lost formwork on both sides

56 Rammed earthworks
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 Plaster Plaster Plaster

Leightweight Leightweight Leightweight

loam loam loam
Soil blocks Soil blocks Rammed
earth

Plaster

5.28

Plaster Bricks

Soil blocks Lightweight loam

Thermal insulation Thermal insulation

Lightweight loam Mud plaster

Soil blocks

Plaster Timber panels

Thermal insulation Protection layer

Lightweight loam Thermal insulation

Lightweight loam board Lightweight loam

Mud plaster Gypsum board

5.29

footprint is too small to accommodate an on- is directly plastered. In this case the form- tria, the USA and Germany, for instance, built
site rammed earth wall with a depth of 46 work is only required for the outer face. In the walls with prefabricated elements. They were
to 60 cm. second case, a somewhat better stiffness of produced in a factory or in a locally built-up
the inner adobe or soil block leaf is attained sheltered production line. The advantages
Wall construction with lost formwork due to the bonding pattern in the compo- of this technique is a reduced erection time,
As with rammed earth techniques, the cost nents. In the section shown on the right, the so that normally no special weather shelter
of the formwork is quite high. In some cas- lost formwork is on the outside and is made is needed. The disadvantage are the higher
es, it is preferable to use a thin masonry wall from stabilised lightweight soil blocks. Illus- costs. A recent example built in Germany by
or stiff thermal insulation elements made of tration 5.29 shows vertical sections of ex- the Austria-based company Lehm Ton Erde
wooden materials as lost formwork, so that ternal walls that have lost formwork on both Baukunst was the Alnatura office building in
either no formwork or only one-sided form- sides. The inner leaf can be made from ado- Darmstadt (pp. 224–227) where a tempo-
work is required. It is also advantageous if bes or soil blocks, larger prefabricated loam rary field factory was established (5.30). The
this formwork can contribute to a substantial elements, or stiff plywood boards, fibre-rein- company started to experiment with prefab-
increase in thermal insulation. The stiffness forced gypsum boards, or Magnesite or ce- ricated parts in 1997 and by 2015 already
of this lost formwork has to be sufficient to ment-bonded wood particleboard. Protection one third of its work relied on prefabrication.
take care of the lateral impacts created by of the wall surface against the elements can Instead of gradually ramming the material
ramming. Illustration 5.28 shows horizontal be achieved by plaster, masonry or timber into the formwork at the building site, wall
sections through an external wall. The first panelling with air cavity. segments are prefabricated and then as-
two cases show an inner leaf built of adobes sembled on site (Rauch, 2020). To reduce
or soil blocks and an outer rammed earth lay- Prefabricated rammed earth elements the amount of formwork required, a so-called
er made with lightweight mineral loam which In recent years, companies in France, Aus- endless wall (5.31 and 5.32) is produced in

57 Wall construction techniques

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5.30 5.31

5.32

5.34

5.33

58 Rammed earthworks
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 the workshop. After removing the formwork, ration, transportation and construction, is
the endless wall is cut into smaller wall ele- from 20 to 30 h/m3. By refining the formwork
ments (5.33). These are lifted up and then system and using an electrical vibrator, la-
re-installed on the construction site (5.34). bour input is reduced to 10 h/m3. With the
mechanised techniques explained before
Rammed earth domes (see p. 54), in which transportation and fill-
ing is done by a dumper and compacted by
5.35 Probably the first rammed earth dome was heavy pneumatic rams, labour input can be
built by the BRI in Kassel, Germany, in 1983 reduced to as little as 2 h/m3, which is only
using a special technique developed by that 10% of the labour used with traditional tech-
laboratory. This consists of a rotating slip niques, and significantly less than that need-
form in which the earth is rammed (5.35 to ed for masonry work.
5.37).
The thickness of the dome was 18 cm Thermal insulation
at the bottom and 12 cm at the top. The
walls, which form a hexagon on the inside, The thermal insulation capacities of solid
were also made of rammed earth. In order rammed earth walls using normal soil is not
to transfer the thrust from the dome to the sufficient to provide the levels of thermal in-
foundation, buttresses were integrated with sulation required in cold climates. The U-val-
the walls. The shaping of the top of the but- ue of a 30-cm-thick rammed earth wall is
tresses as well as the windows was done as much as 1.9 to 2.0 W/m2K. To achieve a
5.36 with a kitchen knife soon after the formwork U-value of 0.5 W/m2K, necessary in many Eu-
was dismantled. The formwork of the wall ropean countries, a thickness of 1.6 to 1.8 m
was custom-designed according to the plan would be required. In cold climates, there-
of the dome, as seen in 5.35. The earth was fore, either a thick wall of lightweight loam
rammed into the formwork using a vibrator, or additional conventional thermal insulation
described on p. 53 in this chapter (5.12), should be used. Some potential methods
and by hand. for making loam walls with improved ther-
The dome formwork itself was so designed mal insulations are described in chapter 14,
that it could be lifted not just at the centre, p. 111.
course after course; it also had a guide that
automatically adjusted the radius and incli- Surface treatment
nation of the formwork (5.37).
A rammed earth wall requires less labour
Drying and material inputs for surface treatment
compared to walls made using other earth
It is seldom possible to say when a loam construction techniques. As a rule, it is nei-
5.37 wall is dry, but the drying process is in any ther necessary nor advisable to plaster a
case faster than those of masonry or con- rammed earth wall. If the surface is sponged
crete walls (see chapter 2, p. 26). Given dry with a moist felt trowel immediately after
5.30 Field factory for the production of prefabricated
rammed earth elements
warm weather and sufficient air movement, dismantling the formwork, then a smooth
shrinkage stops after just a few days. After surface is easily produced, one that may be
5.31 and 5.32 Compaction of the earth mixture in
the formwork 3 weeks, the wall feels completely dry, al- painted or wallpapered (in cases involving
5.33 Cutting the prefabricated rammed earth wall though water content is still slightly higher interior wall surfaces). If exterior surfaces
into sections than the equilibrium moisture content. thus treated are sheltered from rain by roof
5.34 Lifting the cut elements into place overhangs and against splashing by a plinth,
5.35 Rammed earth test structure, University of Labour input a coating of paint is sufficient to protect them
Kassel, plan and section against the elements. Care should be taken
5.36 and 5.37 Constructing the rammed earth dome The labour input in traditional rammed earth that coatings neither peel nor crack.
with a rotating formwork walls constructed manually, including prepa-

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 6 Working with earth blocks

6.1

6.3 6.2

Blocks of earth produced manually by throw- NF (normal format) =

ing wet earth into a formwork are called 71 × 115 × 240 mm
“adobes” or “mud bricks” or “sundried earth 2DF (double thin format) =
blocks”. When moist earth is compacted in a 113 × 115 × 240 mm.
manual or powered press, the compressed Illustration 6.1 shows different shapes and
elements so formed are called “soil blocks”. sizes of green bricks produced industrially by
In their unbaked state, bricks produced by an extrusion process common in the German
an extruder in a brick plant are called “green market. Specific applications of these differ-
bricks”. These three types of blocks are usu- ent types of blocks in walls, floors, vaults and
ally the same size as baked bricks. Larger domes are described in chapter 14.
blocks, compacted in a formwork by ram-
ming, are called “rammed earth blocks”. History
Some countries have standardised measure-
ments for these blocks. The two sizes used Building with earthen blocks is widespread
most commonly in Germany, for example, are: in all hot-dry, subtropical and moderate cli-

60 Working with earth blocks

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 mates. Earth block buildings dating from and 6 to 8 cm high were used in the fort
8000 to 6000 BC have been found in Turk- of Heuneburg near Lake Constance (Dehn,
estan (Pumpelly, 1908), and ones from ca. 1964). Around 140,000 blocks and 400 m3
4000 BC in Assyria. Visible even today in Up- of mortar were used to construct its 3-m-high
per Egypt are monumental structures about walls (Güntzel, 1986, p. 23). An official cir-
3200 years old, such as the huge earth cular introducing the use of adobes in walls
block fortification wall of Medinet Habu and was published in 1764 (Güntzel, 1986, p.
the vaults of the storage rooms in the temple 23). David Gilly published manuals on adobe
area of Ramses II near Gourna (1.4). construction in 1794 and 1794.
The technique of making vaults and domes
from earth blocks without supports during Production of earth blocks
construction (centring or shuttering) was
known to many cultures (see chapter 14, pp. Adobes are made either by filling moulds with
117–119). For centuries, Pueblo Indians in a pasty loam mixture or by throwing moist
Taos, New Mexico, built their houses using lumps of earth into them. Different types
the earth from the sites themselves, the wa- of moulds can be used; some of these are
ter from nearby streams, and straw from the shown in 6.4. They are usually made from
fields (6.3). timber. The throwing technique is common-
The historical core of the city of Shibam, ly used in all developing countries (6.7 and
Yemen, covering about 20,000 m2 and ac- 6.8). Here, a sandy loam is mixed with water,
cessible only through a single gateway, was and cut straw is usually added and the whole
built entirely in adobe. Many houses resem- formed into a paste that is thrown into wood-
ble skyscrapers, and date from the 15th cen- en moulds. The greater the force with which
tury (6.2). the loam is thrown, the better its compaction
In Scandinavia and in England, building with and dry strength. The surface is smoothed
6.4 sod was common in the 17th and 18th cen- either by hand or by a timber piece, trowel
turies. These houses were constructed of or wire (6.6).
blocks cut from the top layer of loamy soil One person can produce about 300 blocks
together with the grass growing on it. The per day (including preparation of mix, trans-
blocks were inverted and used as bricks to portation and stacking). In India, one person
form walls without mortar. European immi- can produce as many as 500 blocks per day
grants brought this technique to the USA, using a double mould designed for a smaller
where a large number of sod houses were brick. In order to facilitate work, bricks can
built in the 18th and 19th centuries (6.5). be moulded on a table, as was traditional-
Some settlers also adapted the same idea ly the case in Germany (6.9). Another easy
from North American Indian nations such as method uses moulds with handles 80 cm in
the Omaha and Pawnee, who for centuries length, which enables workers to manufac-
had used the method to cover their round ture bricks while standing (6.10).
huts with sod (Houben and Guillaud, 1984). Techniques for producing compressed soil
6.5 In New Mexico, silty soil blocks cut from riv- blocks were known in Europe in the 18th cen-
erbeds, and containing a network of roots tury. In 1789, the French architect François
which act as reinforcement, were used for Cointeraux developed a manually operated
building walls. These blocks are called ter- soil block press. Since then, numerous man-
ronis or terrones, and were sometimes used ually operated presses have been devised.
6.1 Industrially produced green bricks, Germany in Mexico and Central America as well. It The best-known press worldwide is the
6.2 Ancient core of the city of Shibam, Yemen is interesting to note that building codes CINVA Ram, developed in Colombia by the
6.3 Traditional earth dwellings of the Pueblo Indians, in New Mexico still permit building with Chilean engineer Raúl Ramírez (6.11). Il-
Taos, New Mexico, USA terronis. lustration 6.16 shows the CETA Ram in op-
6.4 Moulds for adobes In Germany, earth block work was used in the eration. It is similar to the CINVA Ram, and
6.5 Sod house, USA 6th century BC; adobe blocks 40 × 40 cm was developed around 1976 in Paraguay. It

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6.6 6.7 6.8

permits simultaneous production of three Fully automatic presses are only economical
blocks. Manually operated presses of this if they have long lives, are utilised extensively
type produce pressures up to 5 to 25 kg/ on a daily basis, and if raw material of even
cm2, and require three to five persons for consistency is available locally and in suffi-
optimum operation. Despite mechanised cient quantities. Otherwise, capital, mainte-
production of soil blocks using presses, nance and repair costs quickly diminish any
the output per person per day is only 150 potential economic advantages. In low-wage
to 200 blocks, considerably less than that countries, manual adobe production is usu-
of the primitive method involving throwing ally more economical, as is the production of
loam into moulds. The manual block press green bricks in brick plants in industrialised
shown in 6.13 can yield up to 800 blocks countries. In industrialised countries, brick
daily. The advantage of these mechanised production using such machines would be
presses, however, is that loams with lower economical only if transportation costs were
water contents can be used. This makes it high.
possible to stack blocks immediately after The production method developed in the
6.9 production. The disadvantage is that the USA by Hans Sumpf and patented in 1946,
blocks are usually stabilised with a 4% to and consisting of a block making apparatus,
8% cement content in order to endow them seems comparatively more efficient (6.14
with sufficient strength. This is necessary and 6.15). With this method, loam is pre-
because of the absence of either sufficient pared to a pasty consistency in a forced mix-
water or adequate dynamic impact capable er and then poured into a large funnel that
of significantly activating the binding forc- moves over a grid of moulds. The moulds are
es of the clay minerals. Without cement, filled, and the top and the blocks are then
pressed blocks usually have dry a compres- smoothed mechanically. A lever lifts this
sive strength lower than that of handmade grid, leaving the separated blocks to dry on
adobes (see p. 42). the ground. After a preliminary drying period,
Another disadvantage of such presses is the blocks can be turned on their edges for
that the soil mix must be kept at a constant even drying.
6.10 level of moisture and composition. If compo- In mechanised brick plants, crushed soil
sitions vary, then both the volume of the ma- is mixed and pushed by rollers into an ex-
terial to be filled and the pressure changes. truder, where it is again mixed and pressed
This leads to variations in the heights and through a vacuum-operated mouthpiece into
strengths of the blocks. long profiles, which are then sliced by a wire.
Fully automatic block-making presses such Drying is accomplished in ovens using com-
as the one shown in 6.12 can produce 1300 mercial energy. Since this entire process is
blocks in 8 hours. However, they require large computerised in industrialised brick plants,
investments and may be difficult to maintain, it may be difficult to order green bricks, and
especially in developing countries. To assure the prices quoted are sometimes more than
even loam consistencies, such machines of- those for ordinary fired bricks.
ten require separate crushers and mixers.

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 6.12 6.13

6.11 6.14 6.15

6.6 Removal of surplus loam with a wire

6.7 and 6.8 Making adobes in Ecuador
6.9 Making adobes on a work table 6.16

6.10 Metal mould with handles

6.11 CINVA Ram, Columbia
6.12 Automatic block press BP714 Earth Blox (by
Dwell Earth, New Hampshire, USA)
6.13 Manual block press Auram 3000 (by Aureka
Equipment, Auroville, India)
6.14 and 6.15 Adobe production technique devel-
oped by Hans Sumpf, USA
6.16 CETA Ram, Paraguay
6.17 Cutting earth blocks
6.18 Green bricks drying in the air at brick plant,
Gilserberg, Germany 6.17 6.18

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 6.21

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
100
90
80

Percentage passing
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.002 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60 100
Grain size (mm)
6.20
6.22
Clay Silt Sand Gravel 6.21 Grain si
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
100 tion curve of
90 in a brick plan
6.22 Optimis
80
size distributi
Percentage passing

70
for adobes
60 6.23 Expose
50 block wall fin
40 with a loam-l
30 Bendigo, Aus
20 6.24 Booksh
to an earth b
10
6.25 Industri
0 produced unb
0.001 0.002 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60 100
lightweight b
Grain size (mm)
6.19 6.21

If the blockscomposition
Material are dipped in water for a short Surface
minimumtreatment
shrinkage. But at the same time,
timeloam
The to make used theinsurface
common softbrick
and pliable,
plants itre- there must be enough clay to create sufficient
becomes possible to build
quires high clay content in order to achievewalls from earth Ifbinding
sufficiently
forcemoistened
for the block withto a tool like a
be handled.
blocks without
sufficient strengthusingafter mortar.firing.
TheseIllustration
soaked felt trowel, exposed earth block masonry
blocks can be simply stacked
6.20 shows a typical soil grain size distribu- , as with any with uneven
Laying surfaces
earth blocksor joints can be easily
dry of
tion masonry
this type work,
of loam,and they will bind.
containing 24%Suchclay, smoothened. Plastering is not advisable,
50% silt, 23% sand and 3% gravel. and
work, however , requires a very fine eye When since
It is itimportant
interferes towith the capacity
shelter of loamfrom
earth blocks
skilledofworkmanship,
loam this composition for it isisdifficult
used for to con-
earth walls to balance internal air humidity
rain on site. In industrialised countries, (see as
trol the horizontal joints and
block work, it creates swelling and shrinking the pattern, chapter
a rule, 1,green
p. 14).bricks
However , exposed
ordered fromearth
factories,
6.22
since no tolerance
problems upon wetting of mortarandthickness is
drying respec- block masonry can , if not aesthetically
are palletised and covered entirely in plastic.
available.
tively. Illustration 6.19 shows cracks occur- acceptable,
Earth blocks be are
given
laida with
washeither
of loam
loam slurry
mortar,
Earthwhen
ring blocksthese can be green cut much
bricksmore wereeasily
used in stabilised
hydraulicwith , for
lime example,
mortar lime, lime-
or high-hydraulic lime
than baked bricks , using
a project where a wall was drenched ordinary sawsby, for
sud- casein
mortar. etc.While
(6.23). small
This wash also impacts
quantities of cement
example, as seen
den rain during construction. in 6.20. If parts of blocks the
may wall’s
be surface
added stability
to these (formortars,
more details
pure ce-
are required
The soil grain , theysize candistribution
either be sawed right
of a leaner about
ment mortar is not advisable, as it is12,
surface treatment , see chapter too rigid
through , or else cut to depths
sandy loam appropriate for earth blocks is of about p.and
100).
brittle. To avoid shrinkage cracks inside
2 cm, after
shown in 6.21.which It sections
shows 14% can be clay,broken
22% silt, the mortar during drying, the mortar should
off with the tap of
62% sand and 2% gravel, and showsa hammer. In place of a no contain sufficient quantities of coarse sand.
saw, a groove can also be
shrinkage cracks after drying. Generally, scored with a it The clay content may vary from 4% to 10%.
trowel
can be or a knife
stated that before
earthusing
blocks theshould
hammer. have The formation of shrinkage cracks can also
enough coarse sand to allow them to achieve be avoided when the mortar layer is thinner
high porosity (and therefore high frost resist- than usual. It is a pleasure to work with loam
ance), and high compressive strength with mortar, since it is not abrasive to the skin.
64 Working with earth blocks
64 Working with earth blocks
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6.23 6.24

Lime mortar, however, attacks the skin and p. 14). However, exposed earth block mason-
may also cause allergies. ry can, if not aesthetically acceptable, be giv-
If the blocks are dipped in water for a short en a wash of loam slurry stabilised with, for
time to make the surface soft and pliable, it example, lime, limecasein etc. (6.22). This
becomes possible to build walls from earth wash also impacts the wall’s surface stability
blocks without using mortar. These soaked (for more details about surface treatment,
blocks can be simply stacked, as with any dry see chapter 12, p. 100).
masonry work, and they will bind. Such work,
however, requires a very fine eye and skilled Fixing fasteners to walls
workmanship, for it is difficult to control the
horizontal joints and the pattern, since no Nails can be driven into an earth block walls
tolerance of mortar thickness is available. more easily than into those constructed
Earth blocks can be cut much more easily of baked bricks. The more porous and hu-
than baked bricks, using ordinary saws, for mid the material, the easier one can drive
example, as seen in 6.17. If parts of blocks a nail through it. Green bricks tend to split
are required, they can either be sawed right more easily than soil blocks and adobes. If
through, or else cut to depths of about 2 cm, very thick nails are used, it is advisable to
after which sections can be broken off with drill a hole into the block. Heavy shelves or
the tap of a hammer. In place of a saw, a wallhung cabinets can be fixed to the wall
6.19 Shrinkage cracks that occurred after rain-
groove can also be scored with a trowel or a easily using screws and dowels. Dowel holes,
drenched green bricks dried out
knife before using the hammer. however, should be drilled large enough to
6.20 Grain size distribution curve of loam used in a
prevent blocks from cracking. In 6.23, heavy
brick plant
6.21 Optimised grain size distribution curve for
Surface treatment bookshelves are fixed to a green brick wall
adobes using dowels and screws.
6.22 Exposed earth block wall finished with a loam-
If sufficiently moistened with a tool like a felt
lime slurry, Bendigo, Australia trowel, exposed earth block masonry with un- Lightweight earth blocks
6.23 Bookshelves fixed to an earth block wall even surfaces or joints can be easily smooth-
6.24 Industrially produced unburned lightweight
ened. Plastering is not advisable, since it So-called lightweight loam blocks have a
bricks with aggregates such as straw, saw dust or interferes with the capacity of loam walls to specific weight of less than 1200 kg/m3 and
cellulose fibres. balance internal air humidity (see chapter 1, consist of clayey soil with light aggregates

65 Surface treatment
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6.25

6.26

6.27 6.28

such as straw, saw dust, cellulose fibres, absorption is produced by the cut-off joints
cork, perlite, pumice or expanded clay. Due and the holes in the brick. For domes con-
to their good thermal insulation effects, they sisting of adobes the author optimised the
are used for exterior walls in cool or cold cli- shape further by making the adobes slight-
mates. Illustration 6.24 shows some of these ly conical, i.e. the end of the brick is wider
unburned bricks that are produced industri- than the front in order to save mortar and to
ally in Germany. increase the stability of the dome. The end
is given an inclination to achieve a smooth-
Special acoustic green bricks and er outside surface of the dome (6.26). Illus-
adobes tration 6.27 shows the interior texture of a
dome with acoustic adobes. Additional ex-
6.25 Special loam brick to improve acoustic In order to optimise the acoustic behaviour amples of the use of acoustic adobes are the
behaviour of domed rooms, a special extruded loam Residence in Emboscada (pp. 168–169), the
6.26 Optimised adobe shape for domes (acoustic brick with rounded corners was developed Village Nursery in Bellingdon (pp. 190–193)
adobe) by the author (6.25). The rounded corners and the Adobe Dome Music Space in Aiguá
6.27 Interior view of a dome with acoustic adobes and the corbelling effect of the bricks (6.28) (pp. 198–201).
6.28 Detail of loam brick dome yield good sound distribution, while sound

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 7 Large blocks and panels

With monolithic rammed earth walls, or even ferent sections for larger wall panels made
with small-sized brick masonry, manpower is of lightweight mineral loam, and developed
high and drying time can delay construction by the author of this book, are shown in 7.5.
work due to the inherent water. Therefore, These can be used either in internal walls,
several ideas involving larger prefabricated or to increase the thermal insulation of exte-
elements have been developed. rior walls from the outside. Cavities reduce
weight and increase thermal insulation,
Large blocks while simultaneously providing grip holds
for easy handling. Illustration 7.6 shows sim-
7.1 Provided they are light enough to be carried ilar elements that can be used for making
in one hand, or at most in both, larger blocks vaults.
can be laid faster. Lightweight aggregates A recent product are the thermal insulation
and cavities can be used to reduce weight. boards made of expanded glass and loam
For easy handling, grip holds should be incor- by Lehmwerk Kleinfahner in Germany. They
porated in block shapes. have a gross density of only 500 kg/m³.
Lightweight straw blocks, 50 × 60 × 30 cm, They are 5.5 cm or 9.5 cm thick and meas-
used in several projects by the German ar- ure 24.5 × 61 cm (7.9). The firm also pro-
chitect Sylvester Dufter, are more efficient vides smaller lightweight earth blocks with
for making walls. Though each block weighs the same density, measuring 24 × 17.5 ×
26 kg, they are produced under cover and 11.5 cm (7.10).
close to the wall, and can then be almost
flipped over into their final positions (7.1 and Earth-filled wall panels
7.2). Using such blocks, a 50-cm-thick wall
gives a U-value of 0.3 W/m2K. Dufter guid- Illustration 7.7 shows a wall built with “Kar-
ed several do-it-yourself projects using these phosit” elements, which were produced from
blocks. In one case, the owner-builder family clay powder and straw cuttings, and had a
7.2 produced 1500 blocks in 5 weeks, sufficient density of 850 kg/m3. They measured 62.5
for their entire house. × 25 × 10 cm. Until a number of years ago,
Lightweight mineral loam blocks measur- the German firm HDB Weissinger produced
ing 15 × 15 × 30 cm, which are made of 1-m-wide and up to 3-m-high timberframe
loam and expanded clay (7.4), have been wall elements filled with lightweight loam
produced in Hungary utilising egg layers (of (7.8). Several houses were built with these
the type used in making concrete blocks). wall elements.
7.1 Making lightweight straw loam blocks Such blocks were used to provide addition-
7.2 Exterior wall made of large blocks of lightweight al external thermal insulation to a rammed
straw loam earth wall house in Tata, Hungary (7.3). Dif-

67 Large blocks and panels

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 7.3 7.4

7.5 7.6

7.7 7.8

68 Large blocks and panels

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7.9 7.10

7.11 7.12 7.13

Clay panels isting wall with clay mortar or screwed onto

a framework.
7.3 Making lightweight mineral loam blocks, Tata,
Hungary
In recent years, several companies in Eu- The panels boost the thermal insulation ef-
rope have introduced clay panels into the fect of the wall. They may contain reed, hemp
7.4 Using lightweight mineral loam blocks as external
additional thermal insulation for a rammed earth market, sometimes also called loam boards, shives, straw chippings, wood chips, perlite
wall, Tata, Hungary earth building boards or loam panels. In the or expanded glass and their raw densities
7.5 Lightweight loam blocks for wall construction meantime a standard, DIN 18948, for these range from 500 to 800 kg/m³. Pure loam
7.6 Lightweight loam blocks for vaults panels has been established. These prod- panels with a raw density of approximately
7.7 Interior wall from lightweight loam panels
ucts are thin boards, mostly 16 to 25 mm 1500 kg/m³ exist as well; they increase the
thick, 62.5 cm wide and up to 150 cm long. heat storage effect and improve the air hu-
7.8 Structural elements filled with lightweight loam
They are used in interior construction to clad midity balance.
7.9 Lightweight earth boards for thermal insulation
(by Lehmwerk Kleinfahner) walls without introducing much moisture as In Germany, the company Claytec produces
7.10 Lightweight earth blocks for thermal insulation
would be the case with the usual plastering 62.5 × 125 cm boards that are 16 or 22 mm
(by Lehmwerk Kleinfahner) of walls. Only the joints have to be plastered thick and have a gross density of 1450 kg/m³
7.11 Heavy clay panel with loam, clay, wood fibres, over. Depending on the type of surface struc- (7.11), as well as a 20- and 25-mm-thick light-
starch, jute fabric (by Claytec) ture, they can be covered directly with paint, weight board that measures 62.5 × 150 cm
7.12 and 7.13 Lightweight clay panel with reed for wallpaper or with a 1- to 2-mm-thick clay and has a gross density of 700 kg/m³ (7.12
interior use (by Claytec) plaster. The panels are either fixed to an ex- and 7.13).

69 Clay panels
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7.14 7.15

7.16 7.17

7.18 7.19

70 Large blocks and panels

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 1 Clay plaster

2 Soft wood fibre board 3 Fabric

7.20 7.21

7.22

Heating panels channels (7.22). These elements can also be

installed under the ceiling and used for cool-
7.14 Interior walls in a loft clad with clay panels
(by Claytec)
The loam panels produced by the German ing in summer (7.21). The advantage of the
company naturbo (7.18 to 7.20) are 3.1 cm earth material in this case is that possible
7.15 Interior of Vinothek Weingut Sauer, Landau,
Germany, clad with clay panels (by Claytec; design: thick, 62.5 cm wide and have a special de- condensation water occurring at the pipes is
Werkgemeinschaft Landau, Klaudia Fritz) sign. They provide channels into which heat- absorbed by the clay. The company also pro-
7.16 and 7.17 Montage of clay panels (by Claytec) ing pipes are imbedded in earth plaster. duces earth elements with integrated elec-
7.18 Montage of heating panel (by naturbo) After installation, the protruding ends of the tric heating cables. They are a good solution
7.19 Loam heating panel with embedded pipe pipes are joined together and the seams are for holiday homes.
(by naturbo) filled with earth plaster. These boards are
7.20 Section through heating panel (by naturbo) also produced with a layer of inner thermal Floor slabs
7.21 Loam heating panel installed under ceiling isolation (7.20).
(by WEM) The German company WEM is producing a Loam elements which act as infill between
7.22 Loam heating panel with pipe in channel similar panel with lengths of 80, 160 and ceiling joists also provide sound and thermal
(by WEM) 200 cm, where the pipes are pressed into insulation (7.23). In Hungary in 1987, the au-

71 Heating panels
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 7.23 7.24

7.25 7.26

thor of this book developed load-bearing infill hardness. Tests at the Building Research In-
elements with cement-stabilised lightweight stitute – BRI showed that a high degree of
loam. Illustration 7.25 shows such an ele- surface hardness could be obtained by add-
ment along with its mould. Illustration 7.24 ing 6% double-boiled linseed oil in conjunc-
depicts various designs for load-bearing floor tion with compacting the surface and using
panels. floor wax as a polish. Methods of increasing
surface hardness are described in chapter
Floor tiles 14, pp. 113–114.

Prefabricated tiles made with stabilised earth Extruded loam slabs

can be used for flooring. One advantage is
7.23 Infill loam elements for floors that since they are already dry, shrinkage Illustration 7.26 shows extruded green loam
7.24 Load-bearing loam floor slabs only occurs in joints. Miller, Grigutsch and slabs consisting of a loam with high clay
7.25 Load-bearing cement-stabilised lightweight Schulze (1947, p. 5) recommend the use of content. They are extruded 3 to 10 cm thick,
loam infills, Hungary Fe3O4, oxblood and tar in order to stabilise 50 cm wide and cut into lengths of up to
7.26 Extruded loam slabs, Germany these tiles and provide them with surface 100 cm or more.

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 8 Direct forming with wet loam

8.1

8.2

Unlike other building materials, wet loam has shrinkage was not taken into account. The
the capacity to be formed into any shape. It following sections explain how pre-designed
therefore presents a creative challenge to shrinkage cracks of smaller dimensions, or
designers and builders. The manual shaping the use of curved elements can help to re-
of walls from lumps of wet loam or thick loam duce or even avoid such cracks. The theory
paste is widespread in Africa and Asia, and involving reducing shrinkage by modifying
is also known in Europe and America. Since loam composition is explained in chapter 4,
no tools are required to work with earth, it is p. 37.
the simplest and most primitive technique.
The prepared mixture is used directly (with- Traditional wet loam techniques
out intermediate products being formed or
intermediate processes). Its disadvantage is While in the case of earth block work, dry
that even lean loam of only 10% to 15% clay elements are built up with mortar joints, no
shows linear shrinkage of 3% to 6% when mortar is used with wet loam work. Plastic
drying. The higher the clay content and the loam is bound simply by ramming, beating,
more water employed, the greater the shrink- pressing or throwing.
age. Thick loam paste with high clay content In southern India, a very simple wet loam
may even have a linear shrinkage ratio of technique is still in use today: using a hoe,
8.1 Forming a bench from wet loam above 10%. Illustrations 8.1 and 8.2 show a earth is mixed with water to a pasty consist-
8.2 Shrinkage cracks in the same bench after drying bench formed with wet loam elements where ency, carried to the site in metal containers

73 Direct forming with wet loam

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8.3

8.4 8.5

balanced on the worker’s head, and poured A technique of building using loam clods
on the wall being built. It is then spread by called “cob” was widespread in southwest
hand in layers from 2 to 4 cm thick. As the England beginning in the 15th century, and
paste dries fairly quickly in the sun, the wall was used at least until the 19th century,
can be built continuously, layer by layer. especially in Devon. In 1843, Hill described
In northeast Ghana, another technique is this technique as follows: a man stands with
used. Here, balls of wet earth are formed and a three-pronged pitchfork on the plinth of the
then used to construct circular walls simply wall, while a second man forms clods as large
by stacking and pressing (8.3 and 8.4). Af- as two fists. The second man then throws the
ter the wall dries, the surface is plastered on clods to the first one, who catches them on
8.6 both sides and then smoothed and polished his pitchfork and, walking backwards, throws
using flat stones in a rotary rubbing move- them onto the wall. Where necessary, he also
ment. Illustration 8.5 shows a compound compacts the wall with his feet. In this way,
built using a similar primitive technique. layers 50 to 60 cm in height are built up. To
In northwest Ghana, 40-cm-thick walls have give an even finish, the surface is sliced. Wall
been constructed with wet loam clods using thicknesses are generally 45 to 60 cm (Mc-
another traditional technique. Here, they are Cann, 1983; Streiff et al., 2020). Illustration
built up in layers so that each successive 8.12 shows a house, one still inhabited, at
layer slightly overlaps the previous one (8.6). Cockington (Devon, England) that was built
8.3 and 8.4 Making walls using balls of wet earth,
The rooms of these houses are more or less using this technique in 1410.
northeast Ghana (Schreckenbach and Abankwa,
1983)
rectangular, and have rounded corners (8.8). A similar technique called Wellerbau, has
In north Yemen, multi-storeyed houses have been known in German since medieval times,
8.5 Nankansi courtyard house, north Ghana
been built using a wet loam technique called and was especially widespread in Thuring-
8.6 Traditional wet loam construction, northwest
Ghana (Schreckenbach and Abankwah, 1983) zabur (8.7, 8.9 and 8.10). Here, clods of ia and Saxony. Here, the straw loam is not
8.7 Multi-storeyed houses made using the zabur
straw loam are shaped by hand and thrown formed into clods as in the cob technique,
technique, Yemen with strong impact to build the wall in such nor compacted by throwing as with the za-
8.8 Typical Lobi dwelling, northwest Ghana, plan and a way that they are compacted and adhere bur technique, but is directly stacked with a
section (Schreckenbach and Abankwa, 1983) to the base, forming a homogenous mass. pitchfork and then compacted using feet or
8.9 and 8.10 Construction of a loam wall, using the The surface is often beaten and compacted rams (8.11). The wall is built up in layers of
zabur technique by hammering with a kind of wooden trowel. 80 to 90 cm. After a short drying period, the

74 Direct forming with wet loam

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8.7

8.8

surface of these layers is smoothed with a The stranglehm technique

wedge-shaped spade.
At the Building Research Institute – BRI a
The “Dünne loam loaf” technique new wet loam technique, termed the strang-
8.9 lehm (“loam strand”) technique, was devel-
Techniques similar to the ones used in Slo- oped in 1982. Walls, vaults and domes can
vakia and Yemen, described above, were be built with this technique. Even built-in
known in North Africa. They inspired Gustav furniture and sanitary items, as described
von Bodelschwingh, a German missionary, in chapter 14, pp. 130–131, can be formed.
to adapt them to German conditions. The re-
sulting technique (“Dünner-Lehmbrote-Bau- Production of stranglehm elements
weise” in German) derives its name from the In order to produce wet loam profiles, an
small town of Dünne, where it was first used. extrusion apparatus was developed by the
Here, wet loaves of loam are stacked in ma- BRI. Using this machine, wet loam profiles
sonry patterns, but without mortar. In order 8 × 16 cm in section can be produced at a
to provide better bonding to the plaster that rate of 2 m per minute (1.4 m3/h). This proto-
is applied later, a conical hole is made on type, which was arranged vertically, as seen
the outer face of each loaf using the finger in 8.15, was later refined, yielding an output
(8.13). Three to five layers are laid per day. of 3 m per minute (2 m3/h) using a horizontal
8.10 A lime plaster several layers thick is used af- arrangement, as seen in 8.16. The machine
ter the wall is dry. The first such house was consists of a feeder section with two coun-
built in 1925 (8.14). Within the next 5 years, ter-rotating cylinders, which mix the material
more than 300 houses were built by co-op- before conveying it to a section with rotating
eratives, formed by unemployed workers on knives for mixing. The material is then moved
the initiative of von Bodelschwingh. The en- into a worm gear, which creates sufficient
tire families of the members participated in pressure to force the material out of the ex-
production and construction. trusion mouthpiece.

75 The “Dünne loam loaf” technique

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8.11 8.12

8.13 8.14 8.15

8.11 Traditional Wellerbau technique, Germany

8.12 Cob building from 1410, Cockington, Devon,
England
8.13 Unplastered wall of a sheep shed, Dünne,
Germany
8.14 Residence, Dünne, Germany
8.15 Vertical extruder for extruded loam profiles
8.16 Horizontal extruder for extruded loam profiles
8.17 and 8.18 Walls of extruded loam profiles, test
house, University of Kassel, 1982
8.19 to 8.21 Stacking extruded loam profiles in a
plastic state 8.16

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8.17 8.18

8.20 8.21

Preparing the mix 8.18), 2-m-long extruded profiles were trans-

Tests with 30 different mixtures, including ported on a board and flicked over onto the
some containing straw, sawdust and pine wall. The joints were finished by pressing
needles, showed that shrinkage reduction them with bare hands or with a modelling
and increase of output was negligible, indi- stick. Since the weight of the upper layers
cating that the additional labour and effort cannot be allowed to squeeze out the lower
involved in introducing these additives was material, only three to five layers are possible
not worthwhile. However, the addition of in a day.
whey increased output slightly, and gave As these profiles showed shrinkage of about
better water resistance and surface hard- 3%, it was necessary to refill the shrinkage
8.19 ness. Casein powder and water can be sub- cracks that appeared. Since this was labori-
stituted for whey. The mix for this technique ous, at the next application of this technique
must have higher clay content than that for in a residential house at Kassel, Germany, in
rammed earth blocks. A clay content of 15% 1984, only 70-cm-long profiles were used.
was found advantageous. Loam elements The results showed that at this length, and
with lower clay contents showed cracks at with pre-designed contraction joints spaced
the corners. The content has to be optimised at 70 cm, no shrinkage occurs in the ele-
so that the finished profile is dry enough to ments themselves. The extruder was posi-
be handled, yet wet enough to adhere when tioned at the centre of the house to minimise
being stacked into the wall. transportation distances.
Illustrations 8.19 to 8.21 show the produc-
Laying the elements tion, transport and laying of these elements.
In the first test building made at the Univer- The walls of this project are framed in tim-
sity of Kassel, Germany, in 1982 (8.17 and ber with posts at 2.1 m centres. The panel

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8.22

8.23 8.24

thus formed is divided into 3 parts with ver- exterior walls. The space between the two
tical timber elements 4 × 4 cm in section at extruded loam walls can be filled with light-
0.7 m/centres. They act as tongues fitting weight bulk material such as cork particles,
into the loam elements to provide lateral sta- expanded clay, pumice etc., to increase ther-
bility. In order to ensure separation of these mal insulation. Structural elements can also
elements during the drying process a cut is be positioned in this space. If the other walls
made with a trowel, so that the joints act as illustrated need to be provided with thermal
pre-designed contraction joints. Upon drying, insulation, a common solution is given in
this gap widens due to shrinkage, and can be 8.31, the U-value of the illustrated wall being
favourably filled when dry with a mixture of 0.295 W/m2K.
lime, gypsum, sand and loam. It is very easy Illustrations 8.25, 8.27 and 8.28 show work
to smooth the surface of these elements with done on a residential house in Germany,
a moist sponge (8.22), though to get a richly with smaller extruded loam profiles obtained
textured and a regular effect (as seen in the from a brick manufacturing plant. Due to the
8.25 photographs), more shaping by hand may be production process, this loam had to have
done before sponging. Illustration 8.24 and higher clay content, causing a large number
8.25 show finished walls. Walls composed of shrinkage problems; repairing the cracks
of these elements can be shaped easily in that occurred turned out to be very time-con-
a wet state; a finished example is shown in suming.
8.23, where material has been added to the
wall, as well as sculpted out of it.

Wall types
Due to shrinkage of 3% to 5%, long ele-
ments are not recommended. Illustration
8.26 shows several possibilities for internal
and external walls using shorter elements.
Solution C in this figure is only intended for

78 Direct forming with wet loam

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8.26

8.27 8.28

8.22 Smoothening the surface with a wet sponge

8.23 Filling a contraction joint with slightly moist
loam
8.24 Finished interior wall made of extruded loam
profiles
8.25 Finished stranglehm walls, residence, Uchte,
Germany (1986)
8.26 Variations of external and internal walls using
stranglehm
8.27 and 8.28 Making stranglehm walls in different 8.29
patterns
8.29 Section of stranglehm wall

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 9 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures

Plastic loam has been used for thousands ping a 10 cm diameter ball from a height of
of years to fill gaps in log houses where the 1 m onto a hard surface. If the diameter of
logs are laid horizontally, as well as in pali- the flattened disc thus formed measures 13
sades (where the tree trunks are positioned to 14 cm, the consistency is just right.
vertically). In traditional European Fachwerk Illustrations 9.2 and 9.5 show a variation of
(timber-framed) houses, as well as in Amer- the wattle-and-daub technique in which the
ican, African and Asian wattle-and-daub size of the mesh is larger (up to 20 cm apart),
9.1 structures, wet loam (usually containing cut and there is an exterior and an interior net-
straw) is thrown on an interwoven mesh of work. The spaces in the grid thus formed are
twigs, branches, bamboo sticks and the like filled in with clods of loam. Coarse gravel or
(9.1). As shown in this chapter, there exist even stones are sometimes also used as in-
many variations of this technique. Modern fill. The type of wall shown in 9.5 is construct-
techniques of infill that use mechanical de- ed of prefabricated components, and was
vices to reduce labour input are described in used in several low-cost housing projects in
this chapter. Bahia, Brazil.

Thrown loam Sprayed loam

Thrown loam techniques have been used in Since wattle-and-daub techniques are very
all tropical, sub-tropical and moderate cli- labour-intensive, various attempts have been
mates of the world, and are probably older made to use spraying machines to apply mix-
than rammed earth and earth block practices. tures. The main problem with all of these
These wattle-and-daub techniques are called techniques has been the common occur-
bahareque, bajareque, bareque or quincha in rence of shrinkage cracks.
Spanish and lehmbewurf in German. The German architect Hans-Bernd Kraus
Such structures consist of vertical and hori- developed a technique in which a thin loam
zontal members that form a network. Euro- mixture is sprayed simultaneously together
pean systems usually employ vertical timber with dry sawdust (from a separate nozzle).
members interwoven with twigs (9.4). Loam, Both sprays intermix before hitting the wall.
usually mixed with cut straw, and sometimes Layers 4 to 6 cm thick are sprayed on wood-
9.2 with fibres, is thrown or pressed onto this net- wool slabs used as a lost formwork. The
work so that it covers at least 2 cm of all the wood-wool slabs also provide considerable
members. If this cover is not thick enough thermal insulation (9.6). Another sprayable
and cracks are not wellrepaired, walls quick- lightweight loam used for enhancing the
ly deteriorate (9.3). The consistency of the thermal insulation of walls is described in
mortar being used is easily checked by drop- chapter 11, p. 94.

80 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures

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9.3

9.4

Rolls and bottles of straw loam tles”. Here, secondary vertical members are
fixed 15 to 20 cm apart within the frame. The
In Germany and France, openings in the “bottles” are made by taking 1.5-litre mass-
frameworks of traditional timber-framed es of the mixture and dropping them onto
houses are sometimes filled in with ele- the centre of a cross made of two bundles of
ments formed by rolling straw loam around a straw. The ends of the bundles are then lifted
wooden batten, as seen in 9.7 and 9.8. This up around the loam, which formed into bot-
9.5 is less labour-intensive then the wattleand- tle-like shapes and covered with loam. The
daub technique, and has the added advan- bottle is then held horizontally, and the neck
tage that hardly any shrinkage cracks occur. wound around the vertical member, while
Two main systems are used: either a loam the bottom is pressed against the neck of
dipped straw rope is wound helically around the previous bottle.
a batten, or a straw mat pasted with loam
is rolled onto a batten. The labour inputs of Lightweight loam infill
these techniques is still higher than those
using “loam strand” techniques (see chapter Since they fail to provide sufficient thermal in-
8). A variation of the rolling technique was sulation, the traditional techniques described
successfully tested at the Building Research in earlier sections cannot be used in modern
9.6 Institute – BRI. It used a loam mortar with a construction in cold climates. To provide ther-
high coarse sand content, which was pasted mal insulation, the frames can be filled with
onto a metal or plastic wire mesh (common- lightweight loam mixtures (or the exterior
9.1 Traditional pit house of the Pueblo Indians, 3rd ly used for reinforcing mortars). The loam covered with layers of commonly used ther-
century AD, (Bardou and Arzoumanian, 1978) was pasted onto the mesh in a thickness of mal insulation materials). This technique has
9.2 Variations of wattle-and-daub technique 2 cm, and both were rolled around a bam- the advantage of less labour input and no
(Vorhauer, 1979) boo stick to form infill elements (9.9 to 9.11). shrinkage whatsoever. Systems with greater
9.3 Traditional wattleand- daub building, Venezuela Surprisingly, shrinkage cracks nevertheless thermal insulating effects are shown in chap-
9.4 Traditional wattleand- daub technique, Germany occurred with this technique. ter 14, p. 111. The lightweight additives are
9.5 Prefabricated wattle-and-daub system, Brazil Illustration 9.12 depicts the traditional Ger- described in chapter 4, pp. 46–49.
9.6 Spraying lightweight loam man technique of building with “loam bot-

81 Rolls and bottles of straw loam

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9.7 9.9

9.10 9.11

Infill with stranglehm and earth- ment (up to 30% of the cement content) the
filled hoses percentage of this mixture increases to 12%.
The earth should be free from organic mate-
Modern solutions of filling the openings in rial and have a relatively uniform mixture of
timber skeleton structures or timber-framed aggregates, ranging from gravel of no more
houses with stranglehm or earth-filled hoses than 12 mm diameter.
are described in chapter 8, p. 75 and chap- Soil and cement are well mixed and then con-
ter 10, p. 90. veyed via high-pressure air. Water is added to
A very recent development in the application the dry mix at the nozzle of the spraying gun.
of loam infill involves the spraying of loam by For a 38 mm hose, for instance, the compres-
means of a spray gun system. sor must produce 21 m3 of air per minute.
9.8 As a rule of thumb the operating pressure,
Sprayed loam in steel-reinforced which is the pressure at the material outlet or
walls and ceilings air inlet on the gun, should not be less than
275 kPa when the hose is 30 m or shorter.
David Easton, founder of Rammed Earth The wall formwork should be in place a mini-
Works in Napa, California, uses a system mum of 12 hours prior to stripping.
of constructing earthquake-resistant earth The architect Marcelo Cortés from Chile has
walls by spraying a mixture of earth, cement developed a technique involving spraying
and water over a steel reinforcement struc- of loam for the construction of earthquake-
ture against a formwork, as shown in the resistant structures, which he calls “Quincha
residence for himself and Cynthia Wright metálica” – quincha being a traditional con-
in Napa Valley, California, in 1995 (9.13 to struction system that uses wood and cane
9.18). The cement content is normally 10%. to forme a framework that is covered in mud
If fly ash or slag is added in order to save ce- and plaster. The structural system is a steel

82 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures

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9.12 9.13 9.14

9.15 9.16 9.17

9.7 Timber frame wall with infill of straw loam rolls

(German: Wickel) (Houben and Guillaud, 1984)
9.8 Making loam rolls with straw (Vorhauer, 1979)
9.9 to 9.11 Alternate method of making straw loam
rolls (BRI)
9.12 Traditional method of making straw loam
bottles
9.13 Installing the steel reinforcement
9.14 Spraying the earth mix with a high-pressure gun
9.15 Smoothing the surface
9.16 Final plaster treatment
9.17 Installing of roof truss
9.18 Completed house (Residence, architect David
Easton, Napa Valley, California, 1995) 9.18

83 Sprayed loam in steel-reinforced walls and ceilings

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9.19

9.20

9.21

skeleton, which is covered on both sides by this technique. The lime content, which nor-
steel reinforcement mats (9.20). He then mally is 10% of the mix, has two effects: it
sprays a mixture of clayey soil, wheat straw, improves the stability of the infill after curing
sand, lime and water against a formwork that and its high pH-value prevents corrosion of
is fixed onto the back of the steel structure, the steel structure. In climates of high hu-
so that all the space between the mats is midity the steel structure can be covered by
9.19 Machine for mixing and pumping filled (9.21). Even ceilings can be made by a bituminous emulsion or by epoxy resin.
9.20 Spraying process
9.21 Filled-in wall before plastering (Residence in
Santiago, Chile, architect Marcelo Cortéz)

84 Wet loam infill in skeleton structures

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 10 Tamped, poured or
pumped lightweight loam

This chapter introduces several techniques This could be done with a board on the out-
that use lightweight loam by tamping, pour- side, in which case the mixture can be thrown
ing or pumping for floor, wall or roof systems. onto it from the inside by hand or with a trowel.
The different types of lightweight loams are
examined in chapter 4, while chapter 9 dis- Tamped lightweight straw loam
cusses how lightweight loam can be used as walls
infill for timber-framed and skeleton struc-
tures. Sprayed plasterwork is described in The preparation of the mix is described in
chapter 11. Special designs for walls which chapter 4, p. 44. The mixture is thrown into
provide high insulation are discussed in the formwork in layers 10 to 20 cm in height
chapter 14, and additional thermal insula- either by hand or (more usually) with a pitch-
tion measures using lightweight loam are fork, and compacted with lightweight hand
addressed in chapter 13. tampers.
It should be mentioned that lightweight loam
Formwork mixtures tend to settle, so that the gaps that
10.1 form must be inspected and later refilled.
Lightweight loam walls can be constructed The 1-m-high test element shown in 4.21,
using any type of formwork, but since less p. 49, displayed settling of 9%. It should also be
impact is involved than with rammed earth- mentioned that when working with very light
work, the shuttering boards can be thin- mixtures (with densities below 600 kg/m3)
ner. Five different possibilities are shown and with walls more than 25 cm in thickness,
in horizontal section in 10.1. The fastening the straw might rot in the interior of the wall. Il-
of the formwork panels or formwork boards lustration 10.3 shows an example of a 30-cm-
depends on whether the load-bearing tim- thick wall built of lightweight straw loam with
ber supports consist of a rectangular (A) or a density of 350 kg/m3. After some months,
round post (B), plank supports (C) or dou- when the outside appeared to be complete-
ble-T supports (D). For thinner walls and ly dry, the core was chased for an electrical
thicker walls with a high proportion of straw, installation, and was found to be rotting.
horizontal profiles should be clamped or Even the structural timber member had been
nailed between the vertical elements every attacked by micro-organisms to depths of
40 to 80 cm to stiffen the wall (D, E). 2 cm (Schmitt, 1993). With lightweight walls,
10.2 In order to reduce the number of boards, wood lice may also appear and eat the straw.
climbing formwork is often used. Four types of Therefore, it is always advisable that the
10.1 Horizontal sections with different inbuilt timber this system are illustrated in 10.2. When work- stacks of straw are totally sealed by the loam,
elements ing with lightweight mineral loam, it is even which means that the mixture should have a
10.2 Systems of climbing formworks possible to use only a one-sided formwork. density of more than 600 kg/m3.

85 Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight loam

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10.3 10.4

10.6

10.5 10.7

86 Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight loam

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 10.9

10.8 10.10

Tamped lightweight wood loam straw loam and wood loam. Various miner-
walls al lightweight aggregates are described in
chapter 4, p. 47.
Wood chips and sawdust are often used
as lightweight aggregates instead of straw. Tamped walls
These are easier to mix with the loam, but Illustration 10.4 shows the construction of a
10.3 Cut-out from lightweight straw loam wall with
have a lesser degree of thermal insulation low-cost housing prototype in Pujili, Ecuador,
rotted interior effect, and drying takes a very long time. using pumice as lightweight aggregate mixed
10.4 Ramming an earth wall of loam and pumice, in the loam and lightly tamped into a form-
low-cost housing project, Pujili, Ecuador Tamped, poured or pumped light- work. The formwork was immediately dis-
10.5 Shaping a window sill using a machete weight mineral loam walls mantled after the wall was finished. The wall
10.6 Mixing lightweight mineral loam showed a high degree of strength, although it
10.7 Pouring lightweight mineral loam Lightweight mineral loam can be tamped was still possible to cut out window openings
10.8 Preparing a loam slurry using an electric hand
into formwork like straw loam. But it can also and to form sills with a machete, as shown
mixer be poured or pumped if the consistency is in 10.5.
10.9 Mixing of lightweight mineral loam using an correct. It also absorbs less water (therefore
ordinary concrete mixer drying faster), exhibits less fungus growth, Poured walls
10.10 Transporting and pouring lightweight mineral greater dry strength, higher vapour diffusion The easiest way to make a wall of lightweight
loam resistance and higher surface hardness than mineral loam is to simply pour it into a form-

87 Tamped lightweight wood loam walls

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10.11 10.12

work (10.7). In this case, the mix was pre- 300-year-old half-timbered house restored in
pared in a force mixer, shown in 10.6. With Germany, where the mix was prepared by a
this technique, it is even possible to use an regular mobile concrete mixer, funnelled into
ordinary cement concrete mixer in which a pump, and then piped to the formwork.
the loam slurry is poured over the aggre-
gate while it is being turned (10.9). Here, Surface treatment
the slurry was prepared with an electrically After removing the formwork, the surface of
driven hand mixer, shown in 10.8. The form- tamped, poured or pumped mineral loam
work was simply left open on one side for the walls with densities of 600 to 900 kg/m3
upper portion of the wall, and the mix was can be seen to be fairly hard, albeit rough
thrown into it and tamped with a flat piece (10.14). This surface need only be plastered
of timber. In a two-storey house at Tata, with a single thin layer (unlike equivalent
Hungary, a load-bearing wall of 50 cm thick- straw loam walls which require at least two
ness was made with a mixture of loam and layers). In 10.15, we see a lightweight min-
expanded clay. The mixture was poured into eral loam wall with a density of 1000 kg/m3
the formwork through a funnel carried by a being scraped by a rake directly after deshut-
crane, a method commonly used in concrete tering. This forms a nice, roughly textured
10.11 Pouring mineral loam in lost formwork construction (10.10). A simple method of re- surface that need only be whitewashed later,
10.12 Study model for interior walls using lightweight ducing expenditures is to use a lost formwork thus saving plaster.
mineral loam and lost formwork of textile stressed made of reed on one or two sides of the wall
by cables (10.11). Illustration 10.12 shows how a lost Pumped lightweight mineral loam
10.13 Vertical section and horizontal section show- textile formwork, designed by the author, may floors
ing the ceiling pattern for a bathroom with a central be used. A piece of fabric maintains its shape
skylight
and is stressed by cables fixed to the timber Lightweight mineral loam pumped in pipes
10.14 Surface of a light loam wall made of clayey frame. This gives an idea of the unlimited va- is especially suitable for ground floors and
loam and expanded clay (8 to 16 mm) after the
riety of creative surface textures. intermediate floor slabs. Illustration 10.16
formwork was removed
shows a vertical section of a ground floor
10.15 Scraping lightweight mineral loam wall in order
Pumped walls with high thermal insulation, which in cold
to get a textured surface (without using plaster)
For larger projects, especially if there are climates offers a warm, comfortable feeling
10.16 Vertical section through floor with lightweight
mineral loam firms to make the lightweight mineral loam, upon entering. Illustration 10.17 illustrates
10.17 Lightweight mineral loam used as infill in
it is advisable to pump the mix into the form- the possibility of using lightweight miner-
timber flooring work with the use of mortar or concrete al loam as a cast in situ infill between floor
10.18 Transporting and pumping lightweight mineral pumps. The consistency must be a little bit joists. If this mineral loam has a density high-
loam thinner than for pouring. It can be pumped er than 1000 kg/m3, it serves as a good bar-
10.19 Loam-filled hollow blocks forming a corner with up to heights of two storeys using hoses. rier for airborne noise and gives good ther-
different positions of structural post Illustration 10.17 shows the example of a mal storage.

88 Tamped, poured or pumped lightweight loam

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 10.14 10.15

Carpet
Lightweight loam

Thermal insulation

Damp-proof barrier

Coarse gravel

10.16

10.17
10.13

10.18

10.19

89 Pumped lightweight mineral loam floors

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 10.20 10.21

Loam-filled hollow blocks weight mineral loam mixture. The hose can
be filled either using a pump (10.20), or by
In industrialised countries, there are many hand through a funnel (10.21). When the
different types of hollow blocks available, required length is reached, the hose is cut
which are usually filled with concrete. They and the end is stretched and knotted. Owing
are made of materials such as pumice to the reinforcement provided by the fabric,
bound in cement mortar, expanded clay, these loam-filled hoses can then be easily
cement-bound woodwool, lime-bound sand, handled. Before being laid onto a wall, they
baked clay or foamed polystyrene. If the wall are smoothed with the hands so that some
is not load-bearing, loam can also be used loam oozes and forms a thin loam cover on
instead of concrete infill loam. Load-bear- the fabric. When stacked, these loam cover-
ing members can be integrated with these ings stick together (10.22 and 10.23). Since
walls or placed inside the walls, as shown in these hoses can be shaped easily without
10.19. If high airborne noise insulation and breaking, attractive sculptural patterns can
thermal capacity is required, a high propor- be created (10.24 and 10.26).
tion of gravel should be mixed into the loam. After laying and some drying, the surface can
If high thermal insulation is required, light- be easily smoothed with a wet brush. In the
weight aggregates should be added. wall shown in 10.27, hoses 70 cm in length
are laid between vertical posts of 4 × 4 cm
turned at 45°, or triangular elements fixed to
Loam-filled hoses the main posts of the end of the wall, shown
in section in 10.25. As a rule, three to five
A new technique, developed by the author layers can be stacked per day, but in order to
of this book, was used in 1992 for three increase this number some cement can be
residences in Kassel, Germany. Though the added to speed up the drying process. Chap-
outward appearance of walls made by this ter 13, p. 108 explains how these hoses can
technique is similar to those made with the be used in order to increase the thermal in-
technique for making stranglehm described sulation of walls.
in chapter 8, the production, handling and
laying is quite different. With this technique,
an elastic cotton hose is filled with a light-

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 10.23 10.24

10.22

10.25 10.26

10.20 Filling hoses with lightweight mineral loam

using a pump
10.21 Manually filling of hoses with lightweight
mineral loam using a funnel
10.22 to 10.24 Making a bathroom wall from light-
weight loam-filled cotton hoses
10.25 Horizontal section of a wall with loam-filled
hoses
10.26 Interior wall made from loam-filled hoses
10.27 Wall of winter garden made from loam-filled
hoses that act as heat storage and for humidity
balance 10.27

91 Loam-filled hoses
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 11 Loam plasters

Loam plasters, in some countries also called small rake or a nail-trowel (11.2 and 11.3).
clay plasters, earth or mud plasters, consist In order to ensure that the plaster adheres
mainly of sand and silt with only as much well, plaster supports can be applied in the
clay as is necessary (usually between 5% form of galvanised wire mesh, plastic mesh,
and 12%) for developing their adhesive and reed mats etc.
binding forces. It is difficult to determine
the proportions of an ideal loam plaster, be- Composition of loam plaster
cause not only the proportions of clay, silk
and sand influence a mixture’s properties. In order to keep loam plaster free of shrink-
Other factors affecting the composition are age cracks, the following points must be kept
the grain size distribution of the sand frac- in mind:
11.1 tion itself, the water content, the type of • The loam should contain enough coarse
clay, the method of preparation and the ad- sand.
ditives. In order to test the appropriateness • Animal or human hair, coconut or sisal fi-
of loam plasters, samples with varied com- bres, cut straw or hay should be added (how-
positions should be tested. If the surface is ever, too much of these additives reduce the
rough enough, then loam plasters stick well ability of the plaster to adhere to the ground).
not only to loam surfaces, but also to those • For interior plastering, sawdust, cellulose
made of brick, concrete and stone. For the fibres, chaff of cereal or similar particles can
ability of loam plasters to balance indoor air also be used as additives.
humidity see chapter 14. • In order to develop enough binding force,
the adhesive forces of the clay minerals
Preparation of substrate should be sufficiently activated by an ade-
11.2 quate amount of water and by movement.
As loam plaster does not react with the sub- • When the plaster sticks to a sliding met-
strate chemically, the substrate surface has al trowel held vertically, yet is easily flicked
to be sufficiently rough in order to develop a away, the correct consistency has been
good physical bond. If masonry is to be plas- achieved.
tered, especially when using larger and very
smooth bricks, it is recommended that a 45° In order to test the characteristics of a loam
groove be cut with a trowel into the joints, as plaster, a simple adhesion test can be car-
shown in 11.1. Another method of obtaining ried out. The plaster to be tested is applied
a good bond when rammed loam walls are 2 cm thick to the flat surface of an upright
to be plastered is to wet them sufficiently baked brick. The plaster should stick to the
until surfaces are soft, and to then scratch brick until it is totally dry, which might take
11.3 diagonal patterned grooves into them with a 2 to 4 days.

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 If the plaster falls off in one piece by itself, as Interior loam plasters
seen in the left sample in 11.4, then it is too Interior plasters are less problematic. As a
clayey, and should be thinned with coarse rule, fine shrinkage cracks cause no prob-
sand. If it falls off in portions after the sam- lems because they can be covered with
ple is hammered on the floor, like the second coats of paint. Dry loam plaster surfaces can
sample in 11.4, then it possesses insuffi- be easily smoothed by wetting and worked
cient binding force, and should be enriched with a brush or felt trowel.
with clay. If the plaster sticks to the brick If the surface of the walls demands a plaster
but displays shrinkage cracks like the third thicker than 15 mm, this should be applied
11.4 sample in 11.4, it is too clayey and should be in two layers, with the ground layer contain-
slightly thinned with coarse sand. However, it ing more clay and coarse aggregates than
can be used without thinning as the first lay- the second one. If the ground layer acquires
er of a two-layer plaster. If the surface shows shrinkage cracks, this is not problematic,
no cracks and the plaster does not come off and it might even be beneficial by providing
when hammered, as in the fourth sample a better bond to the final layer of plaster.
seen in 11.4 (right), then the sample might Adding rye flour improves the workability of
be adequate. In this case, it is advisable to the plaster and enhances the resistance of
make a larger test, about 1 m wide and 2 m the surface against dry and moist abrasion.
high, on the actual wall. If shrinkage cracks Through testing, the author of this book has
now occur, then the mixture needs to be ei- proven that such resistance can also be built
ther thinned with coarse sand or mixed with up by adding casein glue made of 1 part hy-
fibres. draulic lime and 4 to 6 parts fatfree white
cheese, borax, urea, sodium gluconate and
Exposed exterior earth renders shredded newspaper (which provides cel-
Exposed exterior renders must either be sea- lulose fibre and glue). The following mixes
sonably weather-resistant, or else must be worked well:
given perfect weatherproof coating. In cold Lime reacts with the casein within the fatfree
climates, it is important that the renders, cheese to form a chemical waterproofing
11.5 together with their coatings, have a low va- agent. A similar reaction is obtained with
pour diffusion resistance, so that water con- lime and borax (which is contained in shred-
densed in the wall can be easily transported ded newspaper). Sodium gluconate acts as
to the exterior. In order to meet thermic and a plasticiser, so that less water needs to
hygric influences without cracking, the ex- be mixed for preparation (thereby reducing
terior plastering must be more elastic than shrinkage). Urea raises compressive and
its ground. For cold climates, in general, an tensile bending strength, especially with silty
external loam plaster is not recommended, soils (see chapter 4, p. 41).
unless sufficient roof overhang, plinth pro- Shredded wastepaper leads to better work-
tection and good surface coating can be as- ability and reduces shrinkage. The mixes B,
sured. C and E exhibited the best workability. When
11.6 Since plastered wall edges are very easily using mixes A and E, it is best to begin by mix-
damaged, they should either be rounded or ing the casein glue and the shredded news-
11.1 Cutting joints with the use of a trowel lipped with a rigid element. In extreme cli- paper together with the water and adding
11.2 Scratching a moistened loam surface with a mates, when the elasticity of large expanses loam and sand after an hour. With all mixes,
small rake of flat plaster is insufficient to cope with the it was found that when the final smoothing
11.3 Tools for scratching moistened loam surfaces effects of weather, vertical and horizontal was executed using a felt trowel, it was best
11.4 Loam mortar test grooves filled with elastic sealants are rec- to wait several hours or even a day.
11.5 Spraying lightweight loam plaster ommended. Chapter 4 discusses the over-
11.6 Lightweight loam plaster with expanded clay
all possibilities of reducing shrinkage and
particles (1 to 4 mm). The large aggregates create a enhancing weather resistance and surface
coarse surface. hardness.

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11.7 11.8

Guidelines for plastering earth walls ties of coarse sand as well as fibres or hair.
8. To improve surface hardness, cow dung,
Since pure loam plaster does not react chem- lime, casein or other additives should be
ically with the ground, it might be necessary added to the top layer (see chapter 4, p. 38
to treat the ground so that sufficient curing and p. 45).
can occur. In doing so, the following guide- 9. In order to provide surface hardness and
lines should be kept in mind: resistance against wet abrasion, the surface
1. The earth surface to be plastered must should be finished with a coat of paint.
be dry enough so that additional shrinkage 10. When using plasters, changes in the
does not occur. physical properties of materials caused by
2. All loose material should be scraped off additives and coatings should be kept in
the surface. mind, especially with respect to vapour diffu-
3. The ground should be sufficiently rough sion resistance. Illustration 11.9 summaris-
and, if necessary, moistened and grooved es typical components for the various earth
or the mortar joint chamfered, as described plasters.
Mix(1)
above in this chapter.
Components
A B C D E 4. Before plastering, the ground should be Sprayed lightweight plaster
sufficiently moistened so that the surface
Loam slurry(2) 10 10 10 10 10
softens and swells and the plaster perme- In 1984, the author of this book successfully
Sand (0–2) 25 25 25 25 25
ates the soft layer. developed a sprayable lightweight loam plas-
5. The plaster should be thrown with strong ter with high thermal insulation, containing
Shredded newspaper(3) 5 5 5
impact (slapped on) so that it permeates the shredded newspaper. This plaster can be
Casein glue(4) 1 1
outer layers of the ground and achieves a applied even in a single layer up to 30 mm
Fat-free cheese 1
Urea 0.2
higher binding force due to the impact. thick using an ordinary mortar pump (11.5).
Sodium gluconate 0.2
6. If the plaster has to be more than 10 to In order to shorten the curing period, high-hy-
(1)
all proportions are stated in volumetric terms
15 mm thick, it should be applied in two or draulic lime and gypsum were added to the
(2)
made of 1 part clayey soil and 2 parts sand even three layers in order to avoid shrinkage mixture. Other lightweight sprayable plasters
(3)
treated with borax content
cracks. used to fill the frames of timber-framed hous-
(4)
made of 4 parts fat-free cheese and 1 part hydraulic
lime mixed intensively for 2 minutes 7. To reduce shrinkage cracks while drying, es and skeleton structures are described in
11.9 the mortar should contain sufficient quanti- chapter 9, p. 80.

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 11.10

Lightweight mineral loam plaster Plastered straw bale houses

Illustration 11.6 shows the surface of an Straw bale houses, known since the end
8-mm-thick loam plaster with expanded of the 19th century when the first example
clay aggregates 1 to 4 mm in diameter. To was built in Nebraska, USA, found a renais-
reduce curing time and increase vapour dif- sance in the 1980s. Meanwhile, a lot of new
fusion resistance, the plaster was stabilised houses with straw bale walls were built in
with 5% high-hydraulic lime. It is not easy to Australia, France, Scandinavia and other Eu-
smooth the surface with a trowel, since the ropean countries. Most historic walls of this
aggregate tends to come out during the pro- kind were load-bearing. Nowadays mainly
cess. To avoid this, shredded paper, cellulose timber skeleton structures are used which
fibres or casein-glue can be added into the are filled or surrounded by straw bales. The
mix. simplest method for covering such walls is to
use loam plaster. To create a good bond and
Thrown plaster rigidity a chicken wire or plastic net has to be
fixed to the bales before plastering. This can
Illustrations 11.7 and 11.8 show how a tradi- be done manually or by spraying with guns.
tional African technique, consisting of throw- Illustration 11.11 shows the plastering of a
ing loam balls onto a wall, has been adapted. straw surface with a spraying gun, 11.12 the
Here, this technique is used on a wood-wool gathered texture and. For additional informa-
board for the wall of a winter garden, de- tion on such structures, see Minke and Krick
11.7 and 11.8 Thrown plaster in a winter garden scribed in chapter 14, p. 129. In order to in- (2020).
11.9 Components for various types of earth plaster crease adhesion, bamboo dowels were ham-
11.10 Sculptural earth wall mered halfway into the board.

95 Lightweight mineral loam plaster

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11.11 11.12 11.13

Composition of stabilised loam Plaster A Plaster B Plaster C Plaster D Plaster E Plaster F

plasters for moderate climates
1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer 1st layer 2nd layer
Clayey loam, cured 4 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Coarse sand (0 – 4 mm) 1.5 1 3 3 1 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1.5 1.5
Fine sand (0 –1 mm) 1 1 1 1 1 1.5 1 1.5 1 1.5 1 1
Cowdung and loam (1:1), fermented 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1
Lime 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5% 5% 4 4
Cement 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5% 5% 4 4
Bituminous emulsion 4 4 4 4 4 4 5% 6% 4 4 4 4
Wheat glue, cooked 4 4 4 4 3% 4% 4 4 4 4 4 4
Lime-casein (1:1) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3% 3%
Linseed oil 4 4% 4% 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

11.14

11.15

96 Loam plasters
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 Wet formed plaster thinned by 2 parts of boiling water. Then this
mixture is cooked until its hue turns from
As loam plaster retains its plastic state for a white to a nearly colourless appearance.
long time and is not corrosive to the hands If using cowdung (plasters A, B, F) it is im-
like lime or cement plasters, it is an ideal portant to let the mix of 1 part of cowdung
material for moulding with the hands. Illus- with 1 part of loam, a relatively wet slurry,
tration 11.10 shows an example of an exteri- rest for several days to allow a fermentation
or loam wall stabilised by a limecasein finish. process. After this, the resistance against
abrasion and erosion will be 5% to 15% high-
Protection of corners er, as proven by tests made by the author at
the Building Research Institute (BRI), Kassel
As loam plaster is susceptible to mechan- University.
ical impact, corners should preferably be Table 11.15 shows results from erosion and
covered by wooden profiles, baked bricks or abrasion tests also conducted at the BRI.
similar lippings (11.13). The test procedures are described in chap-
ter 2 (“Resistance to running water”, p. 26,
Stabilised loam plasters “Resistance to abrasion”, p. 32). The results
show that the non-stabilised plaster (1) start-
Exterior loam plasters normally have to be ed to erode after 3 seconds, while several of
stabilised against erosion by wind and rain. the stabilised ones (2 to 23) did not display
An exception can be made only where the any signs of erosion, even after 6 days of
facade is sheltered by a large roof overhang constant spraying.
and when there is a plinth protecting against The same stabilised loam plasters showed a
splashing rain. very different behaviour under the abrasion
General possibilities to increase the resist- test as illustrated in the right part of the
ance of loam surfaces against abrasion and table.
erosion by additives are described in chapter
3 (pp. 38–41). Characteristics of different loam
Stabilised loam plasters are plasters to which plasters
other mineral, organic or synthetic binding
agents like lime, cement, gypsum, modified Besides the resistance against erosion by
starch, cellulose, cowdung, oils, bituminous running water and abrasion by scratching
emulsion, acrylic or silicone resin have been the surface, the quality of loam plasters de-
added. The mixture after curing is no longer pends on their linear shrinkage during the
water-soluble. It has to be taken into account drying process as shrinkage creates cracks.
that many of these additives increase the Therefore, the art of making perfect loam
vapour-barrier effect of the facade, which surfaces is to avoid cracks. The shrinkage
can pose a risk in climatic zones with high can be reduced by adding coarse particles
temperature differences in the course of the or fibres. But this has restrictions, because
year. the more particles of this kind are added the
Preferable mixtures that have been tested in more the abrasion increases. Another possi-
the moderate climate zones of Colombia are bility of reducing the appearance of cracks is
shown in table 11.14. Among these mixtures to apply the plaster in several thin layers and
11.11 Spraying of earth plaster to straw bale wall those with cement and lime and the one to treat the surface by pressure of a trowel.
11.12 Smoothened surface after spraying with linseed oil proved unfavourable both in The linear shrinkage of lime and cement
11.13 Protection of earth wall corners terms of mixing and application. Adding 6% plaster is less than 0.1% while loam plasters
11.14 Composition of stabilised loam plasters for of a bituminous emulsion paste provided can have values of more than 3%. Recom-
moderate climates best results. The wheat glue used in plaster mended are values below 2%. As part of a re-
11.15 Erosion and abrasion of stabilised loam C was prepared from 1 part of wheat flour search project at the BRI, 15 different loam
plasters stirred well into 1 part of cold water and then plasters available on the European market

97 Wet formed plaster

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part of can see that plasters withcan high see shrinkage
that plasters with high shrinkage Strength in N/mm² Strength in N/mm²
of cold normally are subject to little normally areand
abrasion subject to little abrasion and
Compression (1) Bending Tension Bending Tension
s of boiling plasters with low shrinkage showwith
plasters higher low shrinkage show higher
Compression (1)
until its Unfired loam brick (2) 4.4
Unfired loam brick 1.3
(2) 4.4 0.5 1.3 0.5
abrasion. abrasion.
olourless Loam plaster G 6.1
Loam plaster G 1.6 6.1 0.6 1.6 0.6
In 11.17 the compressive strength
In 11.17 the andcompressive
the strength and the
asters A, CA 1.69 CA 0.23 1.69 -- 0.23 --
tensile bending strength tensile
and in some bending cases strength and in some cases
off 1 part CM 2.63 CM 0.85 2.63 0.35 0.85 0.35
also the tensile strength of the tested plas-
also the tensile strength of the tested plas-
a relatively CLF 3.04 CLF 0.36 3.04 -- 0.36 --
ters are noted. The tensileters bending
are noted. strength The tensile bending strength
allow a E 1.05 E 0.19 1.05 -- 0.19 --
is of little importance when is ofjudging the
little importance when judging the
he resist- EF 1.47 EF 0.1 8 1.47 -- 0.18 --
quality of a loam plaster, quality
but in casesof a loamof plaster, but in cases of
will be G 2.02 G 0.69 2.02 0.21 0.69 0.21
deflection of the wall elementsdeflection by seismic
of the wall elements by seismic
ests made HU 2.99 HU 0.29 2.99 -- 0.29 --
forces or by vibrations caused forcesbyorbypassing
by vibrations caused by bypassing
arch Insti- LF 1.00 LF 0.28 1.00 -- 0.28 --
lorries it may play a role. Thelorriesbending
it may play a role. The bending
M3 2.06 M3 0.47 2.06 -- 0.47 --
strength of the tested plastersstrength is between
of the tested plasters is between
sion M4 1.65 M4 0.18 1.65 -- 0.18 --
12% and 34% of the compressive 12% and 34% strength of the compressive strength
at the NHF 1.87 NHF 0.42 1.87 -- 0.42 --
and the tensile strength isand about the 10%
tensile of strength is about 10% of
ibed
bed in NSF 2.61 NSF 0.40 2.61 -- 0.40 --
the compressive strength.the compressive strength.
water”, RG 1.51 RG 0.20 1.51 -- 0.20 --
The capacity of clay to absorb humidityof clay to absorb humidity
The capacity
32). The TM 1.61 TM 0.25 1.61 -- 0.25 --
from the ambient air if the
11.16 relative
from humidityair if the relative humidity
the ambient 11.1155
11.
edd plaster TMF 1.21 TMF 0.21 1.21 -- 0.21 --
is higher than 50% and to is release
higher than this ab- 50% and to release this ab-
s, while sorbed water when the relative sorbed humidity
water when
(1) measured on a prism 4 x 4(1)
is the relative humidity is
x 4measured
(1) cm
measured on aa prism 4 x× 44 x× 44 cm
on cm
(2) after Boenkendorf (1995), all(2)others:
(2) after BRI (1993),
Boenkendorf
Boenkendorf all others:
(1995), BRI BRI
all others:
3) did less than 50% is one of its most
less thaninteresting
50% is one of its most interesting
ven after 11.17 11.17
characteristics; it is described in detail onit is described in detail on
characteristics; 11.18
p. 14 and 15. How this is p. influenced
14 and 15. byHow addi-this is influenced by addi-
11.17 Strength values 11.17 Strength values
showed a tives and paints is explained tivesonand p. 16.
paints is explained of an on p. 16.
unfired loam of an unfired loam
abrasion In 11.18 the absorption and desorption
In 11. 18 the absorption and brickdesorption
and different brick and different
of the curves of the mentioned curves 15 differentof theloam mentionedloam plasters loam
15 different loam plasters
plasters are put in relationplasters
to the absorption 11.18 Absorption and 11.18 Absorption and
are put in relation to the absorption
desorption curves of desorption curves of
curve of a loam brick. Thecurve unfired of abrick
loam , due
brick. The unfired brick, due
15-mm-thick samples 15-mm-thick samples
to its higher content of clay, to itshas a higher
higher content of clay, has a higher
in comparison to an in comparison to an
am absorption capacity. Plasters in general
absorption have Plasters
capacity. equally in thick
general
slab have
of an equally thick slab of an
a lower absorption capacity due to their
a lower absorption capacity unfireddue to brick
loam their at unfired loam brick at
higher content of silt andhighersand. But , as of silt and
content a temperature
sand. But, as of 21°C a temperature of 21°C
sion by becomes apparent in thebecomes table, theapparent
absorp- in the and an air humidity, and an air humidity,
table, the absorp-
ratching
atching suddenly raised from suddenly raised from
tion rate of these differenttion
11.17 products
rate of varies
these different products varies
50% to 80%, in rela- 11.1166
11.
asters 50% to 80%, in rela-
by more than 100%. The by reason
moreisthan that 100%. The reason is that
tion to time tion to time
during the Recommended
some have thinare valuesfibres
organic below 2%.
added
some have thin which organic 15 Linear
11.fibres addedshrinkage
which
ess cracks. Asincrease
part of the
a research project
absorption at the the
capacity; BRI, of loam plasters and
increase the absorption capacity; the
other mineral plasters
ct loam 15amount
different loam
and theplasters
type of available
clay
amount on
differand asthe
well.
the type of 11.1clay differ of
6 Degree as abra-
well.
inkage European market were
Montmorillonite tested
clay for instancewith respect
has
Montmorillonite a high-
clay for
sioninstance
of loam has a high-
plasters
particles toertheir main characteristics:
absorption erlinear
rate than caolinite shrinkage,
clay.
absorption rate than caolinite clay.
because abrasion, resistance against compression
added and bending, and absorption of humidity.
Another The procedure of testing the linear shrink-
ance
nce of age is described on p. 22 and 23, the
11.19 11.18
veral thin method to test the abrasion on p. 32, the
pressure way to measure the compression and
f lime and bending strength on p. 31 and 32 and the
while loam evaluation of the absorption on p. 14 –16.
han 3%. When comparing tables 11.15 and 11.16, we

98 Loam plasters 98
99 Loamplasters
Loam plasters
99 Loam plasters
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 were tested with respect to their main char- The capacity of clay to absorb humidity
acteristics: linear shrinkage, abrasion, re- from the ambient air if the relative humidity
sistance against compression and bending, is higher than 50% and to release this ab-
and absorption of humidity. The procedure of sorbed water when the relative humidity is
testing the linear shrinkage is described on less than 50% is one of its most interesting
p. 22 and 23, the method to test the abra- characteristics; it is described in detail on
sion on p. 32, the way to measure the com- p. 14 and 15. How this is influenced by ad-
pression and bending strength on p. 31 and ditives and paints is explained on p. 15. In
32 and the evaluation of the absorption on 11.19 the absorption and desorption curves
pp. 14–16. When comparing tables 11.16 of the mentioned 15 different loam plasters
and 11.17, we can see that plasters with are put in relation to the absorption curve
high shrinkage normally are subject to little of a loam brick. The unfired brick, due to
abrasion and plasters with low shrinkage its higher content of clay, has a higher ab-
show higher abrasion. sorption capacity. Plasters in general have a
In 11.18 the compressive strength and the lower absorption capacity due to their higher
tensile bending strength and in some cases content of silt and sand. But, as becomes
also the tensile strength of the tested plas- apparent in the table, the absorption rate of
ters are noted. The tensile bending strength these different products varies by more than
is of little importance when judging the qual- 100%. The reason is that some have thin
ity of a loam plaster, but in cases of deflec- organic fibres added which increase the ab-
tion of the wall elements by seismic forces sorption capacity; the amount and the type
or by vibrations caused by bypassing lorries of clay differ as well. Montmorillonite clay for
it may play a role. The bending strength of instance has a higher absorption rate than
the tested plasters is between 12% and 34% caolinite clay.
of the compressive strength and the tensile
strength is about 10% of the compressive
strength.

11.16 Linear shrinkage of loam plasters and other

mineral plasters
11.17 Degree of abrasion of loam plasters
11.18 Strength values of an unfired loam brick and
different loam plasters
11.19 Absorption and desorption curves of 15-mm-
thick samples in comparison to an equally thick slab
of an unfired loam brick at a temperature of 21°C
and an air humidity, suddenly raised from 50% to
80%, in relation to time

99 Characteristics of different loam plasters

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12 Weather resistance, coatings
and coverings

Loam surfaces need not always have addi- diffusion to the outside. Latex and dispersion
tives in to be made weather-resistant. It is of- paints, therefore, are not recommended.
ten sufficient to protect or harden them with For information supplementing that con-
plaster or paint. This chapter describes the tained in this chapter, see Wehlte (1985).
different ways loam surfaces can be made
more resistant to environmental forces, and Preparation of ground
the structural measures required to shelter If the ground is very silty and lime-based
them from these forces. paints are used, the surface should be
primed with thin lime-casein milk and then
Consolidating the surface rubbed. The primer can be made of 2 parts
of hydraulic lime, 1 part fat-free white cheese
The simplest method of hardening the sur- and 15 parts water.
face, especially against rain and wind ero-
sion, is to consolidate it. This can be done Recommended paint mixtures
by rubbing a metal trowel with high pressure
onto the surface when it is moist and slightly Pure lime wash
pliable. Traditional Indian and African meth- The lime wash mixture has to be very thin, al-
ods employ flat but light convex stones that lowing the paint to penetrate deeply enough
are rubbed in a circular motion across the into the ground so that flaking does not oc-
surface with great force. The treatment is ad- cur during drying. Therefore, three or even
equate if the surface appears shiny and no four thin coats are recommended, with the
pores or cracks are visible. While this leaves first coat being the thinnest. The mix can be
the composition of the material unaltered, it made from 50 kg hydraulic lime dissolved in
nonetheless creates a surprisingly high de- 60 litres of water. It is often preferable to add
gree of weather resistance. 1 to 2 kg of kitchen salt; being hygroscopic,
the salt allows the mixture to remain moist
Paints longer, thereby ensuring better curing of the
lime. Pure lime wash is perfectly white when
Paints on exposed loam surfaces have to be dry, but can be toned down by adding clay or
renewed periodically. The paint can be phys- loam powders or other lime-proof earthen pig-
ically eroded by wind, frost or rain, or chem- ments. Pure lime wash is not wipe-resistant.
ically eroded by ultraviolet radiation or acid
rain. External paints should be simultane- Lime-casein wash
ously water-repellent and, especially for cold Lime washes are much more wipe-resistant
climates, porous, i.e., should contain a co- and durable if whey, fat-free white cheese
herent net of micro-pores that allow vapour (quark) or casein powder is added. Quark is

100 Weather resistance, coatings and coverings

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 μ-value
Water-repellent loam plasters
Clayey plaster (clay = 6%, silt = 6%, sand = 88%) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

non-treated
Stone proofer H, Wacker
Façade impregnation, Herbol, hydrophobic
Indula, HYDROPHOBIN
Wacker, BS 15
Metroark, SYLTRIT 1772
Baysilone impregnation, Bayer
Silty plaster (clay = 3%, silt = 18%, sand = 79%)
non-treated
Stone proofer H, Wacker
Façade impregnation, Herbol, hydrophobic
Indula, HYDROPHOBIN
Wacker, BS 15
Metroark, SYLTRIT 1772
Baysilone impregnation, Bayer

sd-value

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60

Coatings
Lime, 2 layers 0.00
Chalk-glue, 2 layers 0.00
Lime-casein (1:8), 2 layers 0.00
Lime-casein (1:1), 2 layers 0.00
Fat-free cheese, 1 layer 0.01
Sodium waterglass, 1 layer 0.02
Lime-casein-linseed oil, 2 layers 0.02
van Baerle & Co., SILIN, 2 layers 0.03
Alpina, ALPINA PLUS, 2 layers 0.04
Auro, BIENENWACHS-STREICHBALSAM, 2 layers 0.39
Rifa, SILITANIT, 2 layers 1.22
Linseed oil, 1 layer 1.45

Water repellents
Wacker, BS 15, 2 layers 0.00
Metroark, SYLTRIT, 2 layers 0.00
Baysilone impregnation, Bayer, 2 layers 0.02
Façade impregnation, Herbol, hydrophobic, 2 layers 0.02
Stone proofer H, Wacker, 2 layers 0.09
Indula, HYDROPHOBIN, 2 layers 0.10

( ) = Proportion by volume

12.1

obtained when rennet from young cows is time (sometimes every 5 minutes). An even
added to skimmed milk. This cheese contains stronger and more wipe-resistant paint is ob-
11% casein. Lime, together with casein, forms tained by mixing 1 part hydraulic lime with 5
a chemical waterproofing agent called lime parts fat-free cheese and 5 parts loam.
albuminate. Today, the use of cheese is the In bathrooms and kitchens, where greater
best solution for lime-casein washes. In tradi- dry and wet wipe resistance is required, the
tional lime-casein washes, whey or sometimes following procedure is recommended: 1 part
skimmed milk was used instead of cheese. hydraulic lime and 5 parts fat-free cheese
Mixtures containing 1 part fat-free cheese, are mixed without water for about 2 minutes
1 to 3 parts hydraulic lime and 1.5 to 2.5 using an electric mixer. This is allowed to
parts water proved effective. Small amounts stand for some time, and then 20 parts hy-
of double-boiled linseed oil (not more than draulic lime, 2% to 4% doubleboiled linseed
4% of the amount of cheese) increase wipe oil and water are added. Two coats of this
resistance but reduce the workability of wash give a dry and wet wiperesistant sur-
12.1 μ-values of water-repellent loam plasters and the wash. To get an even emulsion, it has face. Earthen pigments can be substituted
sd-values of coatings to be well-mixed and stirred from time to for some portion of the lime.

101 Paints
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Paint g/m2 kg/m2h0.5
Without 0 9.5 Borax-casein wash Institute – BRI showed that it bonds well with
Linseed oil 400 0.0
Borax can be used instead of hydraulic lime. a rough, lean loam plaster. But with a rammed
Lime casein 1:1 420/350 0.6/1.5 0.6hr/6–24hrs
Lime casein 1:8 300/300 0.7 It reacts chemically with casein in a way sim- earth surface made of clayey loam, parts of
Silin-paint 700/250/310 0.3 ilar to lime. With high borax content, crystals the coating became detached over a period of
(van Baerle)
form, which can be seen in the wash. Unlike several months due to rain and frost, probably
Hydrophob 390/390 0.0
(Herbol) lime, borax does not give a white colour, and because the bond between the coating and
Baysoline LD 400/290 0.2
(Bayer) is therefore preferable if dark colours are the ground was insufficient.
Syltrit (Metroark) 350/320 0.0 desired. Chalk powder is added in order to
BS 15 (Wacker) 450/430 0.1
Stone proofer H 290/290 0.0
make the paint thicker and lighter in colour. Other stabilised lime washes
(Wacker) A small addition of clay powder increases its Several old text sources claim that in addi-
12.2 workability. tion to mixing hydraulic lime into whey, it can
If casein powder is being used instead of fat- also be mixed into urine. Weiss (1963) found
free cheese, it must be allowed to swell un- that using Kaolinite clay, strength could be
der water for 3 hours (320 g casein powder increased by adding urea and ammonium
in 1 litre of water). Afterwards, 65 g of borax acetate. This practice was also common in
dissolved in 1 litre hot water is mixed into the ancient China, where extremely thin porce-
12.3 casein slurry and the whole thinned with 12 lain was produced by adding putrefying urine
litres of water. to the mix.
According to Jain et al. (1978), the addition
Colourless casein coating of 70 g of animal glue dissolved in 0.5 litre of
In order to retain the natural colour of the boiling water and mixed with 1 kg of hydrau-
loam surface while improving its wipe resist- lic lime proved good.
ance, a coating of the following mix can be In Auroville, India, the following coating was
used: 1 part fat-free cheese with 1.8 to 2 used successfully for mud brick domes: the
parts water and 1/8 to 1/9 part of hydraulic whites of 60 eggs mixed with 2 litres of but-
lime powder. This coating will give a colour- termilk and 5 litres of palm liquor stirred
less to slightly milky surface, with a mild silky and mixed with 40 litres of shell lime and
sheen caused by its fine crystal structure. 4 litres of cement (Pingel, 1993). According
to various sources, the following plant matter
Lime-suet coating added to the lime also enhances wipe and
The following recipe from Nepal gives a thick, weather resistance:
pasty weatherproof exterior coating: 15 kg of • rye flour glue (15 litres of rye flour boiled in
powdered quick lime together with 6 kg of 220 litres of water with the addition of some
tallow (melted suet) is poured into 36 litres zinc sulphate),
of water. This mixture is stirred carefully (care • agave juice,
has to be taken because the lime reacts very • boiled banana leaf juice,
intensely with water and may splash and burn • juice of the cactus opuntia,
the skin). After adding 6 kg of kitchen salt and • juice of euphorbia lactea,
carefully stirring, this mix should be allowed to • kapok oil,
stand for 24 hours in a not-too-cold environ- • raw and double-boiled linseed oil.
ment. The water layer that forms on the top
of the mixture is decanted. The pasty mix that Cellulose glue paint
remains is then mixed with 3 kg of fine quartz Since it is very cheap, cellulose glue mixed
12.2 w-values of loam plasters with coatings
sand and applied with a brush in 3- to 5-mm- with chalk powder is often used for painting
12.3 Drop of water on a surface that has been treat-
ed with water repellent (right, angle larger than 90°)
thick layers to the wall (Manandhar, 1983). interiors. However, it offers little weather re-
and on an untreated surface (left, angle smaller than This coating requires several weeks to cure. In sistance. Its wipe resistance is also low.
90°) Nepal, it is said to last for 4 to 6 years. A sim-
12.4 Simple spraying test (BRI) ilar recipe was used successfully in Australia Bitumen coating
12.5 Church of San Francisco de Asis, Ranchos de (Department of Housing, 1981). Tests per- Bituminous emulsions offer good weather
Taos, USA formed with this mix at the Building Research protection for exterior walls. The following

102 Weather resistance, coatings and coverings

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 recipe was successfully tested at the Cen- The following groups of repellents can be dis-
tral Building Research Laboratory (CBRI), tinguished:
Roorkee, India: 1 part of bitumen 80/100 is • silane and siloxanes
heated in a container with 2 parts of naph- • polysiloxanes (silicone resins)
tha. This mix is then applied with a brush to • siliconates
a dry loam surface. After this coating is dry, • acrylic resins
a second layer is applied. In order to protect • silicate ester with hydrophobising additives
the black surface thus formed by the sun, a • silicates with hydrophobising additives.
final coating of lime is recommended, which Silane, siloxanes and silicone resins react
is made of 70 g of animal glue mixed into chemically with mineral substances in the
1 kg of hydraulic lime dissolved in 0.5 litre of loam and are highly weather-resistant; they
water (Jain et. al., 1978). reduce water intake by more than 90%. Va-
pour diffusion is decreased by only 5% to 8%.
Vapour diffusion Silicate ester and acrylic resins show simi-
Coatings can significantly reduce the vapour larly promising water-repelling effects, but
diffusion of walls. It should be remembered they reduce vapour diffusion by 15% to 30%.
12.4 that in cold climates, the vapour barrier ef- Since the water repellents found on the mar-
fect of these coatings should be less on the ket have different compositions and varying
outside than on the inside. The vapour dif- effects, they should be tested before use.
fusion properties of paints available on the The water absorption coefficient w of differ-
market are not mentioned in their packag- ent loam plasters which were flooded twice
ing, so experience is important in judging with different water repellents lies between
their characteristics. Results of tests con- 0.0 and 0.2 kg/m2h0.5 (12.2).
ducted by the BRI made with several paints,
coatings, water-repellent plasters and water Application of water repellents
repellents are shown in 12.1. With the so-called “flooding” technique,
water repellents are applied at least twice,
Water penetration with the solution applied with rollers, so that
12.5 The capillary water intake (see chapter 2, the liquid oozes and runs off as the roller is
p. 25) of loam surfaces is significantly influ- pulled down over the surface. The second
enced by their coatings. Table 12.2 gives flooding has to be done before the first is
some capillary water intake coefficients dry. The loam surface has to be dry, and
(w-values) of loam plaster with and without neither cooler than 8°C nor warmer than
a variety of treatments: 25°C before being treated. Only silanes and
siloxanes require the ground to be some-
Making surfaces water-repellent what moist. Normally, this application has
to be repeated every few years owing to the
Water repellents deteriorating effect of weather on these re-
Several colourless liquids can be used to pellents.
impregnate loam surfaces, making them
water-repellent. A given impregnated surface Testing
is considered water-repellent if the wetting A simple method of checking the amount of
angle of contact made by a drop of water is water repulsion, used by the BRI, is shown
greater than 90° (12.3). The water-repelling in 12.4. Here, the treated test samples are
agent penetrates into the pores of the loam rotated at the rate of 7.5 rotations/minute
without closing them, so that while capillary on a base and passed under a shower where
water intake is significantly reduced, vapour water at 36°C is sprayed at a rate of 12 litres
diffusion is not. As a rule, these substances per minute through an ordinary hand shower.
are dissolved in organic alcohols, hydrocar- Another more sophisticated apparatus was
bons or water. described in chapter 2, p. 23.

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Lime Trass- Sand Fat-free Linseed Clayey Cow- -value
lime cheese oil loam dung Lime plasters Smooth surfaces should be sprayed with wa-
1 – 3 – – – – 11.2
– 1 3 – – – – 10.8
ter, so that their outer layers will moisten and
1 – 6 0.5 – – – 6.2 Loam plasters used on exterior walls (de- swell, after which they can be grooved diago-
1 – 15 0.5 – 3 – 9.7 scribed in chapter 11) are only suitable if nally 2 to 3 mm deep, as shown in 11.2. While
1 – 3 – 0.05 – – 15.2 they are without cracks and water-resistant. the surface so prepared is still moist, it should
1 – 3 0.25 0.05 – – 28.5
As a rule, exposed surfaces should not have be primed with thin lime milk, which should
1.5 – 10 – – 2 6 8.0
loam plasters, the most common alterna- penetrate the ground up to a depth of several
12.6 tive being lime plaster. Cement plasters are millimetres. A mix of 0.5 to 1 part of fat-free
not appropriate, as they are too brittle. They white cheese, 2 parts hydraulic lime and 30
cannot withstand strong thermic and hygric parts water has also proved successful. If the
forces without cracking, allowing water to lime plaster is exposed to severe thermal forc-
penetrate the loam to cause swelling, which es, if the unbroken area of the plaster surface
in turn enlarges cracks and even causes is very large, or if the bond is poor, expand-
plaster to flake off. ed metal meshes or reed mats fixed to the
During repairs undertaken in 1992, the ground may be required to take the plaster.
oldest German rammed earth house, built When using reed mats, it is advisable to dip
in 1795 (1.10), was found to have massive them in lime milk to prevent rotting.
frost erosion, which had destroyed the loam
up to a depth of 20 cm, because water had Reinforcement
penetrated through cement plaster applied Larger unbroken panels subject to strong
some decades before. A similar phenome- thermal forces may require reinforcement.
non was reported from New Mexico, USA by For this purpose, a galvanised steel net with
Bourgeois (1991). During a restoration car- hexagonal meshes (rabbit or chicken wire
ried out in 1967, the San Francisco de Asis mesh) or similar nets are commonly used.
church in Ranchos de Taos near Taos (12.5), Workmen often prefer using plastic covered
12.7 constructed of adobes in 1815, was covered glass-fibre nets because they do not corrode
with cement plaster. Only 11 years later, the and are more pliable.
cement plaster had to be dismantled when
the loam below showed heavy moisture Composition
damage. Normal lime plaster usually consists of 1
In cold climates, quick drying of the wall is part hydraulic lime and 3 to 4 parts sand.
necessary if rain penetrates from the outside Since it is commonly used in construction
or if vapour condensation from the inside oc- worldwide, it is not discussed further in this
curs. Therefore, the vapour diffusion resist- book. However, lime-casein plasters are less
ance of the outer layer should be lower than common, and are therefore described below.
that of the inside. Old recipes often prescribe that animal hair
The German standard DIN 18550 (Part 3) and casein be added to a normal plaster to
states that water-repellent external plasters improve its behaviour. In former times, ca-
should fulfil the following conditions: water sein was added in the form of whey or but-
absorption coefficient w ≤ 0.5 kg/m2 · h0.5, termilk. Casein and lime react chemically to
the specific vapour diffusion resistance sd form calcium albuminate, a wash-resistant
must be ≤ 2.0 m and the product w · sd ≤ 0.2 compound. The addition of casein reduces
kg/m · h0.5. the water absorption of lime plaster, but at
The following sections describe the composi- the same time hinders vapour diffusion.
tion and application of non-loam containing At the BRI, a lime-casein plaster for exterior
12.6 μ-values of lime plasters (figures referred to as plasters. work was successfully tested. The mix con-
volumetric parts) sisted of fat-free cheese, hydraulic lime and
12.7 Loam wall with additional exterior insulation Preparation of ground sand in a ratio of 1 : 10 : 40. The lime has to
and wooden planks forming air cavity To provide a good bond, loam surfaces that be first intensively mixed into the cheese to
12.8 Plinth designs made incorrectly and correctly are to be plastered should be dry and rough. form a creamy paste without adding any wa-

104 Weather resistance, coatings and coverings

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 ter. After allowing the mix to rest for a while, to protect loam walls. These methods are
water and sand should be added. For a thin- especially useful if additional thermal insu-
ner plaster that can be brushed on, a slightly lation is to be applied from the outside. A
different mixture might be adequate, with common method is shown in 12.7. In Meso-
the proportion 1 : 6 : 25 of the same ingre- potamia (Iraq), layers of glazed baked bricks
dients respectively. In warm climates, some have sheltered adobe walls for thousands of
kitchen salt should be added to keep the years. It is always advisable to separate such
lime plaster moist for a longer period, which covering layers from the wall with an air cavi-
improves curing. ty, so that rain that penetrates can drain out
and does not harm the wall.
Application
Before applying the plaster, the loam sur- Structural methods
face should be moistened and primed with
lime-casein milk. The plaster is then applied Protection from rain
in two layers, bringing the total thickness up One method of preventing rain from coming
to a maximum of 20 mm. In the first layer, into contact with a loam wall is to provide it
some cement can be added for faster curing. with a roof overhang. A sufficiently high plinth
The second layer should be applied while the (30 to 50 cm) can protect from splashing
first is still slightly moist. When shrinkage rain. The joint of the wall with the plinth has
cracks occur, these should be moistened to be carefully designed so that the rainwater
with a brush dipped in lime milk and then can flow down unhindered without entering
closed by rubbing with a trowel. It should be the joint between wall and plinth. In 12.8,
noted that lime plasters cure when in contact solution A is unacceptable. Solutions B and
with carbon dioxide from the air, and this pro- C may be acceptable in areas with little rain.
cess is only possible in the presence of suf- Solution D is common, whereas E and F show
ficient moisture. Therefore, walls should be perfect designs for combating this problem.
sheltered from direct sun and wind, or kept
moist with a damp fabric. Protection against rising damp
Internal plasters can be applied in one layer. Exterior loam walls have to be protected
Gypsum plaster or gypsum-lime plaster, with from rising damp in the same way as baked
or without casein, can also be used in inter- brick or stone masonry walls. A damp-proof
nal work. Cement plasters, however, should course, usually bituminous felt, and some-
not be used even for internal work. times plastic or metallic sheets are used.
As these means are fairly expensive in the
Effect on vapour diffusion developing world, a 3- to 4-cm-thick rich ce-
The effect of adding double-boiled linseed oil ment concrete layer is often used as an al-
and casein on reducing the vapour diffusion ternative. This should be impregnated with
of lime plasters was tested at the BRI. The bitumen or waste mobil oil.
12.8 values of the vapour diffusion resistance co-
efficient μ obtained are listed in table 12.6. Protection against flooding
In kitchens and bathrooms, the plinth should
Shingles, planks and other covers have a waterproof skirting of tiles, slates,
rich cement plaster etc. The skirting design
Besides plasters and coatings, shingles, should prevent water from leaking or broken
planks, larger covering panels or baked brick pipes, which could flood floors, from reach-
walls separated by an air cavity can be used ing the loam wall.

105 Shingles, planks and other covers

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 13 Repair of loam structures

Repair of damaged sections of loam, espe- can fall off. Therefore, it is important to pre-
cially cracks and larger joints, demands spe- treat the joint and use a mixture having as
cial measures differing from those used for little shrinkage as possible.
conventional masonry or lime plasters. This
chapter describes loam-specific repair prob- Mixtures
lems and retrofitted thermal insulation meth- While designing the composition of the loam
ods using lightweight loam. filler for cracks and joints, the following
should be considered:
Occurrence of damage • The filler must have sufficient binding force
to stick to the moistened surfaces of the
Damage in loam components can occur crack or joint.
due to shrinkage by thermal contraction • The mix should contain sufficient coarse
and expansion, through water impact or sand or other coarse particles so as to min-
by mechanical impact and abrasion. If a imise the shrinkage. Fibres or hair may also
plaster contracts when drying, or does not be added for the same reason.
bond sufficiently with the ground surface, • In order to decrease the curing time, gyp-
13.1 it may separate from it. Such weak areas sum, lime or cement can be added. As these
can be easily located by knocking the additives also make the mixture leaner, the
plaster with the knuckles. If large quantity shrinkage is reduced. The disadvantages
of water condenses in the wall and cannot while adding these substances might be
be removed quickly enough, the loam might that the binding force and the compressive
swell and cause the plaster to crumble strength are reduced. Joints and cracks in
and fall off. Such damage can also occur internal elements can be filled with a mixture
when water seeps through from the outside of 1 part loam, 0.5 to 1 part hydraulic lime
through cracks or holes. and 0.5 to 1 part gypsum.
If the joints are exposed to weather, gypsum
Frost can also cause a similar damage if the should not be used, but cement, highhydrau-
wall is moist and the freezing water expands. lic lime or a mixture of these totalling from 8%
to 20% can be used as an additive. Instead
Repair of cracks and joints with of these binders 4% to 7% double-boiled lin-
loam fillers seed oil can also be added. This filler stays
plastic for several weeks.
Joints and cracks in dry loam components
13.1 Pumping lightweight mineral loam cannot be repaired with plastic loam as this Application of filler
13.2 Additional interior thermal insulation layer of does not bond with the dry loam surface. In order to get a good bond between the old
lightweight mineral loam in a timber frame wall When drying, the filler will separate out and loam surface and the filler material, cracks

106 Repair of loam structures

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 should be opened up to 1 cm with loose as described in chapter 11 on loam plasters.
particles brushed away and the edges of In order to reduce shrinkage, each layer of
the joints sufficiently moistened so that the loam plaster should not be thicker than 1
loam swells and gets plastic on the surface. to 1.5 cm. If the damage is more than 2 cm
When double-boiled oil loam is used as filler deep, it is advisable to scrape the area to a
for repairing, the surface has to be treated depth of 4 to 6 cm. This is then filled with bro-
with linseed oil. ken adobes and lean mortar. In areas prone
The plastic filler is first applied with a knife to to frost, green bricks are not advisable as
both sides of the joint, and the opening then they are not frost-resistant.
filled with a drier mixture of the same filler,
tamped or hammered into the joint (8.29). It Coatings
is advisable that the joint is filled with more If the coating of a loam surface is to be
material than is necessary, so that when af- repaired, the old coating should first be
ter the filler shrinks on drying, it can be com- scraped off. The area is then primed before
pacted again when still slightly moist. the new coating is applied. For this, limeca-
sein milk can be used, as described in chap-
Repair of cracks and joints with ter 12, p. 107.
other fillers If the surface is very sandy and soft, a primer
of lime-casein glue is better. This is prepared
The repair of cracks and joints with a loam from 1 part hydraulic lime and 5 parts fat-
filler is very time-consuming and requires free cheese mixed intensively for 2 minutes
13.2 some experience. However, other fillers without the addition of water. The mixture is
which show less shrinkage and better bond- allowed to stand for a while and then thinned
ing qualities and require less labour and skill with water in a 1:5 proportion. This glue
are described in this chapter. should be used within one hour (Leszner
and Stein, 1999, p. 145).
Mixtures
As an alternative to loam fillers, all materi- Retrofitting thermal insulation
als that can be commonly used for plasters with lightweight loam
can be used as fillers. High-hydraulic lime,
cement, gypsum, casein, cellulose and dou- This section describes the general phys-
ble-boiled linseed oil can be used as bind- ical and structural aspects that have to be
ers. Silt, sand, and gravel as well as organic considered while enhancing the thermal
aggregates like cork, sawdust, cereal and insulation of existing exterior walls by using
rice husks, and shredded newspaper can lightweight loam. Different types of suitable
be used as fillers. When repairing external aggregates are described in chapter 4, p. 44.
joints, organic matter should not be used The use of lightweight loam as infill for tim-
except when the mix has a high pH-value ber-framed houses is mentioned in chapter
(which prevents growth of microorganisms). 9, p. 81, and highly insulating earthen wall
Acrylic or silicone elastic synthetic mixes can designs are discussed in chapter 14, p. 111.
also be used as fillers. Silicone bonds with
loam, provided the joint surface is dry and Condensation
free of loose particles before application. The later 20th century saw considerable
damage to historic timber frame houses in
Repairing larger damaged areas Germany. Most of it occurred due to conden-
sation in walls, a type of damage that had
Repairing with loam not earlier occurred.
Larger eroded or flaked areas should be re- Much more humidity is produced in kitchens
paired by scraping off all loose loam and then and bathrooms nowadays than in previous
wetting the surface before applying new loam, times. While today a daily warm shower is

107 Repair of cracks and joints with other fillers

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 common, earlier, people used to wash with avoided. These can lead to partial moisten-
cold water in a basin. Furthermore, clothes ing of the wall because of a high degree of
were washed outside the house in an out- condensation, and subsequently to damage
house or open area and dried in the open. of the wall surface. Furthermore, it increas-
Today, clothes are usually washed and dried es the heat loss and might lead to fungus
within the house. All of the above factors growth.
contribute to the production of much higher
humidity in the timber frame house today. Lightweight loam layers
Also, indoor temperatures are much higher One possible method of applying additional
nowadays in comparison to earlier times. interior thermal insulation is shown in 13.2.
Therefore, though the relative humidity of in- Here, a formwork is fixed to spacers mounted
13.3 door air may be about the same, the absolute on the historic wall, and a layer of lightweight
humidity is significantly higher. Furthermore, mineral loam is poured or pumped in. It is
doors and windows in timber frame houses important that there be no space formed be-
today are much better sealed. Therefore, the tween the two leaves so that the transport of
air exchange rate is greatly reduced. capillary water and vapour is not hindered.
All these factors lead to a much higher con- In the project shown in 13.1, five people took
densation within the walls. Therefore, it is 8 hours to complete 60 m2 of this wall, using
imperative that the vapour diffusion charac- the pumping method as described in chap-
teristics of the walls are carefully controlled. ter 10, to apply a 15- to 25-cm-thick layer of
lightweight loam. Illustration 13.3 shows the
13.4 Thermal insulation finished surface of this wall after the form-
The exterior walls of typical timber frame work was removed. The material has a den-
houses have thicknesses of 14 to 20 cm. The sity of about 1000 kg/m3. This relatively high
infill of the timber frame consists of baked density was chosen in order to get sufficient
bricks, adobes or wattle-and-daub. The noise insulation, heat storage and humidity
U-value of these infills is between 2.0 and balancing effects. The same method can be
2.7 W/m2K. Taking the timber frames into used to build up exterior thermal insulation,
account, this gives an overall U-value of 1.2 but here, a loam mixture with lower density is
to 2.2 W/m2K. Heat transmission through recommended.
these walls is thus three to six times high-
er than it should be by modern standards in Prefabricated elements
moderate and cold climates. The simplest An even simpler method of building an inte-
solution, and the best in physical terms, is rior thermal insulation layer is to use prefab-
to increase thermal insulation from the out- ricated loam elements like larger blocks or
side, that is to say, to envelope the building panels, as described in chapter 7, or to use
in thermal insulation. If the house is a histor- lightweight loam-filled hoses as described in
ical landmark and therefore not allowed to chapter 10. These can be laid without form-
be covered with thermal insulation from the work in a plastic state against the wall in one
outside, the additional thermal insulation or two layers, as shown in 13.4. In this case
has to be applied from the inside. This usual- it is preferable to flatten them and fix them
ly causes problems because in practice, heat to the existing wall with steel wire hooks
bridges and vapour bridges cannot be totally (4 hooks per m2).

13.3 Surface of a lightweight mineral loam wall

with a density of 1000 kg/m3 after the formwork is
removed
13.4 Additional interior thermal insulation using
hoses filled with lightweight loam

108 Repair of loam structures

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 14 Customised design solutions

Joints 2 years (till the timber achieves its equilibri-

um moisture content).
When loam elements are joined to posts, • Timber structures continue to swell and
beams, windows or doorframes, the follow- shrink slightly in use due to adsorption and
ing considerations have to be kept in mind: desorption of humidity.
• With the wet loam techniques a gap occurs Illustration 14.1 shows some possible joint
at the joint due to the shrinkage of the loam. designs of stranglehm respectively loam-
• Even when the loam is dry or when dry filled hoses, adobes and lightweight loam
loam elements are used, gaps may occur with posts of timber or brickwork, or with
due to the contraction of the timber during door and window frames of timber. Roof raft-
its drying, a process which might take up to ers should not rest directly on the earth wall,

14.1 Possible joint designs of stranglehm respec- Lightweight loam Loam plaster Timber

tively loam-filled hoses, adobes and lightweight loam

Stranglehm or loam Earth blocks Bricks
with posts of timber or brickwork, or with door and hoses

window frames of timber (horizontal sections). 14.1

109 Customised design solutions

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14.2

Ventilated wooden boarding

Facade breather membrane
Insulation (λ = 0.04)
Loam blocks between (A) and in front of wooden posts (B)

Ventilated wooden boarding

Facade breather membrane
Insulation (λ = 0.04)
Lightweight mineral loam between wooden posts (λ = 0.21)

Ventilated wooden boarding

Facade breather membrane

Insulation (λ = 0.04)

Loadbearing rammed earth wall (E: λ = 0.7; F: λ = 0.9)

Lime render

Cork (λ = 0.5)

Thermal membrane (λ = 0.04)

Lightweight mineral loam (λ = 0.21)

Mineral insulating render

Lightweight mineral loam (λ = 0.18)

Wood post-and-beam construction

I Light clay plaster

14.3

110 Customised design solutions

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 14.4 14.5

but instead on timber wall plates or beams ty lightweight loam walls. In climates prone
as seen in 14.2 A. If the rafters rest on a tim- to driving rain, designs A to F are preferable
ber post-and-beam structure and the wall is because they have separated outer leaves,
not load-bearing, the shrinkage of the timber which act as protection from the weather.
structure has to be taken into account.
In 14.2 B, an elastic sealant has been intro- Earth-filled tyre walls
duced between the beam and wall in order A possible method of using hollow blocks
to provide sufficient tolerance for this shrink- filled with lightweight loam for walls has been
age; while in 14.2 C, the structural system described in chapter 10, p. 90. If the insu-
is separated from the wall, thereby allowing lation requirements are not very high, these
a greater vertical movement of the timber walls can be filled with plain clayey soil.
structure. Michael E. Reynolds built several residences
in New Mexico, USA, having walls made of
Special wall constructions discarded car tyres filled with soil dug out of
the foundation (14.4). Only the top tyre was
Loam walls with high thermal insulation filled with concrete to which a wooden ring
The U-value of a 30-cm-thick rammed earth anchor was fixed. The interior surface was
wall (without lightweight aggregates) is about covered with expanded metal mesh rein-
1.3 W/m2K. In order to achieve a U-value forcement and then plastered.
of 0.3 W/m2K with this wall, it would need
to be 1.65 m thick. This shows that in cold Earth-filled bags
climates where high thermal insulation is The Building Research Institute – BRI, Uni-
required, it is not possible to build only with versity of Kassel, Germany, tested several ap-
normal loam. The examples provided in 14.3 proaches to building walls of earth- or sand-
not only show sufficient thermal insulation filled bags or hoses. Illustration 15.47 shows
with a U-value of 0.3 W/m2K, but are also a dome built in 1977 of sand and earth-filled
designed to have sufficient thermal mass for hoses of polyester fabric; 14.5 shows the
balancing the indoor air temperature, suffi- wall of a low-cost housing prototype built in
cient loam for balancing the indoor air hu- Kassel in 1978. In the latter case, the hoses
midity and sufficient noise insulation as well. were made of jute fabric covered by several
Designs E and F are for load-bearing walls, layers of lime wash to prevent rotting.
while the others are not. The outer thermal The California architect Nader Khalili further
14.2 Vertical sections of roof structure and
insulation panels, shown in G and H, can be developed this idea utilising endless hoses,
load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls used as a lost formwork for pouring the light- usually used to make bags for sugar or flour.
14.3 Horizontal sections of various loam walls with weight loam, while also acting as a ground Illustrations 14.6 and 14.7 show the filling
U-values of 0.3 W/m2K for the external lime plaster. The simplest and the ramming process; 14.8 displays a
14.4 Wall of discarded car tyres filled with soil, USA and best performing solutions are J and K, built example in Brazil.
14.5 Prototype building, Kassel, Germany which are formed with monolithic low-densi-

111 Special wall constructions

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14.6 14.7

14.8

14.9 14.10

112 Customised design solutions

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 Floor covering

Gypsum fibre board

Soft fibre board

Earth bricks

Soft fibre board

Shuttering boards

Wooden flooring
Wooden substructure
Felt strips
Earth bricks
Trickle protection
Shuttering boards

14.11 14.12

Intermediate floors Straw loam rolls

Another traditional German technique em-
Traditional loam floors ploys straw loam rolls (German: Wickel)
In traditional German timber frame houses, made in the same way as described in chap-
the intermediate floors were filled with loam ter 9, p. 81. A bundle of straw is dipped into
to increase fire resistance, sound insulation, loam slurry and wound helically around a
and sometimes thermal insulation as well. stick, forming straw loam rolls. The sticks in
The traditional techniques described here are these rolls either rest on top of the beam, or
very labour-intensive and, therefore, are used else are inserted into slots on the sides of
nowadays in renovation work only if required the beams (14.11).
by historic landmark preservation codes.
Modern loam floors
Rammed earth decks Today, instead of earth infill for wooden
Illustration 14.9 shows three different ways beams and board floors, green bricks or
14.13 of using rammed earth as infill between adobes without mortar can be used, which
or on top of wooden beams. The ceiling is eliminates drying time. Illustration 14.12 A
formed of exposed timber boards, on top of shows a favourable design of such a floor,
which moist earth is compacted. A layer of which provides sufficient insulation against
straw is laid onto the boards to prevent loam airborne and structural noise. The design
from falling through gaps. Nowadays, oilpa- shown in 14.12 B has the same properties,
per is used for the same purpose. but also offers the advantage of lower struc-
tural height and the disadvantage of being
”Spalier” decks more labour-intensive.
Illustration 14.10 shows the traditional Ger- Illustration 14.13 shows various designs for
man spalier floor where wooden lathes are vaulted loam floors. Designs A, B and C use
laid at a distance of 3 to 6 cm between the earthen blocks, which transfer slab loads to
14.6 Filling of hoses
floor beams. Straw loam is pressed from the beams by vault-action under compres-
14.7 Ramming of hoses above so as to form “tongues” between the sion. Design D shows a non-load bearing
14.8 Residence, Brazil lathes. The tongues are later pressed to cov- loam vault made by pouring lightweight loam
14.9 Rammed earth flooring on joists er the lathes from underneath by a trowel over a curved reed mat.
14.10 Spalier flooring so as to form an even surface as shown in
14.11 Flooring made of straw loam rolls the figure. A variation of this floor was also Rammed earth floorings
14.12 Vertical section through timber flooring with traditionally used where, instead of using the
infill of green bricks trowel, a horizontally moving formwork was Hard-wearing floor surfaces need to meet
14.13 Earthen jack vault flooring employed. very high standards. They must resist pres-

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 sure abrasion, be waterproof and show no it was sprinkled with Fe3O4 flakes (flakes pro-
cracks. It is very difficult to build such surfac- duced by forging glowing iron) and beaten
es from loam, but if carefully done, it is not into the surface together with cow’s blood,
impossible. The most difficult criterion is to cow’s bile or tar.
achieve sufficient strength against abrasion
or surface hardness (see chapter 2, p. 32). It Other options for earth floors
is often easier to avoid the effort involved in In 1984, the two different loam floors shown
achieving this by using brick, timber or stone in 14.15 were successfully tested at the BRI
floor tiles over the loam, or by covering the (Minke, 2000). Design A has a surface, hard
14.14 loam with a carpet, rug, fabric etc. enough to be walked on, that is divided by
a timber grid, while design B shows a loam
A Traditional earth floorings floor paved with timber blocks. The subfloor-
Illustration 14.14 shows Niemeyer’s version ing is identical in both cases, consisting of a
of a traditional loam floor (Niemeyer, 1946). 15-cm-thick capillary breaking layer of grav-
The base layer consists of loam, about 15 el, followed by a water and vapour barrier of
cm thick, with high clay content. This acts as plastic or bituminous felt paper, and topped
a water barrier, and is applied in two layers with a 10-cm-thick layer of expanded clay
that are compacted by beating or ramming that acts as thermal insulation.
until no cracks appear while drying. The next The first layer of moist clayey loam is placed
layer consists of coarse gravel, which inter- on top of this subflooring and rammed (14.16
B rupts capillary action. Above this, a 10-cm- and 14.17). In both cases, a primary grid of
thick layer of straw loam provides thermal timber battens (10 × 10 cm) is laid over this.
insulation. An additional 4-cm-thick layer of In design B (14.15), this grid is then filled
straw loam, stabilised with cement in the with timber blocks laid with a loam mortar
proportion 1:6 (1 part cement : 6 parts straw stabilised with 6% to 8% (by volume) of dou-
loam), is added so that heavy loads can be ble-boiled linseed oil. The blocks are placed
carried. As the final layer, Niemeyer recom- so that the annular rings are exposed (14.19).
mends a 2-cm-thick layer of cement mor- In design A, a second layer of loam mortar is
14.15 tar with sawdust. Two coats of waterglass applied and rammed, over which a second-
are then applied while the final layer is still ary grid of timber strips is laid. The spaces
moist. Finally, after it is completely dry, the thus created are then filled with a third layer
surface is waxed. of loam mortar stabilised with 6% to 8% (by
The author of this study suggests revers- volume) of double-boiled linseed oil. The sur-
ing the sequence of the bottom two layers. face is then smoothed by rubbing with great
To interrupt capillary action, coarse gravel pressure using a metal trowel (14.18) until
should be used as the lowest layer. Loam the surface becomes shiny.
with a high clay content should form the next Since this process is very labour-intensive,
layer, acting as a water and vapour barrier the author has developed an alternative de-
14.14 Traditional flooring for living rooms (after (damp-proof coarse). As described below in sign requiring significantly less labour: The
Niemeyer, 1946)
this chapter, stabilised loam mortar may be layers constituting this floor can be seen in
14.15 Two different options for earth floors: A timber
substituted for cement mortar. In traditional 14.22. In order to break up capillary action,
grid is filled with loam (A) and end-grain timber
German farmhouses and barns, earth floors the lowest layer is formed by coarse gravel. A
blocks are embedded in loam mortar (B).
were built in a similar way, so that even cars damp-proof coarse of bituminous felt paper
14.16 to 14.18 Making a rammed earth floor
(without pneumatic tyres) could drive over is laid over this, followed by a base thermal
14.19 Floor consisting of wood blocks with loam
mortar
them. Instead of the cement plaster surface, insulation layer of rockwool. (The latter is
loam plaster that contained loam with a high necessary only by the stringent demands for
14.20 and 14.21 Making a lightweight mineral loam
floor with a loam plaster that is water-repellent and clay content and large amounts of coarse thermal insulation contained in more recent
abrasion-resistant sand and fine gravel was used. This was ap- German regulations; otherwise lightweight
14.22 Vertical section through a lightweight mineral plied in a 7-cm-thick layer and compacted loam would be sufficient.) A 12-cm-thick light-
loam floor by beating. In order to harden the surface, weight mineral loam is poured on top of this

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14.16 14.17 14.18

14.20 14.21

layer. This provides both sufficient thermal in- All three mixtures displayed very good sur-
sulation and the required structural strength. face hardness. The linseed oil mixture had
The lightweight loam was prepared in a nor- the disadvantage of its strong odour and a
14.19 mal concrete mixer and then poured from a long drying time, but showed the best sur-
wheelbarrow (14.21). face hardness.
Loam mortar
In order to reduce hardening time, 4% ce-
Mineral lightweight loam
ment was added to the mix. In order to Inclined roofs filled with
Thermal insulation
achieve adequate surface hardness, a 3-cm- lightweight loam
Damp-proof barrier thick loam mortar (containing sufficient
Coarse gravel coarse sand to minimise the occurrence of Commonly used tile-covered rafter roofs can
shrinkage cracks) was applied in two layers. be filled with lightweight loam in order to in-
For this mortar, 6% (by dry weight) of three crease their thermal and sound insulation.
different stabilising agents were successfully If the space created by a typical 16-cm-high
14.22 tested: the first, soda waterglass was added rafter is filled with lightweight loam with a
after being thinned 1:1 with water; the sec- density of 600 kg/m3 and the ceiling made
ond, double-boiled linseed oil; and the third, of timber boards, the roof achieves an U-val-
lime-casein glue (made from 1 part hydraulic ue of 0.8 W/m2K (14.23 A). Three solutions,
lime and 5 parts fat-free white cheese mixed B, C and D, show possibilities for attaining
vigorously without water for 2 minutes and higher levels of thermal insulation, as de-
then allowed to stand) with additional chalk manded in many northern countries.
at the rate of 10%.
The mixtures were applied like plasters Earth-covered roofs
with low moisture content and the surface
smoothed with a rotary motion of the trowel. In dry climate zones, flat roofs covered with
After fully drying, all of these surfaces were earth have been in use for centuries in tra-
waxed. ditional rural architecture. One of the great-

115 Inclined roofs filled with lightweight loam

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 Vapour barrier Cellulose fibres
Timber planks Vapour barrier
Lightweight straw loam (600 kg/m³) Wood wool board
U = 0.8 W/m2K
Loam plaster
U = 0.22 W/m2K

Cork Cork

Vapour barrier Hollow Hourdis brick

filled with loam
Mineral lightweight loam (400 kg/m³)
U = 0.25 W/m2K Cellulose fibres
U = 0.20 W/m2K

14.23

14.24

116 Customised design solutions

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 est challenges when building in developing When making loam-covered flat roofs, it
countries is to produce successful, weath- should be kept in mind that roof edges are
erresistant loam roofs that might prove du- susceptible to mechanical damage, espe-
rable in rainy areas. The cost of a typical cially by wind and water erosion. This can
roof structure in such countries is usually be prevented by solutions of the type shown
25% to 30% of total buildings costs. Loam in 14.26. If the surface of the roof is to be
shingles were propagated in Germany in the walked upon, then tiles are recommended
early 20th century, and there was even a (14.26 D).
published standard, DIN 18957 (pre-norm Illustration 14.25 shows an inclined roof
1956). Some traditional loam-covered roofs from northern Venezuela, consisting of lay-
14.25 and some experiments with loam coatings ers of cow dung stabilised with straw loam
are discussed in this section. mortar applied in several layers (8 to 12 cm),
over a wooden substructure made of branch-
Traditional roofs es and twigs. After the rainy season, the top
In many subtropical, moderate and cold cli- layer is normally redone.
mates, traditional flat and sometimes even
inclined loam roofs have been built for cen- Timber roof with loam plaster
turies. Typical examples are the flat roofs of In rainy areas, where inclined roofs are com-
the Pueblo Indians in New Mexico, USA (6.3), mon, traditional buildings do not have loam
and those of the Dogon of Mali, West Africa roofs. However, experiments have proved
(14.24). that additives can increase the weather
All flat roofs are similar in construction. Tree resistance of loam. Bases on test results
14.26 trunks or bamboo form the primary struc- of the BRI, described in chapter 4, p. 37, a
tural elements. Branches and twigs are laid low-cost housing prototype was built at Pu-
on these to form a fairly dense network over jili, Ecuador, by the group FUNHABIT, Qui-
which straw loam can be rammed or plas- to, and the author. The roof was made of
tered. The final coarse consists of several a timber substructure built of tree trunks,
layers of clayey loam, usually containing a branches and reeds. This was covered by
large quantity of coarse sand; sometimes several layers of loam plaster that were 8 cm
hair, fibre or cow dung is added and carefully thick in total (14.27). The first layer consists
smoothed. of clayey loam thinned with pumice (0 to
In areas where there is little rainfall, shrink- 12 mm diameter) and waste mobil oil (52
age cracks are not a problem. When water parts loam : 28 parts pumice : 1 part oil).
14.27 enters these cracks, clayey loam swells and This mixture, which also provided thermal
seals them. Only in some cases are addi- insulation, was laid in a fairly dry consisten-
tional coatings used. In Anatolia, Turkey, cy and compacted by beating. The top layer,
special clayey soil with a high salt content 2 to 3 cm thick, has the following mix: 72
is taken from the banks of the salt lakes parts loam, 36 parts pumice (0 to 5 mm),
in order to seal loam roofs. Due to the hy- 12 parts cow dung, 12 parts donkey dung,
groscopic property of the salt, this loam 8.5 parts mobil oil, 6 parts loose Sisal fibres
stays moist for longer periods, and pre- (3 to 5 cm long), and 1 part double-boiled lin-
vents water penetration while it remains in seed oil. After several days, when the mixture
14.23 Vertical section through inclined roofs with this state. If shrinkage cracks occur during was somewhat dry, it was recompacted with
lightweight loam infill drying, swelling occurs during contact with a metal trowel, using great pressure, till the
14.24 Flat earthen roofs of a Dogon village, Shanga, rain and seals the cracks. Once the rain surface was shiny.
Mali has washed off some of the salt, reducing
14.25 Traditional loam roof, north Venezuela the self-sealing effect of the top coarse Earth block vaults and domes
14.26 Traditional flat loam roofs layer, residents can either sprinkle salt or
14.27 Vertical section through a loam roof, Pujili, pour salt water on it to regenerate the seal Vaults and domes covering interior spaces
Ecuador (Dalokay, 1969). and made from earthen blocks are found

117 Earth block vaults and domes

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14.28

14.30

14.29

A Groin vault C Domical vault

B Intersecting groin D Faceted vault
vault

14.31

118 Customised design solutions

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 Pendentive vault Cupola on pendentives Squinch vault Cupola on squinches Modelled shell

14.32 14.33

mainly in religious buildings in Europe. In al, techniques were developed to construct

southern Europe, Asia and Africa, nonethe- vaults and domes from air-seasoned adobes
less, they have also been used in residenc- without structural beams, and even without
es, offices and public buildings (1.1 to 1.8, formworks. These techniques are described
14.28 and 14.29). in the following sections.
These structures demonstrate several advan-
tages in hot and dry climates, especially in ar- On the geometry of vaults and domes
eas with a wide range of diurnal temperatures. Vaults and domes are two-dimensional
Given their inherent thermal mass and their curved structural elements that serve to cov-
greater heights at the centre of a space, er interior spaces. Shell structures with the
where light, warm air gathers and can be same geometry display very different struc-
easily discharged through openings, vaulted tural behaviours. They are able to transfer
spaces provide better natural climatic control bending moments to their supports. Howev-
than standard cubic ones. They have smaller er, masonry vaults and domes only transfer
surface areas than cubic rooms of the same loads under compression. If singly curved,
volume, and therefore less heat gain. they are called vaults (14.30, left); if doubly
In cold and moderate climates as well, curved, they are called domes (14.30, right).
vaults and domes have several advantages. Vaults and domes can be built from a variety
As the surface area is smaller for the same of basic geometrical elements. Illustration
volume, heat loss is lower, so heating energy 14.31 shows two cross vaults (A, B) and two
is reduced. domical vaults (C, D); all forms are composed
In all climates, vaults and domes require less from the parts of a barrel vault. With domes
building material to enclose a given volume. that form surfaces of revolution, that is to
In all developing countries, vaults and domes say, whose forms originate from the rotation
are usually cheaper in comparison with flat of a curve around a vertical axis (usually a
or slightly inclined roofs. Observation has circular arc), and which are set above square
shown that rooms with vaults and domes rooms, the geometrical problem resides in
have a pleasing and calming effect on inhab- the need to discover a transition from the cir-
itants in contrast to rooms with flat ceilings. cular geometry of the dome to the square ge-
Until recently vaults and domes of loam have ometry of the room. Illustration 14.32 shows
14.28 Earth block domes, village near Aleppo, Syria
been built only with adobes – with the excep- four different systems for solving this prob-
14.29 Earth block domes, Siestan, Afghanistan tion of two experimental domes: the rammed lem. Solution A is a truncated dome whose
14.30 Barrel vault (left) and dome (right) earth dome described in chapter 5, p. 59, bottom circle is drawn around the square,
14.31 Shapes created by intersecting vaults and a stranglehm dome built at the BRI in and vertical truncating planes meet the
14.32 Types of domes over square plans 1985. In numerous arid regions, where dome surface to form arches. Solution B is
14.33 “True” and “false” vaults timber is unavailable as a building materi- called a dome on pendentives. Here, a hem-

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14.34 14.36 14.37

ispherical dome rests on the lower part of a zontally, so that the masonry blocks create
truncated dome. The doubly curved triangu- overhangs within (14.33, bottom), then we
lar surfaces are called pendentives. Solution speak of a “false” vault or dome. In such
C shows a squinch dome whose lower circle cases, since each course is cantilevered
is inscribed on the square and the inter- over the one before, the blocks are subject-
connecting surfaces, called squinches, are ed to bending forces. One example of a false
composed of a series of arches of increasing dome is shown in the model illustrated in
radius. This solution can also be described 14.34 and 14.35.
as a truncated dome resting on the inscribed The main problem in constructing vaults is
diagonal square with the surfaces thus left how to transfer of the outward thrust force at
(triangular in plan) being the squinches. the bottom to the supports and foundations.
Solution D is a partial squinch dome whose Illustration 14.36 shows how the resultant
14.35 bottom circle is drawn around the largest forces at the support can be separated into
regular octagon that fits the square, form- vertical and horizontal components. The
ing truncated planes on four of the sides steeper the forces are conducted into the
and squinches on the other four. Solution E foundation, the smaller are the horizontal
shows a totally different way of solving this forces, and the easier the formation of foun-
problem and can be called a bell-shaped dation. A rule of thumb is that the forces re-
dome. Here, we have a continuously chang- sulting from vault thrust and wall loads must
ing double curvature beginning at the edges fall within the middle third of the pedestal
with an anticlastic (saddle-shaped) curva- and foundation bases. This means that ec-
ture (i.e., a curvature that is convex in one centricity should be no more than 1/6 of the
direction and concave in the perpendicular breadth (14.37).
direction) and continuing to the apex with a Since this consideration can mean a very
synclastic (dome-shaped) curvature (i.e., one large and, hence expensive foundation, it
that is similarly curved in both directions). may prove expedient to plan for additional
structural measures, such as those shown
Structural behaviour in 14.38. In solution A, for example, the in-
14.34 and 14.35 Model of a building with “false” Structurally speaking, vaults and domes clination of the resulting load is reduced by
vaults are curved surfaces that transfer almost means of superimposed loads. A second sim-
14.36 Separation of forces at the support exclusively compressive forces to their ple solution, shown in B, consists of buttress-
14.37 Deflection of the resultant shear force into the supports. They are usually constructed of es. In this case, to prevent excessive bending
foundation baked bricks or flat stones, with joints set stress, spacings between buttresses should
14.38 Possibilities of structural stabilisation perpendicular to the surface of the dome, not be too large. A structurally superior vari-
14.39 Horizontal forces so that the courses form a radial pattern ation is shown in C, with buttresses connect-
14.40 Reversed catenary as in 14.33, top. If the courses are set hori- ed by arches. Solution D shows the transfer

120 Customised design solutions

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14.38

of the resultant horizontal thrust to tensile represents the ideal supporting line (line of
structural elements in the floor (reinforced thrust) for a vault in which only compressive
concrete plates, for example), which neu- forces occur under dead load (14.40). This
tralise the thrust so that only vertical forces line can be computed by the catenary formu-
are transferred to the foundation. Solution la y = a cosh (x/a), and can be defined by the
E shows single tensile ties which act in the position of the two points of support and the
same way. They are placed above the walls apex (14.41). In a semicircular vault, the line
supporting the vault. In this case, ring or pe- of support does not run in the centre of the
ripheral beams have to be provided, which wall thickness. It might even fall outside the
can take the bending forces that occur be- structure, as shown in 14.42 A. This causes
tween the tie ends. Solutions F and G show bending stresses and usually leads to failure.
two different ways of diverting the thrust of If the thickness of the vault is large enough
the central dome to low lateral vaults. to contain the line of thrust within its middle
If two identical barrels converge in one strip third (14.42 B), then this danger is avoided.
14.39 foundation, then the horizontal components The ideal cross-section of a dome under dead
of the resultant thrust are neutralised (14.39, load is that which only creates compressive
right). If, on the other hand, the barrels have forces going downwards (meridional). This
different shapes, then only a portion of this means a form that creates neither tensile nor
horizontal thrust will be neutralised (14.39, compressive ring forces. If the cross-section
left). has the shape of a catenary, then compres-
Since adobe vaults can endure only very sive ring forces will occur. This might be dis-
small tensile forces, it is important to design advantageous if openings have to be cut into
them so that, as nearly as possible, only com- the dome, or if it is a dome of large span.
pressive forces occur. With a barrel vault that To work out the ideal shape of a vault, a
bears only its own weight, this is the case slice as shown in 14.44, left, is taken out
if its cross-section is an inverted catenary and divided into segments of equal length.
curve, defined as the shape assumed by a This gives segments of identical area and,
freely hanging chain, which is subjected only therefore, can be substituted by single
14.40 to tractive force. When inverted, this curve loads of equal magnitude acting at the cen-

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14.41

14.42

14.43

14.44

14.45 14.46

122 Customised design solutions

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 Parabola

Optimised section

Semicircle

Catenary

14.47 14.48

14.49

tre of each segment. However, in the case The first assumption (that the dome is a
of a dome, if we take a slice, as shown in hemisphere) cannot be used if the height is
the figure on the right, and divide this into not equal to the half-span. In this case, one
segments of equal length, the widths and, should start from the shape of an ellipse
therefore, the areas are continuously de- whose axis is below the base of the dome.
creasing from the base to the apex. If these This stating assumption is already close to
segments are substituted by single loads, the ideal form, which can then be refined by
then their loads are also thereby propor- the model.
tionally decreased. If the ideal form is to be A more exact method to derive ideal curve
derived from a model, then, corresponding is by graphic methods used in statics engi-
loads can be added to a chain which then neering. At the BRI, these methods were
forms this ideal curve, as seen in 14.43. used to develop a computer programme.
Here, this ideal curve is shown in contrast Some results for eleven different dome pro-
14.41 Catenaries of same length
to a catenary. In 14.45, formulas are given portions from h = 1.5 r to h = 0.5 r (where h
14.42 Risk of deformation with barrel vaulting
for calculating areas of the segments of a is the height and r the half-span) are plotted
14.43 Experimental determination of the ideal
sphere. However, since the ideal form is not in 14.46. In each case, a skylight opening of
cross-sectional shape for a dome carrying only its
own load in a suspension test spherical, its segments have an area slightly 0.2 r was taken into account. Illustration
14.44 Decomposition of the dead weight into individ-
differing from the one that we started from. 14.47 shows the ideal curve in comparison
ual forces for vault and dome Therefore, this procedure has to be consid- with a parabola, catenary and semicircle.
14.45 Calculation of surface areas ered a first approximation, which is in prac- In the section of the dome is inside the
14.46 Optimised cross-sections with different h : r tice sufficiently accurate for smaller spans. ideal curve, as happens with the catenary,
ratios Greater accuracy can be achieved by suc- compressive ring forces are created. If it is
14.47 Comparison of semicircle, parabola, catenary cessive iterations, substituting the actual outside, tensile ring forces will occur, as with
and support line for a dome changing radii of curvature of the segments the lower part of a hemispherical dome. Ten-
14.48 Nubian vault measured from the model and adjusting the sile ring forces usually lead to failure. Com-
14.49 Nubian vaults with support walls and support loads according to the surface areas of the pressive ring forces usually do not create
arch (side elevations) segments thus calculated. problems, except when interrupted by large

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 No. y x y x y x y x y x y x y x
1 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000
2 0.0452 0.9854 0.0454 0.9875 0.0479 0.9885 0.0470 0.9902 0.0422 0.9912 0.0494 0.9918 0.0469 0.9929
3 0.0973 0.9674 0.0982 0.9720 0.1013 0.9750 0.1007 0.9783 0.1016 0.9807 0.1036 0.9823 0.1013 0.9844
4 0.1489 0.9483 0.1508 0.9556 0.1544 0.9608 0.1543 0.9658 0.1555 0.9696 0.1578 0.9724 0.1556 0.9755
5 0.2001 0.9279 0.2030 0.9381 0.2073 0.9456 0.2077 0.9526 0.2093 0.9579 0.2118 0.9620 0.2098 0.9662
6 0.2506 0.9061 0.2548 0.9195 0.2600 0.9295 0.2610 0.9386 0.2629 0.9456 0.2657 0.9511 0.2640 0.9565
7 0.3005 0.8827 0.3061 0.8996 0.3123 0.9124 0.3139 0.9237 0.3164 0.9326 0.3195 0.9396 0.3180 0.9462
8 0.3495 0.8575 0.3569 0.8782 0.3642 0.8940 0.3667 0.9079 0.3697 0.9188 0.3732 0.9274 0.3720 0.9354
9 0.3974 0.8303 0.4069 0.8552 0.4156 0.8744 0.4191 0.8911 0.4227 0.9041 0.4267 0.9145 0.4258 0.9241
10 0.4441 0.8011 0.4562 0.8305 0.4665 0.8533 0.4711 0.8730 0.4755 0.8885 0.4800 0.9008 0.4795 0.9121
11 0.4893 0.7695 0.5043 0.8038 0.5167 0.8306 0.5226 0.8536 0.5280 0.8718 0.5331 0.8863 0.5331 0.8993
12 0.5327 0.7355 0.5513 0.7749 0.5660 0.8060 0.5736 0.8328 0.5800 0.8540 0.5859 0.8708 0.5864 0.8858
13 0.5738 0.6987 0.5967 0.7436 0.6143 0.7795 0.6239 0.8103 0.6316 0.8347 0.6384 0.8542 0.6396 0.8714
14 0.6124 0.6592 0.6402 0.7097 0.6613 0.7507 0.6733 0.7860 0.6827 0.8140 0.6905 0.8364 0.6924 0.8561
15 0.6479 0.6170 0.6815 0.6731 0.7067 0.7194 0.7217 0.7596 0.7330 0.7917 0.7422 0.8173 0.7450 0.8397
16 0.6799 0.5721 0.7200 0.6337 0.7502 0.6855 0.7688 0.7309 0.7825 0.7674 0.7932 0.7966 0.7971 0.8220
17 0.7081 0.5246 0.7554 0.5913 0.7913 0.6487 0.8143 0.6998 0.8309 0.7411 0.8436 0.7743 0.8488 0.8030
18 0.7322 0.4750 0.7872 0.5462 0.8296 0.6090 0.8578 0.6658 0.8780 0.7124 0.8930 0.7500 0.8999 0.7825
19 0.7522 0.4235 0.8149 0.4984 0.8646 0.5663 0.8988 0.6290 0.9234 0.6811 0.9414 0.7235 0.9503 0.7602
20 0.7680 0.3707 0.8384 0.4485 0.8957 0.5207 0.9369 0.5891 0.9667 0.6470 0.9883 0.6947 0.9998 0.7360
21 0.7801 0.3168 0.8576 0.3967 0.9227 0.4725 0.9716 0.5461 1.0076 0.6099 1.0336 0.6632 1.0482 0.7096
22 0.7887 0.2624 0.8725 0.3436 0.9452 0.4221 1.0023 0.5002 1.0453 0.5696 1.0767 0.6287 1.0951 0.6807
23 0.7944 0.2076 0.8836 0.2896 0.9633 0.3700 1.0286 0.4517 1.0795 0.5262 1.1172 0.5912 1.1403 0.6491
24 0.7978 0.1526 0.8912 0.2350 0.9771 0.3165 1.0504 0.4009 1.1095 0.4799 1.1544 0.5505 1.1830 0.6145
25 0.7994 0.0975 0.8961 0.1801 0.9870 0.2623 1.0675 0.3485 1.1350 0.4309 1.1879 0.5065 1.2236 0.5768
26 0.8000 0.0425 0.8987 0.1251 0.9936 0.2075 1.0804 0.2948 1.1557 0.3798 1.2170 0.4596 1.2606 0.5358
27 0.8000 0.0000 0.8998 0.0700 0.9974 0.1526 1.0894 0.2404 1.1719 0.3270 1.2415 0.4101 1.2933 0.4915
28 0.9000 0.0000 0.9993 0.0975 1.0951 0.1856 1.1836 0.2731 1.2611 0.3585 1.3222 0.4443
29 0.9999 0.0425 1.0983 0.1306 1.1916 0.2185 1.2761 0.3054 1.3459 0.3944
30 1.0000 0.0000 1.0997 0.0755 1.1965 0.1636 1.2867 0.2513 1.3648 0.3425
31 1.1000 0.0205 1.1990 0.1086 1.2936 0.1966 1.3789 0.2892
32 1.1000 0.0000 1.1999 0.0535 1.2976 0.1416 1.3887 0.2349
33 1.2000 0.0000 1.2995 0.0865 1.3949 0.1801
34 1.3000 0.0315 1.3983 0.1251
35 1.3000 0.0000 1.3997 0.0700
36 1.4000 0.0150
37 1.4000 0.0000

h h
h h
h h
h

r r r r r r
r

h = 0.8 r h = 0.9 r h = 1.0 r h = 1.1 r h = 1.2 r h = 1.3 r h = 1.4 r

72.6 75.0 76.9 78.5 79.7 80.7 81.6
A 5.3374 r2 5.7789 r2 6.2195 r2 6.6941 r2 7.1685 r2 7.6426 r2 8.1514 r2
V 16.1064 r3 18.2911 r3 20.4262 r3 22.6921 r3 24.9307 r3 27.1455 r3 29.5145 r3
14.51
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125 Designs of building elements
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 14.51 14.52

openings. Table 14.50 gives the coordinates ble to lean the arches against a central “sup-
of the ideal line of support for seven differ- porting arch”, which typically has the section
ent dome proportions, from h = 0.8 r to h = of the vault and has to be made with shutter-
1.4 r (where h is the height and r the half- ing (14.49 C and 14.51). The cross-section
span), without taking into account any open- of the Nubian vault, which is mainly loaded
ings at the apex. by its own weight, should have the form of
To take into account asymmetric loads which an inverted catenary, so that it contains only
might occur in practice due to wind, main- compressive stresses.
tenance etc., and to conservatively ensure At the BRI this traditional technique was re-
that no tensile ring forces occur, it is better fined in two ways: first, instead of using rec-
to keep the section inside the ideal curve, tangular formats, a square block measuring
especially in the upper part. 20 × 20 cm, 6 cm thick was used for the low-
er part of the vault, and tapered versions of
Nubian vaults these blocks were used in the upper part of
With the Nubian vault technique, used for the vault, with the lower part shortened by
centuries in Upper Egypt, vaults can be built 1.5 cm. This reduced labour input and the
without any formwork by using reclining arch- quantity of mortar required. It was found that
es made of adobe. Illustration 14.48 shows by using an optimum mortar composition with
such a vault, which is 3200 years old and high binding force, it is also possible to use
stands within the temple precincts of Ram- adobes with thicknesses of up to 10 cm. This
ses II near Luxor. Such vaults are commonly leads to further savings in mortar and time.
constructed of adobes measuring 15 cm in Second, the shape of the vault was con-
width, 25 cm in length and only 5 to 6 cm trolled during construction by stretching a
in thickness. This means that the weight of cord from one support wall to the next (or to
each brick per unit area of mortar joint is the corresponding scaffolding). It is essential
very low, which prevents adobes in inclined that this cord passes through an eyelet on
positions from sliding during construction. one end and is held taut by a weight. When
The degree of inclination of the arches is a deformed by lateral pressure, the cord will be
decisive factor in the construction process. immediately restored by the moving weight
This should be between 65° to 70° with the to the correct position. When building the re-
horizontal. As tests have shown, if the arches clining arches, it is advisable that the blocks
are built up at a lower angle, the lower part of forming the arch are held together by keeping
the vault might collapse during construction, them touching on the inner edge with hard-
while if the angle is larger, the adobes might ly any mortar in between, and wedging with
14.50 Coordinates of structurally optimised domes slide off the top. Nubian vaults need one or a stone chip on the outer edge if required,
14.51 and 14.52 Construction of a Nubian vault with two vertical walls onto which the inclined so as to display arch action even before the
support arch arches lean (14.49 A and B). It is also possi- mortar is dry (14.52).

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14.53 14.54 14.55

Afghan and Persian domes wedge-shaped blocks be used periodically

In Afghanistan, a technique for building (14.62). Due to the high labour input required
domes without formwork has been used for most domes were built without turning the
centuries. With this technique, bellshaped blocks, that is, placing them in radially.
flat domes are produced to cover square The main disadvantage of the Nubian domes
rooms by constructing reclining arches which technique is that only spherical domes can
are set at angles of ca. 30° to the horizontal. be produced. As explained in this chapter,
Illustrations 14.53, 14.54 and 14.55 show in spherical domes, tensile ring forces occur
the construction process of a dome (over a in the bottom portions. Therefore, when cov-
4 × 4 m room), which can be built in half a day ering larger spans, steel strips or reinforced
by five to six people. With this technique, the concrete ring beams or other strengthening
adobe blocks forming the arch should touch elements have to be additionally applied. If
at their lower edges, and wedges should be this is not considered, domes might fail, as
inserted into the upper gaps (14.55). Since has happened in practice.
this method allows the arch action to come The group Development Workshop, Lauserte,
into effect before the mortar has dried, la- France, built several residences, offices and
bourers can even stand on the dome while it public buildings in Niger using a modified ver-
is under construction. sion of this technique, shown in 14.63. Here,
Different models were built at the BRI in or- instead of the centrally mounted rotating
der to show that a wide variety of architectur- guide, an eccentric rotating guide is used. By
al forms can be covered with this technique, this, the shape generated can be such that
and that it can also be combined with the Nu- the tensile ring forces in the lower part are
bian dome technique (14.56 to 14.59). avoided. However, compressive ring forces
In 14.60 a variation of the Afghan dome thus created might cause problems if larger
technique is shown. In former times this was openings are made for entrances or windows.
often used in Persia and is therefore called
the Persian dome technique. Here, reclining Structurally optimised domes
arches are started from all four corners of In order to avoid the disadvantages of Nu-
the base. In this example vaulted wind catch- bian dome technology, a new technique for
14.53 and 14.55 Construction of an Afghan dome
ers have been integrated into the dome. making domes using a rotational guide was
developed at the BRI. With this technique,
14.56 and 14.57 Model of dome shape deriving from
the Nubian and Afghan techniques (BRI) Nubian domes the structurally optimal geometry of the
14.58 and 14.59 Models of different dome shapes The Nubian dome technique has been known dome can be achieved without formwork.
deriving from the Nubian and Afghan techniques in Upper Egypt for thousands of years. In this This geometry avoids all tensile ring forces
(BRI) technique, circumferential courses of ado- as well as compressive ring forces. The der-
14.60 Persian dome with wind catchers bes are laid using a movable guide (14.61). ivation of this shape is described on p. 120
14.61 and 14.62 Nubian dome (CRATerre, 1979) With this technique, blocks are turned on of this chapter.
14.63 Modification of Nubian dome with eccentric edge. This avoids slippage of the freshly laid The rotational guide has a right-angled head
guide blocks. However, this requires that special into which the blocks are placed. This angle

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14.56 14.59

14.57 14.61 14.62

14.58

14.63

14.60

127 Earth block vaults and domes

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14.64 14.65

can be moved on a curved metal T-section called a “funicular shell” in India), which
bent to shape. This T-section is fixed to a ro- is essentially a bell-shaped dome that can
tating arm, which is in turn fixed to a verti- cover triangular, square, rectangular or
cal post. Illustrations 14.64 to 14.67 show other shaped bases. Timber boards, steel
the application of this technique to a dome sheets and glass-fibre reinforced polyester
with a 7 m free span and 6 m of clear height, elements have been used for the formwork.
which was built at the University of Kassel in It is, however, much easier to make a form-
Germany in 1992. The apex is covered with work with moist sand, as shown in 14.69.
14.66 a 16-sided pyramidal skylight. The thick- When constructing vaults, it is much easi-
ness of the dome wall is only 20 cm and the er to build a formwork, as these only have
cross-section was derived using a computer singly curved surfaces. Furthermore, only
program in order to get the optimum shape a short piece of formwork can be used and
with no ring forces, as described on p. 121 shifted as the vault construction proceeds.
of this chapter. In order to prevent the blocks This technique is normally used to construct
of the upper layers from sliding while under jack vaults (14.13). The jack vault shown
construction, the courses are not exactly per- in 14.68 was built on a sparse formwork,
pendicular to the surface of the dome, but erected on thin laths positioned underneath
are slightly less inclined so that the top layer the joints of the earth blocks. These blocks
has 20° less inclination and a partial corbel- were arranged without mortar. The joints
ling effect can be seen. This, furthermore, were later moistened, and then mortar was
has the advantage that no sound-focusing filled in from above.
effect occurs (14.67). The blocks used were
tapered and extruded through a special Firing of earthen domes
snout in a mechanical brick plant. The Persian architect Nader Khalili has con-
structed several earthen domes in Iran and
Domes and vaults on formwork in the USA, which he attempted to strengthen
It is very labour- and material-intensive subsequently by firing them from the inside.
to build formworks for domes, which is While the combination of the four elements
why nearly all historical dome construc- used to create these spaces, earth, water, air
tion techniques avoided it. An exception is and fire, may lend them a mystic touch, they
14.67 the shallow Catalonian dome (sometimes yet have several disadvantages regarding

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14.68

14.69 14.71

climate and external environment. The burn- sorbtion. The wall surface above the glazed
ing of the logs, branches and twigs creates opening, 14.71, was covered with thrown
pollution and consumes large quantities of loam balls, as described in chapter 11, p. 95.
energy. Furthermore, the burning process
cannot be fully controlled and is hence not Loam in bathrooms
optimum. The uneven heating of the blocks
may produce cracks reducing structural sta- The assertion that a loam-finished bathroom
bility. Also, most of the pores in the blocks is more hygienic than a tiled bathroom as-
14.70 are closed by burning, drastically reducing tonishes many. Both experiences over sev-
their capacity to absorb and desorb humidity eral years with bathrooms having loam walls
(see chapter 1, p. 12). This, however, means and scientific investigations regarding the
failing to exploit the principal advantage of absorptive and desorptive behaviour of loam
loam as a building material. have, however, demonstrated this assertion.
Mirrors in a bathroom that is tiled up to the
Earthen storage wall in winter ceiling have been observed to fog up after a
gardens normal hot shower. With doors and windows
closed, the mirror remains fogged up to a pe-
In order to enhance the thermal storage and riod of 30 to 60 minutes after the shower. In
14.72 the humidity balancing effect of a winter gar- a bathroom with loam walls, by contrast, the
den with a floor area of 20 m2, forming part mirror clears under similar conditions in only
of a residence at Kassel, Germany, a storage 3 to 6 minutes. This is because loam walls
14.64 to 14.67 Prototype dome (BRI) wall made of wet plastic loam loaves was absorb humidity from the room when its rel-
14.68 Jack arch with minimised formwork built (14.71 and 14.72). ative humidity is higher than about 50%, and
14.69 Dome, utilising moist sand as formwork The loaves, measuring 20 × 14 cm, were release it later when the air humidity falls be-
14.70 Completed vault in a private residence in formed by hand and stacked without mortar low about 50% (see also chapter 1, p. 12).
Kassel, Germany or filled joints, thereby effectively doubling Since humidity in bathrooms with loam walls
14.71 Heat storage wall in a winter garden the surface of the loam that is active in ther- reduces quickly, fungus growth cannot occur,
14.72 Laying loaves of loam mal storage and humidity absorption and de- whereas in tiled bathrooms, the humidity re-

129 Earthen storage wall in winter gardens

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14.73 14.74

14.73 Loam "wallpaper" above a bathtub

14.74 Bathroom, private residence in Kassel,
Germany
14.75 Bedroom, private residence in Kassel,
Germany
14.76 Wash basin, private residence in Kassel,
Germany
14.77 Sanitary objects covered by loam-filled hoses 14.75

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14.76 14.77

mains high over a longer period due to the The bedroom wall shown in 14.75 is both an
sealed surfaces, allowing fungus growth in external wall and a built-in closet. It is built
the joints of the tiles, especially joints grout- from stranglehm elements (see chapter 8,
ed with silicone material. While formaldehyde p. 78). The side partition walls of the ward-
in the joint mixture prevents this, it should be robe also buttress the exterior wall. The bam-
mentioned that this chemical is carcinogenic. boo rod, built in during construction, acts
Even the wall behind the shower can be of as a hanger rod, and also stiffens the side
loam, as long as the shower curtain wraps partition walls. On another external wall of
around to prevent it from getting splashed, this bedroom, shown in 8.23, p. 78, niches
see 14.77. Illustration 14.73 shows a “loam and ledges for storing personal effects were
wallpaper” over a bath tub. Old curtain fab- carved out of the stranglehm wall.
ric was dipped into clayey loam slurry and Shelves can be easily fixed between stran-
slapped onto the wall and sculpted with the glehm walls (see chapter 8, p. 78) or light-
fingers. This surface can easily be made wa- weight loam-filled hoses (see chapter 10,
ter-resistant by coating it with water repel- p. 90). Illustration 14.74 shows such shelves
lents, double-boiled linseed oil, waterglass and a mirror integrated into the wall. Illus-
or other paints and coatings. tration 14.77 shows a bathroom whose
central shower, adjacent planter and bath
Built-in furniture and sanitary tab are covered by loam-filled hoses. Even
objects from loam washbasins can be built from unbaked loam.
The example shown in 14.76 is made of a
As already indicated, the plasticity of loam al- special sandy loam with high binding force,
lows not only for the building of exterior walls, in which shrinkage cracks were totally avoid-
ceilings and floors but also of built-in furni- ed. To this mixture 6% double-boiled linseed
ture. For this, loam elements when still wet oil was added. After drying, the basin was
are particularly suitable as they can be given coated with a layer of linseed oil. The sink
a great variety of shapes; they also open up and washbasin shown in 14.74 and 14.76
new aesthetic possibilities. was used for 28 years without signs of de-

131 Built-in furniture and sanitary objects from loam

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 channel at the rear. Then it is heated up element made from
again and continues cycling without need extruded loam
of a ventilator. 14.80 Loam wall w
translucent thermal
insulation slab, actin
passive solar heatin
Passive solar wall heating system Glass 5 mm system
Sun shade
Tubes
Absorptive paint
A residence in Kassel, Germany, has an Loam plaster
effective heating system that runs exclusive- Green bricks

ly on solar energy. The solar energy is con-

ducted through a 10-cm-thick insulating
layer of thin polycarbonate tubes to reach
a 24-cm-thick loam wall that is covered
with loam plaster. The plaster is coated with
a thin, absorptive black paint. This wall radi-
ates the heat into the interior of the house.
In summer, when no heating is required, the
translucent slab is covered by a reflective
curtain (sunshade) (14.80).

Weight
Aluminium 20/100 mm
Timber frame

14.78 14.80

terioration. In both cases, trap and drain fit-

tings were mounted
134
in a small ceramic bowl,
Designs of building elements
around which the loam was arranged. It is
sculpted of unbaked loam stabilised by 6%
of casein-lime glue. Both washbasins proved
to be waterproof.

Passive solar wall heating system

A residence in Kassel, Germany, has an effec-

tive heating system that runs exclusively on
solar energy. The solar energy is conducted
through a 10-cm-thick insulating layer of thin
polycarbonate tubes to reach a 24-cm-thick
loam wall that is covered with loam plaster.
The plaster is coated with a thin, absorptive
black paint. This wall radiates the heat into
the interior of the house. In summer, when
no heating is required, the translucent slab
is covered by a reflective curtain (sunshade)
(14.78).

14.78 Loam wall with translucent thermal insulation

slab, acting as passive solar heating system

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 15 Earthquake-resistant building

15.1

Earth as a building material has lost its cred- houses with lightweight roofs and flexible
ibility chiefly because most modern houses wattle-and-daub walls – like the Guatemalan
with earth walls cannot withstand earth- house in 15.2 – can withstand earthquake
quakes, and because earth is viewed a build- shocks because of their ductility (flexibility).
ing material for the poor. In this context, it The quality of an earthquake-resistant struc-
is worth mentioning that a census conduct- ture can be expressed in the formula
ed by the Salvadoran government after the
earthquake of January 13, 2001 (measuring structural quality = resistance × ductility
7.6 on the Richter scale), states that adobes
houses were not worse affected than other This means that the lower the resistance of a
types of construction. On the other hand, given structure, the higher its flexibility must
many historical earth buildings have with- be, while the higher its flexibility, the lower
stood several strong earthquakes in recent the required resistance. It is not earth as a
centuries, for example the housing of the building material which is responsible for
Hakkas in China (15.1; 1.2) and many solid structural failures, but instead the structural
15.1 Toulou building of the Hakkas, China rammed earth fincas in Argentina. But also system of a given building and the layout of

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15.2 15.3

its openings, as discussed in the following mass, and that deflection increases signifi-
sections. cantly with height. When designing two-sto-
Earthquakes are caused by the movements reyed buildings, therefore, it is advisable that
of tectonic plates or by volcanic activity. The the ground floor be built solid, while the up-
world’s most earthquake-prone regions are per floor is kept light, preferably with a flexi-
shown in 15.3. In Asia, earthquakes with in- ble framed structure. Heavy roofs with slabs,
tensities of 8 on the Richter scale have been slates and tiles should be avoided in princi-
recorded; in the Andes, ones measuring up ple. Walls usually fall outwards because they
to 8.7. Annually, nearly a hundred earth- lack a closed ring beam, sufficient bending
quakes are recorded with intensities above and shear strength, and because door and
6, and twenty with intensities above 7 on the window openings weaken the wall structure.
Richter scale. Several thousand people are Under seismic influences, forces are concen-
affected by earthquakes every year. trated into the corners of these openings,
15.4 Buildings are mainly struck by the horizontal creating cracks. In order to reduce the dan-
acceleration created by the movement of the ger of collapse, the following points should
earth. The vertical accelerations created by be kept in mind:
seismic activity are less then 50% of the hori- 1. Houses should not be located on inclined
zontal ones. sites (15.6).
Since loam buildings are rarely higher than 2. The building’s resonant frequency should
two storeys, this section mainly discuss- not match the frequency of the earth move-
es the earthquake resistance problems of ment during earthquakes. This means that
these kinds of buildings. heavy houses with solid construction should
In one- or two-storeyed buildings, the princi- not rest on hard rock bases, but instead on
pal danger during earthquakes is that walls sandy or silty soils. Light houses, however,
will fall out and roofs will come down. There- perform better on hard rock than on soft soil.
fore, one of the main structural tasks when 3. The different parts of a house should not
designing earthquake-resistant buildings is have foundations on different levels, nor
to insure that walls do not fall out. have differing heights. If they do, then they
should be structurally separated. Since sec-
Structural measures tions of different heights display differing
resonant frequencies, they should be al-
When designing for earthquake-prone zones, lowed to oscillate independently.
it should be considered that the seismic forc- 4. Plans should be as compact as possible,
15.5 es acting on a building are proportional to its and should be symmetrical. Circular plans

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15.6

give better rigidity than rectangular ones domes should be sufficiently contained by
(15.4). ring beams, buttresses or ties.
5. Foundations have to act like stiff ring an- 15. Openings destabilise walls and should
chors, and should therefore be reinforced. be carefully proportioned (15.23). There
6. Foundations, walls and roofs should be are two basic approaches to designing for
well fixed to each other, the joints being able earthquake resistance. The first and most
to withstand the shear forces produced. commonly used method is to construct walls,
7. Walls must be stable against bending and roofs and their joints stiffly enough so that
shear forces. Masonry work must have fully they cannot break or be deformed under
15.7 filled joints and strong mortar. seismic loads. The second approach is to
8. Load-bearing masonry walls should endow the structure with sufficient ductility
have minimum thicknesses of 30 cm; their so that the kinetic energy of any seismic im-
heights should not exceed eight times their pact will be dissipated via deformation. This
thicknesses (15.5). is the more intelligent solution, especially as
9. Masonry walls should be stiffened with it entails fewer structural problems and ma-
piers at a minimum every 4 m (with minimum terials.
sections of 30 × 30 cm), or with posts that If, for example, a vertical wall with a framed
are structurally fixed in the foundation (i.e. structure stabilised by tensile diagonals
able to take movement) (15.7). is impacted horizontally from the right (as
10. Wall corners, joints between walls and shown in 15.9), there will be a concentration
across walls, as well as door openings have of stress on both ends of the tie leading from
to be stiffened by vertical posts of either lower left to upper right. Weakness, then, will
timber or reinforced concrete, which are occur first at these joints, possibly leading
structurally fixed in the foundation, or by but- to wall failure. An elastically framed struc-
tresses, so that horizontal forces do not open ture without diagonals, on the other hand –
these elements (15.8, 15.22). provided the corners are able to take some
15.2 Wattle-and-daub house after heavy earthquake, 11. Walls have to be finished on top by a ring moment and that no structural element is
Guatemala 1976 beam, which has to be adequately fixed to overloaded – usually allows deformation to
15.3 Earthquake-prone areas (Houben and Guillaud, the walls. occur without leading to wall collapse. In the
1984) 12. Extra lintels above doors and windows second case, obviously, the infill of the frame
15.4 Floor plans should be avoided, and should be formed by must also be somewhat flexible. Therefore,
15.5 Wall proportion ring beams (15.21). walls built with the wattle-and-daub tech-
15.6 Location of houses on a slope 13. Roofs should be as light as possible. nique in which a flexible network of horizon-
15.7 Adobe walls, stabilised by buttresses 14. The horizontal thrusts of vaults and tal and vertical components is plastered with

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 1 Ring beam is lacking.
2 Lintels do not reach deeply enough into masonry.
3 The distance between door and window is too small.
4 The distance between openings and wall corner is
too small.
5 Plinth is lacking.
6 The window is too wide in proportion to its height.
7 The wall is too thin in relation to its height.
8 The quality of the mortar is too poor, the vertical joints
are not totally filled, the horizontal joints are too thick
(more than 15 mm).
9 The roof is too heavy.
10 The roof is not sufficiently fixed to the wall.

15.10

loam, for example, are less prone to damage large cracks after the second stroke (15.11).
than masonry walls. Illustration 15.1 shows After three strokes, one section of the wall
a house in Guatemala that was struck by a separated (15.12), and after four strokes the
heavy earthquake and was flexible enough house collapsed (15.13). The rammed earth
to withstand the stress. There are three dif- house with circular plan, however, displayed
15.8 ferent general principles for designing earth- initial cracks only after three strokes (15.14),
quake-resistant structures: and one small section of the wall separat-
1. Walls and roof are well interconnected and ed only after six strokes (15.15) (Yazdani,
rigid enough that no deformation occurs dur- 1985).
ing earthquakes. A simple solution for stabilising rammed
2. Walls are flexible (ductile) enough so that earth walls of lesser thicknesses is to use
the kinetic energy of the earthquake is ab- L, T, U, X, Y or Z shaped elements (15.17).
15.9 sorbed by deformation. In this case it is nec- Due to their angles, they have better stability
essary to install a ring beam strong enough against lateral forces. If a wall is 30 cm thick,
to take bending forces; the joints between the free ends of the elements should not be
wall and ring beam, and ring beam and roof longer than 3/4 and no shorter than 1/3 of
must be strong enough. their heights (15.19). This minimal length
3. The walls are designed as mentioned un- is necessary to transfer loads diagonally to
der 2, but the roof is fixed to columns that the plinth or foundation. If the free ends are
are separated from the wall, so that both longer than 3/4 of their heights, they should
structural systems can move independently, be stabilised by another angle. If the angle
since they have different frequencies during is well fixed on the bottom to the plinth and
an earthquake. on the top to a ring beam, it should be larger
Three research projects undertaken by the or higher. Nevertheless, height should not ex-
15.8 Stabilisation of walls
Building Research Laboratory, University ceed the width by eight times (15.6).
15.9 Destabilisation through horizontal impact of
a vertical wall with a framed structure stabilised by
of Kassel, Germany, analysing earthquake The forces perpendicular to the wall are
tensile diagonals damage to single-story rural houses in Gua- transferred into the angle parallel to the di-
15.10 Typical design mistakes which might lead to a temala, Argentina and Chile, concluded that rection of force. This means that it is trans-
collapse of the house the same errors in structural design consist- ferred, instead of creating a concentration of
15.11 to 15.15 Earthquake tests with models of ently led to collapse. The ten principal mis- stress at the inner corner of the angle. It is
square and circular shape (Minke, 2002) takes are listed in 15.10. advisable, therefore, to enlarge the section
15.16 Simple test to study the influence of wall At the BRI, a simple test was developed with- at this corner, as shown in 15.17 and 15.18.
shape on resistance to seismic shocks (BRI) in the context of a doctoral thesis to show
15.17 Elements with correct corner details the influence of wall shape on resistance to Openings for doors and windows
15.18 Corner solution seismic shocks. A weight of 40 kg at the end
15.19 Recommended proportions of a 5.5-m-long pendulum was allowed to fall Wall apertures will destabilise a wall sys-
15.20 Typical failures caused by seismic movements against a model (15.16). The rammed earth tem. During earthquakes, diagonal cracks
(Tolles et al., 2000) house with a square plan showed the first often occur, starting at the window edges

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15.11 15.12 15.13

15.14 15.15

normal solution optimised solution

15.17 15.18

15.16 15.19

15.20

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15.21

15.22

15.21 Types of lintels 15.23 15.24

15.22 Stabilised openings

15.23 Recommendable dimensions of openings
15.24 Recommendable positions of openings
15.25 and 15.26 Earthquake-resistant low-cost
housing prototype with bamboo-reinforced rammed
earth walls, Guatemala, 1978

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15.25 15.26

(15.20). In order to achieve a good bond, (CEMAT), both in Guatemala (15.25 to 15.29). then painted with a mixture made of one
lintels must penetrate at least 40 cm into In this project, 80-cm-wide and one-storey- bag of hydraulic lime, 2 kg common salt,
the wall (15.21). In this case, however, the high bamboo-reinforced rammed earth el- 1 kg alum, 1 kg clayey soil and about 40 li-
area above the lintel may be weak and may ements were constructed using a T-shaped tres of water.
come off during an earthquake, so the best metal formwork 80 cm wide, 40 cm high In 1998 the BRI developed another rein-
solution is to use the lintel as a ring beam on and 14 to 30 cm thick (15.28). The stability forced rammed earth wall system that was
which the roof structure rests. It is also rec- of the wall was provided by four builtin bam- utilised for a low-cost housing project built in
ommended that the section below the win- boo rods 2 to 3 cm thick and the T-shaped cooperation with the University of Santiago
dow be built as a light, flexible structure, for section of the wall element. These elements de Chile in Alhué, Chile, in 2001 (15.30 and
instance from wooden panels or wattle and were fixed at the bottom to a bamboo ring 15.31). Here too, the idea was to separate
daub. The following rules have to be taken anchor that was embedded in the stone ma- the roof from the wall system and to use
into account (15.23 and 15.24). sonry plinth, and attached at the top to a rec- U-shape and L-shape elements, which stabi-
a) The width of a window should not be more tangular bamboo ring anchor. lise themselves by their shape.
than 1.2 m and not more than 1/3 of the Due to the rib that was integrated into the wall To obtain additional stability, they were re-
length of the wall. element, this element has about four times inforced by vertical rods of coligüe (similar
b) The length of walls between openings stronger resistance against horizontal forces to bamboo), 3 to 5 cm in diameter. Wall el-
must be at least 1/3 of their height and not than a 14 cm wall alone would have had. ements were also always separated by light,
less than 1 m. After drying, a 2 cm vertical gap appears be- flexible elements, or by doors and windows.
c) Doors must open outwards. Opposite the tween these elements. This is then packed The lower parts of the windows and the parts
entrance door should be a large window or with loam. This joint acts as a pre-designed above the doors were not built with solid el-
another door, which acts emergency exit failure joint, allowing an independent move- ements, but of light timber. The gables were
(15.24). ment of each element during the earth- built in lightweight straw-loam stabilised by
quake. wooden elements, similar to the wattle-and-
Bamboo-reinforced rammed earth This means that these joints can open and daub system.
walls the whole structure can deform (dissipating
seismic kinetic energy) without the wall unit Steel-reinforced sprayed loam
A bamboo-reinforced panelled rammed breaking or falling. The posts on which the walls
earth wall technique was developed in 1978 roof rests are located 50 cm away from the
as part of a research project by the BRI, walls (15.27) on the inside, so that the roof Two techniques utilising sprayed loam for
and successfully implemented jointly with structure is independent of the wall system. earthquake-resistant structures that employ a
the Francisco Marroquín University (UFM) The rammed earth surface was not plas- steel reinforcement respectively a steel skele-
and the Centre for Appropriate Technology tered, but only smoothed by a trowel and ton are described in detail on pp. 82–84.

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 15.27 15.28

15.29 15.30

15.27 to 15.29 Earthquake-resistant low-cost

housing prototype with bamboo-reinforced rammed
earth walls, Guatemala, 1978
15.30 to 15.32 Earthquake-resistant prototype
building, Alhué, Chile, 2001 15.31

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 Galvanzied shee metal
Wind barrier
Thermal insulation, 100 mm
Vapour barrier
OSB, 9 mm thick
Beam, pine

+ 225 cm
OSB, 9 mm thick
Lightweight loam
Pine, 50.8 mm (2") Post 102 × 127 mm
(4 × 5")
Ring beam, ø 127 mm (5")
Vertical reinforcement (coligüe), ø Wooden reinforcement,
76 mm (3") @ 60 cm 25 × 102 mm
(1 × 4")(4 × 5")

Rammed earth

Damp-proofing
Floor
Damp-proofing
+/- 0.0
Sand

Steel support,
Fine gravel 6 mm thick
Coarse gravel

Stone
Natural ground

Compacted earth
Reinforcement (coligüe)
Stones
Footing (poor concrete)

15.32

Steel-reinforced adobe wall system in height, built in La Paz, Bolivia, in 2000. inner third of the surface of the foundation.
The dome is stabilised by two reinforced con- This means that eccentricity should be less
The foundation Tierra Viva from Colombia crete ring beams, one at the bottom of the than 1/6. The foundation must have a re-
used adobes with two holes through which dome, another at the top of the foundation. inforced concrete or steel beam, which can
steel-reinforcement bars can be threaded In order to provide good sound distribution also withstand the additional horizontal forc-
and cement slurry poured, see p. 146. within the dome, the adobes were made by es created by an earthquake (15.38). Illus-
hand in a special mould with rounded edges. tration 15.37 shows a section of a building
Domes The acoustic behaviour of the dome was fur- which was built in an earthquake-prone area
ther refined by deepening the vertical joints in Bolivia. Its plinth has structurally danger-
In order to construct a structurally optimised in order to achieve some sound absorption ous proportions, as the resultant force from
dome without formwork, the BRI developed and by a slight cantilevering position, which the vault creates a bending moment in the
a rotational guide that is fixed to a vertical prevents the sound from being focused to- plinth and does not stay within the inner third
mast. An angle is fixed at the end of the ro- wards the centre of the dome. of the wall, as necessary. This structure will
tating arm, against which the mason lays the readily collapse when hit by an earthquake.
adobe or soil block, allowing block to be po- Vaults The cross-section of a vault is very important
sitioned with precision. Illustrations 15.33 to for stability. For vaults that carry only their
15.36 show the application of this construc- An important rule for the design of plinth and own dead loads, an inverted catenary is the
tion technique for an earthquake-resistant foundation is that the resulting force at the optimal section, as no bending moments
dome with an 8.8 m free span that is 5.5 m bottom of the vault must pass through the will occur within the vault. Pointed vaults, as

141 Steel-reinforced adobe wall system

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15.33 15.34 15.35

15.37 15.38

15.36

15.33 and 15.34 Rotational guide

15.35 and 15.36 Finished dome
15.37 Wrongly designed plinth with eccentric thrust
line, which collapses easily when hit by seismic
shocks
15.38 Earthquake-resistant design for a low-cost
housing project in Gujarat, India
15.39 and 15.40 Dangerous shapes of vaults, Bam,
Iran 15.39
15.41 Vault which withstood earthquake at Bam,
Iran, December 2003
15.42 Manufacturing custom-tailored adobes
15.43 Preparing bamboo arches
15.44 Test vault
15.45 Vault with post-tensioned membrane cover

142 Earthquake-resistant building

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 15.42
15.40

15.41 15.43

15.44 15.45

shown in 15.39, or “flat” vaults as shown in guarantee a certain degree of ductility, was tensile forces during an earthquake. Above
15.40, typical for Iranian architecture, col- realised in a test structure built in 2001 at the adobe vault, a membrane of PVC-coat-
lapse very easily when hit by seismic shocks, the University of Kassel, Germany (15.42 to ed polyester fabric was fixed and tightened
whereas the vault in 15.41 withstood the 15.45). It was built using special U-shaped to the plinth. This has two functions: first,
heavy earthquake in Bam, Iran, in December adobes that rest on an arch, itself built of it provides shelter against rain and wind;
2003. Only the front part fell off. (cf. Beygi three layers of split bamboo. The bamboo second, it pre-tensions the arch, thereby
and Khosravi, 2020, on reconstruction ef- sections were soaked in water for 3 days in increasing its stability against tremors dur-
forts). The best solution for the facades of order to render them flexible. Then they were ing earthquakes. Such tremors may deform
vaults is to build them to be light and flexible, bent over sticks, which were pushed into the vault to a certain extent, causing adobe
either of mats covered with earth plaster, or the ground along a catenary curve (15.43). joints to open, but the vault will not collapse,
of timber planks. To maintain the shape of the arch, the three since it is held up by the tensile pre-stressed
Illustration 15.38 shows a design by the au- bamboo sections were wrapped together membrane at the top and the compressive
thor for an earthquake-resistant low-cost with galvanised steel wire at 50 cm intervals. prestressed bamboo arch underneath. The
housing project in the region of Gujarat, India. The arch was vertically positioned and fixed stability of this structure, then, depends
In 2001, a proposal by the author for stabilis- to steel bars that stick out of the plinth. This mainly on its ductility. However, it must be
ing adobe vaults with bamboo arches, which connection must be capable of absorbing taken into account that if the pre-tension of

143 Vaults
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15.46

the membrane is high, the optimal section Thin wooden posts are hammered into the
of the vault is more like an ellipse and not a ground, and the fabric fixed to these from the
reversed catenary. inside. The space between is filled with soil.
For earthquake regions in Argentina and The research also showed that wall elements
Iran, the author developed a similar preten- of this type without infill can be prefabricat-
sioned system for mud brick vaults. Illustra- ed to lengths of up to 10 m and then folded
tion 15.46 shows a design for an orphanage and rolled up into small bundles (15.48 and
building in Bam, Iran, where vaults are con- 15.49).
structed with thicknesses of 25 cm. They are The second system consists of hoses of jute
pre-tensioned by steel strips, which are tight- fabric filled with pumice or sandy soil (15.51).
ened to the reinforced concrete ring beam The fabric is covered with several layers of
at the bottom of the vault. Equal pre-tension lime paint (15.52) in order to prevent rotting
forces in all parts are ensured by using a cal- of the material and to stabilise the surface
ibrated torque wrench. The optimal section and make it waterproof.
of the vault is derived by a computer pro- As part of a cooperative research project of
gramme. This system was successfully test- the BRI with UFM and CEMAT from Guatema-
ed in full scale on the earthquake-simulation la in 1978, a 55 m2 low-cost prototype house
table of the Catholic University at Lima, Peru. was erected in Guatemala using earth-filled
The video of this test can be seen at hoses for the walls. This technique, devel-
www.gernotminke.de/Publikationen oped during experiments with the earth-filled
hose technique described earlier, and adapt-
Textile walls with loam infill ed to local conditions in Guatemala (15.53 to
15.55), shows very good earthquake resist-
A BRI research project begun in 1977 exam- ance due to its ductility.
ined various approaches to forming walls us- Here, the hoses, measuring 10 cm in diame-
ing textile components filled with clayey soil, ter, were made from cotton fabric, and were
pumice or sand. filled with volcanic soil containing mainly
Illustration 15.47 shows the dome structure pumice. They were dipped into lime milk (in
built in 1977, from earth-filled polyester hos- order to prevent rotting of the fabric), and
15.46 Design for an orphanage in Bam, Iran es. then stacked between twin vertical posts
15.47 Dome, Kassel, Germany, 1997 Two newly developed systems were tested erected at distances of 2.25 m.
15.48 and 15.49 Prefabricated wall elements in a prototypical low-cost house intended for Additional stability was provided by bam-
15.50 Prototype building, Kassel, Germany, 1978 earthquake-prone areas in developing coun- boo rods fixed vertically at a spacing of
15.51 and 15.52 Prototype building, Kassel, tries. The first, illustrated in 15.50, consisted 45 cm within each panel. After the walls were
Germany of walls formed by two layers of jute fabric. stacked, they were finished with two layers of

144 Earthquake-resistant building

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 15.48

15.47 15.49

15.50

15.51 15.52

145 Textile walls with loam infill

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15.53

15.55

15.54

15.56 15.57 15.58

lime paint. The roof structure rests on inde- tar drops into those holes, which are to be
pendent posts located 50 cm away from the filled with steel and cement, a plastic tube is
walls on the inside. The material costs of this inserted (15.56). The vertical bars are con-
structure were only about one half the cost nected to the horizontal concrete beams. Ad-
of a comparable house made of cement con- ditional horizontal reinforcement is given by
crete blocks. Walls built of fabric hoses filled steel bars inserted in the mortar layers. The
with mineral lightweight loam are described columns are reinforced by vertical steel bars
in chapter 10, p. 90 and chapter 14, p. 131. threaded through the holes (15.58). The sys-
tem was used for the Casa Viva settlement
Steel-reinforced earth walls in Vigachí, Colombia, a pilot project for social
housing of the government of Antioquia. The
Another possibility of creating earthquaker- 104 houses were built for 650 people and
esistant masonry walls from compressed have either one or two storeys (15.60). For
earth blocks was developed by the Tierra the project 401,440 blocks were produced.
Viva Foundation in Barichara, Colombia. The
blocks are made of local soil and stabilised
by 8% of cement. They were produced by
a manually operated press. They show two
holes, into which steel reinforcement bars
can be inserted and cement slurry can be
filled (15.57). In order to prevent that mor-

146 Earthquake-resistant building

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 mortar with steel and cement, a plastic tube is
be filled inserted (15.56). The vertical bars are con- 15.56 15.57 15.58
is nected to the horizontal concrete beams.
con- 15.56 15.57 15.58
Additional horizontal reinforcement is given
ams. by steel bars inserted in the mortar layers.
given The columns are reinforced by vertical steel
yers. bars threaded through the holes (15.58).
l steel The system was used for the Casa Viva
58). settlement in Vigachí, Colombia, a pilot
va project for social housing of the government
ot of Antioquia. The 104 houses were built
rnment for 650 people and have either one or two
uilt storeys (15.60). For the project 401,440
or two blocks were produced.
0

15.59
15.59
15.56 to 15.58 Reinforc-
15.59 ing steel rods are thread-
15.56 to 15.58 Reinforc- ed through the com-
ing steel rods are thread- pressed earth blocks and
ed through the com- additional horizontal
pressed earth blocks and reinforcement is added
additional horizontal 15.59 The social housing
reinforcement is added project under constructi-
15.59 The social housing on
project under constructi- 15.60 Casa Viva settle-
on ment in Vigachí, Colombia
15.60 Casa Viva settle-
ment in Vigachí, Colombia

15.60 15.60

149 Earthquake-resistant building

15.60

149 Earthquake-resistant building

15.53 to 15.55 Low-cost housing prototype,

Guatemala, 1978
15.56 to 15.58 Reinforcing steel rods are threaded
through the compressed earth blocks and additional
horizontal reinforcement is added
15.59 The social housing project under construction
15.60 Casa Viva settlement in Vigachí, Colombia

147 Steel-reinforced earth walls

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 Built examples

Vineyard residence
Mornington Peninsula, Victoria,
Australia

Architect: John Wardle Architects,

Melbourne, Australia
Completion: 2002
Wall system: Rammed earth
Floor area: 400 m²

The predominant elements of this residence,

which is situated in a large vineyard, are the
rammed earth walls. The living area extends
out to the north veranda, the kitchen to an
informal terrace area. The study opens up to
the garden.
The principal bedroom, with its walls angling
outward, evokes the impression of continu-
ing into the landscape. The entrance screen
reduces western sun into the living area.
Cross ventilation is achieved throughout all
areas.

148 Built examples

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149 Residences
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Residence cum office
Kassel, Germany

Architect: Gernot Minke, Kassel, Germany

Completion: 1993
Wall system: Poured lightweight earth
Dome system: Unfired clay bricks
Floor area: 155 m² (home) + 61 m² (office)

This combined residence/office building in a

suburb of Kassel, Germany, was built entirely
according to ecological standards. All main
rooms as well as a bathroom and the win-
ter garden are covered with earthen domes.
The entrance is covered by three jack vaults
built of green bricks, as explained in chapter
14. The central lobby is covered by a dome
with a clear span of 5.2 m and a clear height
of 4.6 m, which is provided with a skylight
consisting of a double-layered acrylic glass
dome. Leading off from this lobby are four
additional domed rooms. Each room has the
same span, with a clear height of 4 m, and
each is provided with a central skylight and
one window at normal height. The construc-
tion of these five domes was carried out us-
ing the rotational guide described in chapter
14. Though the central dome springs from a
height of 1.75 m, and the domes of the four
other rooms from heights of 0.75 m, no ring
beam is necessary, the structure being de-
signed so that all resultant forces fall with-
in the middle third of the foundations. The
domes in the bathroom and winter garden
are formed over an irregular hexagon, and
were built using a technique derived from the
Afghan dome technique (see chapter 14, p.
126) using arches inclined at angles of 40°
to 60° from the horizontal. All domes are
covered with a layer of 20 cm rock wool for
thermal insulation and sealed with a 2-mm-
thick, hot-air welded reinforced plastic mem-
brane, which is waterproof and “root-proof”.
This is covered with 15 cm of earth, which
acts as substrate for the frost-resistant and
drought-resistant wild grasses. Walls, shelves
and sanitary objects are covered by earth-
filled hoses and even the bathroom sink is
made from unbaked loam (see pp. 129–131).

150 Built examples

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151 Residences
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Residence
Helensville, New Zealand

Architect: Graeme North, Warkworth,

New Zealand
Builder: Collen and John Brown
Completion: 2005
Wall system: Adobe masonry
Floor area: 180 m²

This owner-built house of 180 m² area re-

quired 9 years of work. The structure was
built of recycled timber, the adobes formed
by hand from local soil. The floors are of
earth slate or recycled timber. The glass fa-
cade enables passive solar heating. A wood
fire is installed for cooking, hot water and ad-
ditional heating.
The property features many permaculture as-
pects. There is a waterless composting toilet,
and a windmill pumps water to the garden.

152 Built examples

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153 Residences
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Residence
Palo Alto, California, USA

Architect: CCS Architecture (Cass Calder

Smith, Sean Kennedy, Cornelia Sterl),
San Francisco, CA, USA
Builder (rammed earth construction):
David Easton, Rammed Earth Works
Completion: 2010
Wall system: Pneumatically rammed earth
Floor area: 539 m²

This private residence was to accommodate

a family of five, a couple with three young
children. The clients’ rigorous sustainability
standards resulted in the design of several
features improving the building’s energy ef-
ficiency. A breezeway leads to the entrance
and the yard beyond, while also separat-
ing the main house from the garage, guest
house and studio. The upper level bridges
over these two and becomes the ceiling of
the breezeway. The lower level of the house
accommodates kitchen, dining, family room
and office. The upper floor contains three
bedrooms, two bathrooms and a library.
The foundations are made with concrete, in
which 30% of the normal cement content
was substituted by fly ash for cost reasons.
The ground floor has primary walls of 41-cm-
thick pneumatically rammed earth made
with soil excavated from the site. The upper
floor, framed in wood and steel, is clad in
wood siding plus aluminium panels. Between
the two is a 46-cm-high ribbon of glass that
COWPER STREET

admits soft light. Roof-mounted photovolta-

ic panels generate electricity for the house
and solar water panels provide domestic hot NATURAL PLANTING

NATURAL PLANTING

water and radiant floor heating. A gas boiler

gives backup heat in winter months. Passive
DRIVEWAY
BREEZE
WAY
MEADOW

DECK

night cooling is provided by cross ventilation

9

STONE TERRACE

at summer times.
LAWN

VEGETABLE GARDEN

MEADOW

154 Built examples

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155 Residences
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Weekend house
Ajijic, Mexico

Architect: Tatiana Bilbao (David Vaner,

Catia Bilbao, Thorsten Englert, Damián
Figueras, Adriana de Cavalho, Alex
Cebrales), Colonia Juárez, Mexico
Completion: 2010
Wall system: Cement-stabilised rammed
earth
Floor area: 298 m² (house), 44 m² (house
keeper)

The house is situated in the town of Ajijic

and directly on Lake Chapala in the State of
Jalisco. The design comprises four cubic ele-
ments: two volumes, which are open to the
landscape and afford uninterrupted views
over the lake, accommodate living and din-
ing. The third one houses the more intimate
spaces of bedrooms, bathroom and studio.
The fourth cube provides a living unit for the
people who take care of the estate all year
round.
All walls were made from rammed local soil.
Due to the necessary earthquake resist-
ance, they are 60 cm thick and stabilised by
8% of cement. Due to the low precipitation
levels in the region, the walls did not need
any water-repellent cover by plaster or paint.
The roofs are made of 20-cm-thick concrete
slabs.

0 0.5 1 2 5 10 m

156 Built examples

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 North elevation

0 0.5 1 2 5 10 m

West elevation

157 Residences
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Desert Outpost residence
Paradise Valley, Arizona, USA

Architect: Jones Studio

Contractor: The Construction Zone
Completion: 2012
Wall system: Rammed earth walls
Floor area: 371 m²

The site of this private residence at the base

of the Phoenix Mountains slopes in three di-
rections, with the house located on the crest
of the hill. Its client, Michael Lacey, had re-
quested a home built of “mud and shadow”.
The residence is a series of simple rectan-
gular boxes set along two covered exterior
paths. One path, starting at the street, leads
to the entrance and aligns with the Papa-
go Mountains in the distance. The second
path links the main living spaces in a cluster
around a central exterior space, recalling the
form of a traditional desert hacienda. Each
box accommodates a different use: living,
sleeping, playing and working. A wooden can-
opy provides shade, filters the daylight and
draws the boxes together. For this canopy,
Douglas Fir was used – in the dry air and in-
tense sun of the desert, the wood will weath-
er to a worn grey tone.
Walls formed of rammed earth frame the
main spaces. The material and the vistas
through the full-height glass windows create
a connection between the interior and the
desert site. The rooms are sheltered by the
building form, behind the deep apertures of
the rammed earth walls or set back in the
delicate shadows from the wood canopy
above. A lap pool is located on the axis of the
main entryway. The rooftop is equipped with
photovoltaic panels. Legend
1 Access
2 Entrance
3 Living/dining
4 Kitchen
5 Owner's suite
6 Study/office
7 Guest suite
8 Library/reading room
9 Outdoor living/dining
10 Garage
11 Carport

158 Built examples

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159 Residences
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Artist's residence
Boulder, Colorado, USA

Architects: Tres Birds (Michael M. Moore,

Shawn Mather, John Bezouska)
Structural engineer: Gebau Engineering
Completion: 2013
Wall system: Rammed earth in layers of
different colours
Floor area: 650 m²

The 650 m² private residence for Boulder art-

ist Rebecca DiDomenico, marks North Boul-
der with a new iconic landmark. The struc-
ture was built using 180 tonnes of regional
soil, compressed into 76-cm-thick walls. This
adds significant thermal mass to the build-
ing’s whole, optimal for temperature regu-
lation. By mixing different mineral colours
into the soil and creating different layers of
varying heigths during the ramming process,
an artistic design was created. Some parts
of the surface were even carved. The outer
wall was covered with a transparent paint as
a barrier against rain erosion.
Floors were ground to the point of reaching 1 5

their natural polish and stacked black river

rocks make up the bathroom walls. Spanish 2

Cedar as well as reclaimed railroad boxcar 6

3 7
flooring blend the building’s earth tones with 4
2

the stark white walls.

The project is energised using 100% renew- 8
4 9
able resources, demonstrating fossil-free po- 10
11

tential of the built environment. Four vertical 12

13
14
geothermal wells were installed to transfer 15
RE: CIVIL

the earth’s energy to the building’s heating 1 Framed walls 9 Beam

16

and cooling system. A photovoltaic roof on 2 Concrete floor 10 Foundation wall

3 Steel joists 11 Foundation insulation
the carport generates energy for interior LED 12" CLOSED CELL 4 Steel stringer
PORTHOLE DORMER
BEYOND
12 Concrete slab
FOAM R-44 AT ROOF 12" CLOSED CELL

lighting and electricity. To test the energy ef-

LVL FRAMING FOAM/BATT R-44 AT ROOF
SPACING
RE: STRUCT
5 Arched steel support 13 Foundation footing
STRUCTURAL STEEL
STRUCTURAL STEEL ARCH
ARCH
6 Concrete wall 14 Perimeter drain
RE: STRUCT

ficiency of the structure, a Home Energy Rat-

RE: STRUCT

7 Sliding door system 15 Underslab drainage

WALL BEYOND

ing System (HERS) was performed, ranking 8 Floor joists 16 Column GLASS PANELS ALONG FRONT OF ROOMS

EXHAUST FAN

it in the 74th percentile and exceeding code WINDOW ASSEMBLY

DOUBLE PANED
R-5 TYPICAL
CONCRETE SLAB
HALF WALL

CONCRETE SLAB
FLOOR

requirements by three times. RAMMED EARTH

WALL ASSEMBLY
RAMMED EARTH
WALL ASSEMBLY
12" RAMMED EARTH
6" INSULATION
12" RAMMED EARTH

CONCRETE SLAB
HALF WALL

CONCRETE SLAB
FLOOR W/1" INSULATED
FOAM

FLOOR JOISTS FLOOR JOISTS

RE: STRUCT. RE: STRUCT.
FOUNDATION WALL FOUNDATION WALL
RE: STRUCT RE: STRUCT
FOUNDATION INSULATION UNCONDITIONED CONCRETE
CONCRETE SLAB, RE: STRUCT SLAB, RE: STRUCT

FOUNDATION FOOTING FOUNDATION FOOTING

RE: STRUCT RE: STRUCT

PERIMETER DRAIN PERIMETER DRAIN

RE: CIVIL RE: SOILS ENGINEER
UNDERSLAB DRAINAGE UNDERSLAB DRAINAGE
RE: CIVIL RE: SOILS ENGINEER

160 Built examples

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161 Residences
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Casa Martha
La Misión, Baja California, Mexico

Architect: Arquitectura Nativa (Alfredo

Navarro Tiznado)
Design team: Kenia Esmeralda García
Rosas, Hanna Appel Hernández, Giancarlo
Reyes Olguin
Completion: 2021
Wall system: Rammed earth walls
Floor area: 310 m²

Casa Martha, the retirement home for an ar-

chaeologist couple, Martha and Bill, is locat-
ed between the municipalities of Ensenada
and Rosarito, in the urban area of La Misión.
The plot has a size of 15 × 40 m, on a terrain
of rugged topography oriented towards the
Pacific Ocean.
The house comprises four levels in a terraced
arrangement. The ground floor is the access
level. The first floor is divided into two areas:
a visitor’s area with two rooms and a study
space that doubles as a painting and carpen-
try workshop or as a garage. There are also
two small interior gardens. The second floor
accommodates the core of the house – the
entertainment room, dining room and kitch-
en – with large windows and porches. Woven
salt pine shutters provide protection from the
prevailing winds while maintaining the priva-
cy of the interior. They also create a play of
light and shadow on the interior walls. At the
back of the social area, a staircase leads to
the third floor, where the master bedroom is
located. This uppermost level has panoramic
views onto the desert landscape.

162 Built examples

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163 Residences
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Condominiums Los Maitenes
Peñalolén, Santiago de Chile,
Chile

Architects: AYMA Arquitectura and Medio

Ambiente/Nicole Spencer Chuaqui (archi-
tect) with Inti Peraldi Willson and María José
Rojas Vicencio (collaborating architects)
Landscape design: Nicole Spencer Chuaqui
and María Isabel Cid Acevedo
Structural engineer: Guillermo Moreno Lara
Completion: 2023
Wall system: Wattle and daub with steel
mesh
Floor area: 1120 m²

Peñalolén is a community in the eastern sec- were built with earth and straw, and the fine
tor of Santiago de Chile, towards the moun- stuccos were stabilised with earth and sand,
tains. The Los Maitenes Condominiums are thus avoiding the use of cementitious addi-
located on a 4000 m2 plot of land and con- tives. During the construction process of the
sist of eight houses of 140 m2 each. The pro- homes, dozens of free practical workshops
ject faced two major challenges: first, it oc- on quincha and planting plant species were
cupied a site where all the native vegetation held with children, students and teachers
had been cut down and where 7000 m³ of to educate them about the importance of
fill material had been dumped. Thus, the soil regenerative and sustainable construction.
had to be improved to allow for the return of All houses were given a green roof, which
vegetation. Second, each of the houses – on provides excellent thermal insulation both in
a hill with a steep slope – had to be provided summer and winter while creating attractive
with an access from the street. conditions for birds and pollinating insects.
To ensure a minimal carbon footprint, the Green spaces account for 80% of the pro-
quincha technique was used as construction ject’s surface area, providing a high quality
system. The name derives from the Que- of life for its inhabitants and enhancing bio-
chua language and refers to walls, or fences, diversity on the site.
made of three materials: bamboo (or cane), The entire complex treats wastewater
woven bark panels (for reinforcement) and through a treatment plant (wetland) located
earth or mud to cover the structure. Essen- in the common square, which is then used to
tially, quincha is a post-and-beam structure irrigate common areas as well as the green
with infill of earth and straw. Earth from the roofs and gardens of each house, reducing
excavations was used for the insulation and water consumption by 80%.
plastering of the units; the rocks for the walls Most of the rainwater is captured and the
and landscaping were also found on the site, rest can infiltrate into the ground through the
thus achieving a substantial reduction of water-permeable pavement. Inside, recycled
construction waste. parquet was used and wooden windows with
The construction system only includes ce- thermopane achieve a good thermal perfor-
ment in the foundations of the houses and in mance.
the retaining walls, all the rest of the houses

164 Built examples

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165 Residences
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 N
SC
SC

R
R
SC
W

14 x 0,19 = 2,70

R
13 2
12 3
11 4

10 5

R
6

7
W W

W
LV

SC
FR SC

2% 2%

R
S H AFT

1
14 x 0,19 = 2,70 2
13
12 3

11 4

10 5
R

6
7
8
9
R

LV
R

SC W
FR SC

SC W

166 Built examples

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167 Residences
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Residence at Valle Tucán
Emboscada, Paraguay

Architect: Gernot Minke

Supervision: Jörg Janisch, Paraguay
Completion: 2021
Wall and vault system: Adobe masonry
Floor area: 185 m²

The “casa cúpula” is situated in the eco-vil-

lage “Valle Tucán” on the boundary of a small
city about 40 km away from the centre of
the capital, Asunción. The building is char-
acterised by a central octagonal living area,
covered by a dome. Around this space, all
other rooms are arranged, forming another
octagon. The interior of the dome measures
6 m across, has a height of 5 m and is lit by a
central skylight.
The dome was built of handmade adobes
laid in exact position by the help of a rota-
tional guide. In order to improve the acous-
tic behaviour of the dome, the adobes were
given rounded interior corners and laid slop-
ing outward by 20° with respect to normal,
horizontal coursing. Thus, the focusing effect
of sound reflection towards the centre of the
dome was reduced. Furthermore, the adobes
are shaped conically and have an inclined
outside end in order to save mortar and in-
crease structural stability.
The foundation consists of local stone, while
all exterior and interior walls are handmade
adobes from local earth that were plastered
on both sides with earth plaster. The outside Cloakroom
Bathroom
has a second layer of lime-stabilised earth
plaster. The dome is covered by stone slabs;
the slightly inclined roof around it has a veg- Bedroom
Laundry and
etation cover. The plants on the roof are wa- storage

tered by pumping up the filtered greywater

Living
from the house so that, after some months
Guestroom
of growing, a vegetation layer of 20 to 40 cm
provides substantial thermal insulation. Kitchen
Bath-
Through low and high openings, a night-cool- room

ing effect is achieved, which is increased fur-

ther by the thermal mass of the solid 28-cm-
Terrace
thick earth walls. The combined effect of the
thick earth walls, natural ventilation and the
green roof provided sufficient cooling.

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169 Residences
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Barrel-vaulted residential buildings
at Valle Tucán
Emboscada, Paraguay

Architect: Gernot Minke

Site manager: Jörg Janisch
Completion: ongoing
Wall and vault system: Adobe masonry
Floor area: between 33 and 208 m²

On the outskirts of the small town of Embos-

cada, the ecological settlement Valle Tucán
has been under construction since 2014. Its
residences are characterised by barrel vaults
covered by earth and vegetation. Walls and
vaults are built of handmade adobes.
Fifteen residential buildings, an event centre,
a restaurant and a workshop building have
been built. Most of the dwellings were built in
the Nubian vault technique, which was made
famous by the Egyptian architect Hassan
Fathy. The vaults have a clear height of 3.80 or
4 m.
The wastewater from the residential build-
ings is used to irrigate either the garden or
the green roof. As a result, the green roof,
overgrown with local herbs, reaches a height
of up to 40 cm. This plant cushion is an ideal
thermal insulation for the buildings. Together
with the large thermal storage mass of the
solid earth walls and vaults, it guarantees a
pleasant indoor climate.
The smallest house consists of only one bar-
rel vault of 33 m² living space and 14 m² cov-
ered terrace. However, there are also larger
types with two, three and five parallel barrel
vaults. Interesting interiors are offered by the
dwellings with cross vaults. In these cases,
the four vaults meet in the centre at inter-
secting natural stone arches.

170 Built examples

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171 Residences
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172 Built examples
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173 Residences
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National Environment Centre
at Thurgoona Campus
Albury, New South Wales, Australia

Architect: Clare Design (Lindsay and Kerry

Clare, Peter Poulet, Carlos Sogari, Anthony
Melinz, Ali Reda, Annie Tennant),
Mooloolaba, Australia in collaboration with
NSW Government Architect’s Office
Completion: 2000
Wall system: Rammed earth
Floor area: 1500 m²

The National Environment Centre is part of Riv-

erina Institute of TAFE (Technical and Further
Education) NSW, Australia's largest vocational
education and training provider; the campus is
located northeast of Albury. The National En-
vironment Centre offers programs in environ-
mentally related studies and sustainable agri-
culture. The building includes a rural science
workroom, laboratory and general learning
spaces, a computer laboratory, an administra-
tion and a recreation space. The region is sub-
jected to a difficult climatic range from hot, dry
and dusty in summer to cold and wet in winter
with temperatures reaching up to 40°C in the
summer and dropping to -4°C in the winter.
Two lines of buildings run east-west protecting
the courtyard. Orientated to the north for sun
control, all the major spaces have skylights tilt-
ed up to the south to induce airflow in summer
and provide high levels of daylighting through-
out the year. To the north, 60-cm-wide rammed
earth walls below the windowsill act as heat
sinks and radiate warmth in winter. The wall
construction on the south, east and west is re-
verse masonry veneer, i.e. lightweight plywood
cladding over masonry walls. The plywood
shades the walls from the heat of the summer
sun. The roof is insulated corrugated steel with
a zinc-aluminium coating on timber-framed ply-
wood box beams. A system of ground source
cooling and heating is incorporated, where air
is conducted through large, 25-m-long pipes
located 2 m underground. The stable ground
temperature of 17°C cools the air in summer
and warms the air in winter before entering the
classrooms.

174 Built examples

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175 Cultural, educational and sacred Buildings
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School
Rudrapur, Bangladesh

Architect: Anna Heringer, Eike Roswag,

Berlin, Germany
Consultant: Christof Ziegert, Berlin,
Germany
Completion: 2006
Wall system: Cob
Floor area: 325 m²

The school is a self-aid project using locally

sourced materials such as earth and bam-
boo. On the ground floor there are three
classrooms that are linked to a small “cave
room”, each via round hatches. On the top
floor there are two large multi-functional
rooms for common activities. The ground
floor walls were built using local moist-earth
construction techniques and traditional
cob-walling involving earth with a high rices-
traw content. The architects decided to leave
the wall structure exposed. Internally, they
were rendered with earth plaster and then
whitewashed. The floor structure of the up-
per storey consists of slatted bamboo and
a mud-straw mix (“weller”construction). The
roof is a framed structure resting on the pro-
truding girders of the floor slab below. The
facade of the upper floor consists of timber
windows clad with bamboo slats. The project
received the Aga Khan award in 2007.

176 Built examples

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177 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
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Chapel of Reconciliation
Berlin, Germany

Architect: Reitermann + Sassenroth, Berlin,

Germany
Planning and construction: Martin Rauch –
Lehm Ton Erde, Schlins, Austria
Completion: 2000
Wall system: Rammed earth with gravel
Floor area: 315 m²

The chapel stands at the border formerly sep-

arating West from East Berlin, on the site of
the former neo-Gothic Church of Reconcilia-
tion, which was demolished by the then East
German government. The interior is of oval
shape and is delimited by a rammed earth
wall 7.2 m in height and 0.6 m in thickness.
The roof and outer shell, formed by vertical
wooden strips, represents a second oval that
is eccentrically configured in relation to the
first. The rammed earth wall contains large
fragments of broken brick from the former
church, as well as gravel, which together con-
stitutes 55% of the material. The clay content
is only 4%. This coarse-grained mixture, with
a minimal moisture content of 8.1%, reduc-
es material shrinkage to only 0.15%. With
a humidity level of 50% and a temperature
of 20°C, the equilibrium moisture content
of the loam is 0.7%. The admixture of flax
fibres and intensive compaction with a tamp-
ing roller was able to produce a compressive
strength of 3.2 N/mm²(measured with 20 ×
20 × 20 cm cubes). The constantly changing
radius of curvature required the use of an in-
tricate special formwork.

178 Built examples

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179 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
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 Area: 160 m² (lecture theatre); 1900 m² (WISE
WISE Centre for Alternative

Centre) Technology, Machynleth, Wales,

Great Britain

The lecture theatre at the WISE Centre for

Alternative Technology is surrounded by a

WISE Centre for Alternative circular rammed earth wall with a thickness
of 50 cm, a height of 7 m and an outside

Technology diameter of 15 m. In order to obtain a con-

tinuous curvature a special formwork was
Machynleth, Wales, UK used. The earth was not stabilised, but the
surface was sprayed with a silicate solution
up to a height of 1.8 m, in order to protect
the surface against abrasion and to avoid,
for instance, staining of visitors’ clothes in

Architect: Pat Borer, David Lea, Penybont- the case of someone leaning against the
wall. Since the site itself is a slate quarry and
fawr, Powys, UK had no soil, the material (some 300 tonnes)
was sourced from a quarry some 70 km
Consultant: Rowland Keable, Rammed away that supplied an overburden of 'scalp-
ings' and sieved it to 6 mm. The earth had
Earth Consulting excellent properties and was dry enough.

Engineer: Buro Happold The hall is surrounded by a corridor. At its

south side a glass front collects solar heat,
Contractor: Frank Galliers which is stored in the earth wall behind. The
roof is built of timber trusses with 45 cm of
Completion: 2010 cellulose insulation, covered by terne-coated
stainless steel sheets.
Wall system: Rammed earth
176_193_kap_16_earth_NA_3a_2_korr_an_bp_part_1 24.10.12 16:18 Seite 187
Architect: Pat Borer, David Lea, Penybontfawr,
Floor area: 160 m² (lecture theatre); Powys, Great Britain
2000 m² (WISE Centre) Consultant: Rowland Keable, Rammed Earth
Consulting
Engineer: Buro Happold
WISE Centre for Alternative Contractor: Frank Galliers
The lecture theatre at the Technology,
WISE Centre Machynleth, Wales, for Completion: 2010
Great Britain
Area: 160 m² (lecture theatre); 1900 m² (WISE
Alternative Technology is surrounded by a Centre)
The lecture theatre at the WISE Centre for
circular rammed earth wall with
Alternative a thickness
Technology is surrounded by a
circular rammed earth wall with a thickness
of 50 cm, a height of 7.2 m and an moutside
of 50 cm, a height of 7 and an outside
diameter of 15 m. In order to obtain a con-
diameter of 15 m. In order tinuousto obtain
curvature a con-
a special formwork was
used. The earth was not stabilised, but the
tinuous curvature a special formwork was
surface was sprayed with a silicate solution 187 Cultural, Education
up to a height of 1.8 m, in order to protect
used. The earth was notthestabilised,
surface against abrasion but and totheavoid,
for instance, staining of visitors’ clothes in
surface was sprayed withtheacasesilicate
of someone leaning solution against the
wall. Since the site itself is a slate quarry and
up to a height of 1.8 m, in order to protect
had no soil, the material (some 300 tonnes)
was sourced from a quarry some 70 km
the surface against abrasion andanto
away that supplied avoid,
overburden of 'scalp-
187 Cultural, Educational and Sacred Buildings
ings' and sieved it to 6 mm. The earth had
for instance, staining of excellent
visitors’ propertiesclothes
and was dry enough. in
The hall is surrounded by a corridor. At its
the case of someone leaning against the
south side a glass front collects solar heat,
which is stored in the earth wall behind. The
wall. Since the site itselfroofis aof timber
is built slate trusses quarry
with 45 cm of
cellulose insulation, covered by terne-coated
and had no soil, the material (some 300
stainless steel sheets.

tonnes) was sourced from a quarry some

Architect: Pat Borer, David Lea, Penybontfawr,
Powys, Great Britain

70 km away that supplied an overburden of

Consultant: Rowland Keable, Rammed Earth
Consulting

'scalpings' (limestone with a small clay con-

Engineer: Buro Happold
Contractor: Frank Galliers

tent) and sieved it to 6 mm. The earth had

Completion: 2010
Area: 160 m² (lecture theatre); 1900 m² (WISE

excellent properties andCentre) was dry enough.

The hall is surrounded by a corridor. At its
south side a glass front collects solar heat,
which is stored in the earth wall behind. The
roof is built of timber trusses with 45 cm of
cellulose insulation, covered by terne-coated
stainless steel sheets.
187 Cultural, Educational and Sacred Buildings

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Primary school
Tanouan Ibi, Mali

Architects: LEVS architecten (Adriaan Mout,

Jurriaan van Stigt, Marianne Loof),
Amsterdam
Completion: 2013
Costs: 45,000 Euro
Wall system: Compressed and cement-
stabilised earth blocks
Floor area: 200 m²

The school was built in the Dogon area

of Mali and financed by the Foundation
Dogon Education in Amsterdam.The village
of Tanouan Ibi is a one-hour drive from the
main village of Koundou.
The building contains three classrooms in
a row and a pair of sheltered verandas on
the two long sides to provide spaces where
students can sit down between classes. The
arched roof structures of these arcades also
function as buttresses for the main vault,
which covers the classrooms. The class-
rooms measure 7 × 9 m and offer space for
about 60 students. Near the front entrance
there is a small office and a storage room.
Walls and vaults are built of hydraulically
compressed earth blocks. The roof has been
covered by a thick layer of 20 to 30 mm of
red earth, mixed with cement in order to
achieve a waterproof and water-resistant
layer. The gargoyles, manufactured by local
craftsmen, guarantee the swift drainage of
rainwater. In the roof, custom-made ceramic
tubes have been inserted, providing ventila-
tion for a pleasant interior climate and allow-
ing some daylight through the roof, almost
like a starry sky at night. During the rainy
season (two months), when students do not
attend classes, these tubes can be closed.

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 Section A-A

Section B-B

0 1 5 10 m 184 Built examples

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185 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
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Cemetery
Bushey, Hertfordshire, UK

Architect: Waugh Thistleton

Project manager: Deacon and Jones
Rammed earth: Earth Structures
Completion: 2017
Wall system: Exposed rammed earth
Costs: £ 6.8m
Floor area: 670 m²
6

Bushey Cemetery is a 6.5-hectare site of nat-

ural beauty situated within the meadows of 3
9

London’s green belt. Established in 1947, it

1
is one of the most significant Jewish burial 2
10

sites in the UK. The extension shown will al- 7

low for a further 8000 burials over the next 11

60 years. 4
8

A linear arrangement
West of buildings was de- 5
East

signed to reflect the rituals of the Jewish 6

burial process. Laid out along a north-south

axis, the buildings facilitate the movement 3
9

of mourners. A timber colonnade forms the

1
10
processional route
KEY to the prayer halls, which 2

1. Larch glulam canopy 7. Blown glass pendant light

are entered from theto west
2. Oak slats walls andand
slopingexited
ceiling to the 8. Rammed earth walls exposed internally 7

east, before mourners

4. Oak bench
are led towards the 10. Corten steel canopy
3. Glulam roof structure 9. 400mm thick rammed earth wall 11

graveside. 5. Sloping floor paved in earth brown encaustic tiles 11. Corten steel doors 4
8

6. Zinc standing seam roof 5

West
At the heart of the development are two mon- East

olithic prayer halls, discretely embedded into 7 Blown glass pendant

1 Larch glulam canopy B U S H E Ylight
CEM E T ERY PR AY ER HALL SEC T I O N , 1:10 0 @ A 3

a corner of the sloping site. Rammed earth, 2 Oak slats to walls and sloping ceiling 8 Rammed earth walls exposed internally 00 5m
5m
3 Glulam roof structure 9 400-mm-thick rammed earth wall
sourced from the site, defines the overall 4 Oak bench 10 Corten steel canopy
design and was chosen for its symbolic and 5 Sloping floor paved in earth brown encaustic 11 Corten steel doors
tiles
practical sensitivity to the Jewish faith, echo- KEY 6 Zinc standing seam roof
1. Larch glulam canopy 7. Blown glass pendant light
ing the traditional sentiment of the deceased 2. Oak slats to walls and sloping ceiling 8. Rammed earth walls exposed internally
3. Glulam roof structure 9. 400mm thick rammed earth wall
being laid to rest in plain wooden caskets, 4. Oak bench 10. Corten steel canopy

“returning to the earth”. 5. Sloping floor paved in earth brown encaustic tiles 11. Corten steel doors
6. Zinc standing seam roof
The rammed earth walls are left exposed
and create a calm, peaceful atmosphere. BUSH E Y CEM E T ERY PR AY ER HALL S

Oak paneling, larch glulam beams, earthen 0

tiles and corten steel doors complete the

natural, tactile material palette.

1 Meeting point and arrival area 5 Cohanim room

2 Reception 6 Prayer arch
3 Hand washing area 7 Mortuary
4 Prayer hall

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187 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
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The Village Nursery
Bellingdon, Buckinghamshire, UK

Architect: Gernot Minke, Kassel, Germany

Builder: HG Matthews, UK
Completion: 2020
Wall system: Compressed earth blocks
Vault system: Compressed earth block
masonry without formwork
Costs: £ 450,000
Floor area: 230 m²

The aim of this kindergarten was to create

a sustainable building with healthy indoor
climate using natural and local building ma-
terials.
The nursery is situated in a particularly beau-
tiful landscape on the edge of a village and
accommodates three groups of children aged
two to four years and one group of school
children up to ten years, who are in pre- and
post-school care while their parents work.
The individual rooms are grouped around an
octagonal central room covered by an adobe
dome. Specially shaped, unfired clay bricks
were used to build the dome. The bricks have
rounded edges to improve the room acous-
tics. These adobe bricks, called "strokes",
consist of clay and cut straw only and are
pressed into molds. The production technique
was developed by HG Matthews Brickworks.
The dome was built with the help of a rotation
guide, the strokes were laid in clay mortar.
To avoid the use of concrete on site, the foun-
dations were filled with compacted field flint
that was sifted from the topsoil of the sur-
rounding fields. The exterior octagonal walls
were built of load-bearing compressed earth
blocks measuring 425 × 160 × 100 mm,
covered by a 300-mm-thick external ther-
mal insulation consisting of three layers of
light “hempcrete” blocks made of hemp and
lime. The outer layer was made of handmade
bricks. The 160-mm-thick interior walls were
also made of earth blocks and covered by
earth plaster. The wooden roof structure has
a thermal insulation of 300 mm of hempcrete
and a ventilated cavity under a green roof that
has been seeded with grass and wildflowers.

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192 Built examples
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Centre for People with Disabilities
and Dipdii Textiles Studio
Rudrapur, Bangladesh

Concept and design: Anna Heringer

Project management: Stefano Mori
Consultants: Martin Rauch (earth), Andreas
Guetling (roof construction), Emmanuel
Heringer (bamboo roof)
Contractor: Montu Ram Shaw
Completion: 2020
Wall system: Cob
Floor area: 174 m² (rooms), 180 m² (ramp
and veranda)

The two-storey-building accommodates a cen-

tre for people with disabilities combined with
a small studio for the production of textiles,
allowing women to find work in their village. It
is called “Anandaloy” which can be translated
as “place of profound joy”. The name strikes
a positive note in a culture that traditionally
shuns people with disabilities as punished by
God. A large ramp leads to the first floor in or-
der to be accessible for wheel chairs.
The foundation was made of burnt bricks
while the walls consist of locally sourced
rammed earth using the cob technique that
needs no formwork. Cob is an ancient building
technology that is both simple and sturdy. Clay
subsoil, sand, straw and water are mixed to-
gether to make a malleable mud that is then
formed into monolithic walls. When the cob
dries it becomes hard which results in very
durable walls and columns. The columns, ceil-
ings and the roof construction are bamboo.
The ventilated roof has a lower layer of straw
and is covered by metal sheeting.
A special feature inside the building are the
“caves”, spaces for self-learning and relaxing
formed by hand from clayey soil lumps (also
built in cob technique). Because the Anan-
daloy project mainly uses earth available
nearby and bamboo from local farmers, the
biggest part of the budget was invested in lo-
cal crafts(wo)men. Thus, the building became
a real catalyst for local development. Because
of its sustainable and holistic concept, the
centre received the Obel Award 2020.

194 Built examples

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197 Cultural, educational and sacred buildings
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Adobe Dome Music Space
Aiguá, Uruguay

Design and supervision dome: Gernot

Minke, Kassel, Germany
Organisation and supervision: Macarena
Albarracin, Santiago Escarrá, Salta,
Argentina
Completion: 2020
Vault system: Adobe masonry without
formwork
Floor area: 38.5 m²

At a farm on the outskirts of the small town

of Aiguá, a dome was built from adobe, de-
signed for relaxation, meditation and mu-
sic-making for up to 50 people. Due to its spe-
cial acoustics, the building also serves as a
recording studio for experimental music. The
inner diameter of the dome is 7 m, the clear tance of Macarena Albarracin and Santiago outside, the dome was first covered with a
height in the middle is 5.40 m. The founda- Escarrá. It was built up utilising the “acous- two-layer earth plaster and then sealed with
tion and plinth as well as the circular entrance tic adobes” developed by the author. These a fleece-reinforced acrylic paint to make it
are made of locally available natural stones. have rounded edges to diffuse the sound weatherproof. The last layer of the transpar-
The entrance has a diameter of 1.60 m, so reflection and are walled up at an angle of ent paint was mixed with sand and clay pow-
the room has to be entered in a stooped po- approximately 20° to the outside to reflect der to achieve a clay-like appearance and to
sition and its height is only experienced once part of the sound upwards, thus reducing provide additional protection against ultravi-
inside. The floor slopes 20 cm towards the the focusing of the reflected sound towards olet radiation.
centre, so that no horizontal level is percepti- the centre of the room. In addition, the joints The floor is made of rammed earth, its sur-
ble. This creates a special spatial impression, have been recessed to improve sound ab- face is divided into eight fields and a central
resulting in a sense of security and well-be- sorption. In order to achieve the statically octagon by wooden strips. The top layer of
ing. The top has an opening which is covered optimal cross-section of the dome, the ro- the floor consists of an approximately 2-cm-
by an octagonal, pyramidical skylight, exuding tational guide developed by the “Research thick earth render, which has been stabilised
a sense of being in touch with the cosmos. Laboratory for Experimental Building” at the with some lime and cement.
The dome was built during a two-week work- University of Kassel was used, which defines
shop directed by the author with the assis- the correct position for each adobe. On the

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Burkina Institute of Technology
Koudougou, Burkina Faso

Architect: Kéré Architecture, Jaime Herraiz

Completion: 2020
Wall system: Cement-stabilised rammed
earth
Floor area: 1000 m²

The Burkina Institute of Technology is based

on a system of repeated modules, housing
classrooms and auxiliary functions, arranged
orthogonally to define a rectangular court-
yard. The orthogonal layout of modules al-
lows the campus to be expanded incremen-
tally according to its needs. The modules are
staggered, allowing air to flow through the
central void, creating a cool space where
students can relax and interact.
The walls are made of cement-stabilised lo-
cal lateritic clayey soil poured into the one-
storey-high formwork and then rammed by a
special vibrator. Due to the special mixture,
which contains a high content of large parti-
cles, it was sufficient to use for stabilisation
only 4.5% of cement by mass, which corre-
sponds by volume to 100 kg per m³. The ba-
sic mixture contains per volume 57% of soil,
29% of crushed granite 05/15 and 14% of
coarse sand. The formwork was removed af-
ter 4 weeks.
The roof profiles, repeated regularly, create
a dynamic rhythm and form a chimney at the
back of each module where warm air can
be released. Suspended ceilings, made of
local eucalyptus wood, brighten the interior
spaces.
During the rainy season, water is channeled 01 2 5 10 m

1 Auditorium 200 seats 6 Teachers' room

into a large underground tank and stored 2 Auditorium 100 seats 7 Students' room
there. It is later used to irrigate the extensive 3 Computers 8 Teachers' bathroom
4 Classroom 9 Students' bathroom
mango plantations on the campus. 5 Exterior lessons

202 Built examples

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Maison pour tous
Four, Isère, France

Architect: designbuildLAB/ENSAG with

onSITE architecture
Completion: 2019
Wall system: Rammed earth
Floor area: 151 m²

The community centre “Maison pour tous”

for the village of Four in the Auvergne-Rhône-
Alpes region of France was designed and
built by the masters studio “designbuildLAB”
of the “Ecole Nationale Superieure d’Archi-
tecture de Grenoble”, under the supervision
of Professors Marie and Keith Zawistowski.
It comprises a multi-purpose hall as well as
technical space and storage. Towards the
north, a plaza was added that accommo-
dates outdoor events. On the other side of
the building, earth excavated for the foun-
dations was mounded to generate terraced
seating.
The open-plan centre is characterised by
large roof overhangs that passively warm
or shade the hall. Punched openings with
glazed, larch frame accordion doors link its
space to the surrounding landscape.
The project draws on the vernacular archi-
tectural tradition in south-eastern France
that once was dominated by unstabilised
rammed earth buildings (Zawistowski, Zaw-
istowski and Joffroy, 2020).

0 2 4 10 20 m

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600 mm rammed earth,
finished on the exterior,
corner chamfered
Sealing membrane
20 mm chamfer between
rammed earth wall and
foundation
In-situ concrete foundation,
600 × 400 mm

0 0.5 1 2.5 5m

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Rivergreen Centre
Aykley Heads, Durham, UK

Architect: David Kendall and Jane Darby-

shire, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Consultant: Rowland Keable, Rammed
Earth Consulting
Completion: 2005
Wall system: Rammed earth
Floor area: 4850 m²

The office building of Rivergreen Develop-

ments has a central 6-m-high, 60-cm-thick
rammed earth wall, which separates the
two-storey-high atrium from the offices on
the ground and first floors. The material used
in its construction was sourced locally with
approximately 80% obtained from the exca-
vation of the building's basement. The soil
was premixed from 60% of dug-out sand
from the site, 30% gravel and 10% clay
powder. As these aggregates were dry, they
could be mixed in an ordinary cement mix-
er. The mix was bagged and before usage
mixed again with water. The surface of the
wall was not stabilised, only loose particles
were brushed off. The wall did not receive a
surface treatment. The roof is formed by a
timber structure, covered by a layer of earth
and vegetation. Rooftop windows provide
daylighting and allow cross ventilation.

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High Country Visitor Information
Centre
Mansfield, Victoria, Australia

Architect: Gregory Burgess Architects,

Richmond, Australia
Builder: W. Pamall Constructions
Rammed earth subcontractor: Earth
Structures Australia
Completion: 2006
Wall system: Cement-stabilised rammed
earth
Floor area: 307 m²

The High Country region, located northwest

of Melbourne, is one of Australia’s foremost
destinations for hiking and skiing in the win-
ter time. Standing on the highway at the en-
trance to Mansfield, the High Country Visitor
Information Centre acts as a gateway to the
winter snow and summer bush activities of
the High Country. The building materials were
chosen to correspond to the typical textures
of the rugged region: earth, stone and corru-
gated iron. Locally-grown plantation southern
blue gum poles, selected in the field at the
beginning of the project and cut and cured
during the design process, form a sturdy
structure stepping around the infill rammed
earth walls, beneath the metal cladding.
The low-budget building shows a long curve
of rammed earth surmounted by a rippling 0 5 15 m

corrugated metal wall, which is reflecting the

light. Adjacent to the water tank of corrugat-
ed steel, timber columns form a “forest” of
free-standing poles in a walk-through court-
yard. The earth was stabilised by 8% cement
and the wall surfaces were painted with a
solvent-free aqueous silicone emulsion act-
ing as a water repellent.

212 Built examples

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213 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings

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Mii Amo Spa
Sedona, Arizona, USA

Architect: Gluckman Mayner Architects,

New York, USA
Completion: 2001
Wall system: Adobe brick; concrete mason-
ry units and cement stucco
Floor area: 3160 m²

This spa building is organised along a

50-m-long circulation spine, and it features
a large hallway defined by a timer-framed
roof and a terrazzo-ground concrete floor. A
continuous skylight runs along its length on
one side; opposite are five adobe brick tow-
ers rising up from the spine. The main floor is
dedicated to public spaces, with indoor and
outdoor pools, library, store, gym and café.
Nineteen private treatroom rooms and exer-
cise areas are located on the upper floor, de-
signed as simple white boxes and lit by cor-
ner windows and skylights. A circular room
within the spa, the Crystal Grotto, has an
earthen floor, domed ceiling and an oculus,
and it forms the heart of the complex.

0 10 20 40 m

1 Entry courtyard 13 Cafe

2 Lobby 14 Outdoor cafe
3 Hall 15 Exhibition kitchen
4 Outdoor courtyard 16 Men’s lockers and spa
5 Crystal Grotto 17 Men’s lounge
6 Retail 18 Women’s lockers and spa
7 Library 19 Women’s lounge
8 Fitness 20 Stair to treatment rooms
9 Yoga lawn 21 Director’s office
10 Indoor Grotto pool 22 Service area
11 Outdoor pool and spa 23 Mechanical
12 Juice bar 24 Service dock

214 Built examples

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215 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings
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Bayalpata Hospital
Acham, Nepal

Architects: Sharon Davis Design, New York;

Ethicons-EWES J/V, Nepal
Builder of earth walls: Subedi-Associate J/V
Completion: 2019
Wall system: Reinforced rammed earth
Floor area: 4227 m²

The new Bayalpata Hospital, made possible

through a collaboration between the govern-
ment of Nepal and the NGO Possible Health,
transformed an aged and overrun clinic into
a model of sustainable rural health care facil-
ity. The 3-hectare campus with a built area of
4227 m² is set on a hilltop and surrounded
by the terraced slopes of the Seti River valley.
It includes five medical buildings that house
outpatient, inpatient, surgery, antenatal and
emergency facilities for 70 beds, plus clinical
functions, such as pharmacy, radiology and
laboratory spaces. An administration block
with offices and a 60-seat canteen, plus ten
single-family houses and an eight-bedroom
dormitory, serve the hospital’s staff and
their families. Bayalpata delivers low-cost,
high-quality care to more than 100,000 pa-
tients a year from Achham and its six sur-
rounding districts, more than eight times of
the hospital’s original capacity. The facility
now serves a population of 1 million.
The architects used the locally available
clayey soil stabilised with 6% of cement and
vertical steel rebars for the rammed earth
walls and the local stone for foundations
and retaining walls. Photovoltaic cells on all
south-facing roofs generate more energy on
site than the campus requires. Passive heat-
ing and cooling are essential to the design,
only the operating theatre within the surgery
building is mechanically conditioned.

216 Built examples

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218 Built examples
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Office pavilion Earthbox
Asunción, Paraguay

Architects: Equipo de Arquitectura (Horacio

Cherniavsky and Viviana Pozzoli)
Structural engineer: Emilio Richer
Rammed earth consultant: Yago García-
Enríquez
Completion: 2018
Wall system: Rammed earth walls
Floor area: 45 m²

This pavilion was built by Equipo de Arquitec-

tura for themselves. A single continuous wall
wraps around a basic square plan. It opens
up to create the entrance to the office and
bends around a little restroom next to it. A
pre-existing guavirà tree was integrated into
the design, rises from the patio and creates
a division between working spaces and kitch-
en. Outside, a flame tree screens the earth-
box from the sun.
The 30-cm rammed earth walls, stabilised
by 5% cement, hold the weight of the roof,
resting on only 20 cm of their width and thus
exploiting the structural qualities of this ma-
terial. The remaining 10 cm on the perime-
ter hide the ceiling slab when seen from the
outside.
All of the furniture and doors are made of
recycled wooden formwork that was used to
cast the concrete slab that covers the office.
The library shelves are detached from the
walls and suspended.

220 Built examples

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222 Built examples
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223 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings
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Alnatura Office Building
Darmstadt, Germany

Architects: haascookemmrich STUDIO 2050

Structural engineer: Knippers Helbig GmbH
Earth works: Martin Rauch – Lehm Ton
Erde, Schlins, Austria
Energy concept: Transsolar
Completion: 2019
Wall system: Rammed earth sandwich
panels with interior thermal insulation
Floor area: 13,500 m²
Stairs, bridges and footbridges create connec-
The building, Europe’s largest office building tions between the office areas on three levels
with rammed earth facades, provides a new and enhance the spatial experience.
working world for the employees of the Alnat- The rammed earth elements in the exterior
ura company. The 90 × 40 m building, a rein- walls are each 3.5 × 1 m in size and weigh
forced concrete skeleton construction, forms about 4.5 tonnes each. They were made in a
a large hall with glazed facades to the east temporary factory on the site. The facades, 69
and the west. In the north and south facades, cm thick, comprise an outer rammed earth
storey-high windows alternate with massive shell of 38 cm, an inner shell of 14 cm and a
rammed earth walls. 17-cm-thick insulation layer in between. The
The ground floor accommodates a vegetarian latter consists of recycled foam glass. The
restaurant open to the public and functions insulation was introduced into the wall ele-
as a large meeting area, a communication ments while the clay material was compacted.
space for visitors and employees, including a The earth surfaces are left exposed on both
conference centre with cloakrooms and lock- sides of the wall and were only given a casein
ers. The transition between public and inter- glaze on the interior, which reduces the abra-
nal areas on the ground level is fluid. On the sion of the walls. Horizontal erosion brakes in-
upper levels, all workplaces are also arranged stalled on the outside at intervals of 30 to 60
in an open-plan space. The atrium is daylit by cm are intended to reduce the washing out of
a skylight strip over the full length of the roof. the rammed earth by rain.

224 Built examples

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Alnatura Arbeitswelt - Grundriss OG2 1:200

Alnatura Arbeitswelt - Grundriss EG 1:200

225 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings

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226 Built examples
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227 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings
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Prototype building TECLA
Massa Lombarda, Italy

Design: Mario Cucinella Architects,

Bologna/Milan
Consultant: Milan Engegneria
Construction: WASP Engineering
Completion: 2021
Wall system: 3D-printed stabilised earth
Floor area: 60 m²

TECLA is a circular housing model, made with

reusable materials. The name was derived
from “Technology and Clay”. The building
consists of two interconnected domes print-
ed of local earth via the 3D technology devel-
oped by WASP. Printing was done simultane-
ously by two cranes and the process lasted
200 hours. Each printer unit has a printing
area of 50 m2 and therefore the printing of
independent modules was possible. The
exterior surface was initially not protected
against the weather in order to wait and see
how the building would behave, particularly
in terms of settlement and erosion.

228 Built examples

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Dior Pop-up Store
Jumeirah, Dubai

Design: Dior and WASP

Construction: WASP
Completion: 2021
Wall system: 3D-printed stabilised earth
Floor area: 80 m²

On Dubai’s Nammos Beach at Jumeirah,

on the coast of the Persian Gulf, stands a
unique Dior installation composed of two cy-
lindrical modules. The walls of these pop-up
stores were printed with the 3D-printing sys-
tem developed by the Italian 3D-printer man-
ufacturer WASP utilising a mixture of clayey
soil, sand and raw fibres.
WASP (which stands for World’s Advanced
Saving Project) specialises in sustainable
additive construction. Here, the Crane WASP
system has been used. This so-called infinity
3D printer comprises a main printer unit that
can be assembled in different configurations
depending on the printing area and size. Two
Crane WASPs were transported from Italy to
Dubai to build the stores.
The design of the walls picks up the signa-
ture Dior cannage motif, a pattern that has
been used in many of Dior’s creations since
the late 1940s. Inspired by 18th-century
wickerwork salon chairs, the pattern features
paired warp and weft threads combined with
two crossed diagonal threads. The use of
this ornament in the external walls of the
two structures presented a challenge since
an error in one layer would compromise the
entire surface design.

230 Built examples

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232 Built examples
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233 Commercial, hospitality and health buildings
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About the author
In 1974, Gernot Minke founded the Research Laboratory for Experimental Building (FEB) at
the University of Kassel, devoted to the exploration of natural building materials. At this lab-
oratory, he directed more than 40 research and development projects in the field of building
with earth, building with straw, green roofs and low-cost housing. He taught at the University of
Kassel for more than 35 years and was the invited speaker at more than 60 international con-
ferences. Minke is also an independent architect and worldwide advisor for building ecology
as well as the author of numerous articles and several technical books, among them Building
with Bamboo (Third and revised edition 2023) and Straw Bale Construction Manual (2020).

Illustration credits Hörbst, Kurt: pp. 176–177; p. 194 top; p. centre; bottom left and right
195; p. 197 Naturbo: 7.18–7.20
Front cover: Iago Corazza Huber, Samuel: p. 179 top Norman, Ann: p. 210; p. 211 top
Back cover: Federico Cairoli; Gernot Minke; Hueber, Eduard – archphoto/design- North, Graeme: pp. 152–153
Eduard Hueber – archphoto/designbuild- build-LAB: p. 206; p. 207 top left, bottom Oliver, D.: 5.23; 5.24
LAB; Trevor Mein (from top to bottom) left and bottom right, 209 top Picador Pictures/Shutterstock: 1.5
Janisch, Jörg: p. 168 bottom; p. 169 bottom Rammed Earth Works: 5.19–5.21
right Reyna, Victoria: p. 200
Aureka Equipment Inc., Auroville, India: 6.13 Keable, Rowland: p. 203 middle row, right Reynolds, M.: 14.4
Baan, Iwan: pp. 156–157 Kéré Architecture: p. 202; pp. 204–205 Rodríguez, Oscar Hernández: pp. 162–163
Bilbao, Tatiana: p. 156 (model) Khan, Lewis/Waugh Thistleton: p. 186; Schijns, W.: 14.24
Blanco Barros, Pablo: pp. 164–167 p. 187 top; pp. 188–189 Schreckenbach and Abankwa: 8.8
Borer, Pat: p. 180 bottom right Kittelty, Trevor/Shutterstock: 1.6 Sharon Davis Design: p. 218
Breshna: 14.29 Klomfar, Bruno: p. 178; p. 179 bottom Soar, Tim: p. 180 top and bottom left; p. 181
Browell, Anthony: p. 174; p. 175 bottom left Lehm Ton Erde Baukunst GmbH/Emmanuel Stanwix, Will: p. 192 top left and right, p. 193
and right Dorsaz: 5.30–5.34 Stephenson, Jim/Waugh Thistleton: p. 187
Cerveny, Ludmilla/designbuildLAB: p. 209 Lehmwerk Kleinfahner: 7.9; 7.10 bottom
bottom Lespinasse, Lauriane/designbuild LAB: Tatay, Fernando/Shutterstock: 1.3
Cairoli, Federico: p. 220 top; p. 221, p. 223 p. 207 top right; p. 208 Tierra Viva: 15.56–15.60
Castaño, Diego: p. 198; p. 201 LEVS architecten: pp. 182–185 Timmerman, Bill: pp. 158–159
Castaño, Diego; Matias Villegas: p. 199 Lorenz-Ladener, C.: 6.5 Wacker Neuson: 5.10; 5.11
Clare, Lindsay: p. 175 top Lukas, G.: 8.9; 8.10 WASP: p. 229 centre, bottom
Claytec: 7.11–7.17 Mein, Trevor: pp. 148–149 Weller, K.: 6.14; 6.15
Corazza, Iago: p. 228, 229 top Mendez, Leonardo: p. 222 WEM: 7.21–7.22
Dorazillo, Marc/haascookemmrich STUDIO Michel, Thomas J.: 1.12 WikiCommons/Bernard Gagnon: 14.28
2050: p. 216 top Minke, Gernot: S. 6; 1.1; 1.4; 1.10; 1.11; WikiCommons/John Mackenzie Burke: 6.3
Dufter, Sylvester: 7.1, 7.2 1.13; 1.15; 1.16–1.23; 2.1–2.43; 3.1–3.12; WikiCommons/Maria Gropas: 6.2
Dwell Earth, New Hampshire, USA: 6.12 4.1–4.21; 5.1–5.9; 5.13–5.18; 5.22; 5.25; WikiCommons/Oliver Abels: 1.14
Felicella, Elizabeth: pp. 216–217; p. 219 5.26; 5.28; 5.29; 5.35–5.37; 6.1; 6.4; Wikimapia/Ebrahim Keikhosro Kiani: 1.8
Fletcher, Joe: pp. 154–155 6.6–6.10; 6.16–6.28; 7.3–7.8; 7.23–7.26; Wolf, S.: 5.27
Florio, James: pp. 160–161 8.1–8.7; 8.11–8.29; 9.1–9.12; 9.19–9.21; Wright, C.: 9.13–9.18
Gerster-Rapho: 1.9 10.1–10.27; 11.1–11.19; 12.1–12.8; Wrigley, Ben: pp. 212–213
Halbe, Roland/haascookemmrich STUDIO 13.1–13.4; 14.1–14.3; 14.5–14.23; Yazdani, S.: 1.7; 14.53; 14.54; 14.55
2050: p. 225; p. 226 bottom, p. 227 14.25–14.27; 14.30–14.52; 14.56–14.78; Zernike, Harry: pp. 214–215
Harris, Andy: p. 190 top; p. 192 centre, 15.1–15.58; pp. 150–151; p. 168 top; p. Zhou, Tina/Shutterstock: 1.2
bottom left and right 169 top row, middle row, bottom left
Herraiz, Jaime/Kéré Architecture: p. 203 Mori, Stefano: p. 196 All plans and drawings in the chapter “Built
Heuser: 5.12 Mushen, Allen: p. 203 middle row, left and examples” were provided by the architects.

237 About the author / Illustration credits

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Subject index Corner protection 18, 32, 41, 77, 97, 135 Freezing see also Frost erosion 17, 26,
Cracking see also Shrinkage cracks 65, 34, 106
3D printing 228, 230 93, 104 Frost erosion 26, 104
Abrasion 32, 45, 93, 97, 99, 106, 114, Curing 36, 38, 40, 43, 45, 84, 94–97, Furniture 14, 75, 131
180, 224 100, 105–106 Grain size distribution 11, 17–18, 20, 31,
Abrasion resistance 32, 39, 94, 114 Density 19, 28, 30, 40–49, 67, 69, 85, 37, 41, 48, 64–65, 92
Acoustic bricks, acoustic adobes 66, 190, 88, 108, 115 Gravel (as aggregate) 90, 107, 114, 178
198 Design of joints 38, 54, 65, 78, 109, 120, Green bricks see also Unfired bricks 22,
Addition of fibres 37–38, 45 131, 135–136, 141, 198 33, 60–62, 66, 107, 113, 150
Additives 11, 16, 33, 37–49, 92, 94, 97, Diurnal shift 12, 30, 119 Green roof 168, 170, 190
103, 106, 117 Dome 10, 59–61, 66, 95, 102, 111, Gypsum plaster 15, 33, 57, 78, 94, 97,
Adobe see also Earth blocks, Earth bricks 117–129, 135, 141–142, 144, 150, 168, 105–107
7, 9–12, 16, 20, 26, 29, 41, 43–44, 51, 190, 198 Health 13–14, 216
57, 60–66, 105, 108–109, 113, 119, 121, Drying 11, 14, 22–23, 26–27, 37–38, Heating panels 70–71
125–126, 133, 141–143, 168, 190, 198 44, 47, 49, 54, 59, 62–64, 67, 73, 78, Humidity 11–16, 22, 25–26, 28–29,
Ambient humidity see also Humidity 14– 87, 90, 94, 97, 100, 104, 106–107, 109, 38, 43, 48, 64–65, 69, 84, 91–92, 99,
15, 26, 28, 99 113–115, 117, 139 107–109, 111, 129, 178
Bathrooms 15–16, 101, 105, 107, Dünne loaf (“Dünner Lehmbrote”) 75–76 Hydrogen peroxide 44, 49
129–131, 150 Earth blocks see also Adobe 29, 31, Hydrophobising additives 103
Bentonite 28, 37, 40, 43–44 60–66, 69, 77, 80, 117–119, 128, 146, Illite see also Clay minerals 17, 22, 27,
Binding force 18–20, 22–23, 30–31, 182, 190 37
36–40, 42–43, 47–48, 62, 64, 92–94, Earth bricks see also Adobe 10, 113 Impact resistance 32, 40–41, 57, 97,
106, 125, 131 Earth building boards see Clay panels 106, 135
Binding strength 11, 30, 45 Earth masonry see Earth blocks Indoor air climate 7, 9, 11–15, 26,
Borax 47, 93, 102 Earth plaster see also Loam plaster, Clay 28–30, 92, 108, 111, 190
Capillary action 13, 18, 25–26, 29, 53, plaster 32, 70, 93–95, 97, 143, 168, 176, Infill techniques 10, 46, 70, 80–85, 88,
103, 108, 114 190, 198 90, 107–108, 113, 135, 144, 212
Cement 17, 25, 30, 33, 38, 40, 43–44, Earth roofs 115–117 Lightweight earth 69, 81, 150
62, 64, 82, 90, 97, 104–107, 114, 141, Earth-filled hoses 82, 111, 144 Masonry 51, 57, 75, 92
146, 154, 156, 182, 198, 202, 212, 216 Earth-filled tyre walls 111 Rolls 81
Cladding 66 Earthquake resistance 51, 82, 133–147, Sprayed 80, 82
Clay minerals 13, 17–18, 30, 32, 36–39, 156 Thrown 80
41–44, 62, 92 Elasticity 32, 93 Wattle and daub 10, 16, 80–81, 108,
Bentonite 28, 37, 40, 43–44 Electromagnetic radiation 32–33 133, 135
Illite 17, 22, 27, 37 Embodied energy 48 Intermediate floors 88, 113
Kaolinite 17–19, 22, 29, 32, Equilibrium moisture content 12–14, 26, Kaolinite see also Clay minerals 17–19,
37–38, 43–45, 102 28–29, 47–48, 59, 109, 178 22, 29, 32, 37–38, 43–45, 102
Montmorillonite 17–19, 22, 28, 32, Expanded clay 15, 28, 30, 47–48, 66–67, Laying earth blocks see also Earth mason-
37–38, 40, 43–44, 99 78, 88, 90, 93, 95, 114 ry 64–65
Clay panels 69–70 Exterior render 93 Lightweight additives, lightweight aggre-
Clay plaster 92 Fibres 37–39, 45, 57, 65–66, 80, 92–95, gates 45, 49, 67, 81, 87, 90, 111
Climbing formwork 50, 85 97, 99, 106, 117, 178 Lightweight loam 28, 33, 36, 45, 48, 56,
Coatings see also Paints 11, 15–16, 39, Field tests 19, 32 59, 65, 69–72, 80–81, 85, 91, 93–94,
45, 59, 93–94, 100–105, 107, 117, 131, 174 Fillers 17, 106–107 106–109, 111, 113–117
Cob technique 176, 194 Flooding, Protection against 105 Lime casein 15–16, 40, 94, 100–102,
Coconut fibres 37, 92 Formwork 10–11, 31, 46–47, 50–57, 104–105, 107, 115
Compressed earth blocks 146–147, 182, 59–60, 80, 82, 84–85, 87, 89, 108, 111, Lime plasters 46, 75, 104–106, 111, 214
190 113, 119, 125–126, 128–129, 139, 141, Lime-cement plaster 14–15
Compressive strength 18, 31–32, 36, 178, 180, 194, 202 Linseed oil 15–16, 39–40, 45, 54, 72, 97,
38–47, 49, 62, 64, 99, 106, 178 101–102, 105–107, 114–115, 117, 131

238 Subject index

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Linseed oil coating 15–16, 45, 54, 101, Rising damp, protection against 105 Thermal insulation 29–30, 36, 45–49,
105 Rotation guide 190 51, 57, 59, 66–67, 69–70, 78, 80–81, 85,
Loam boards see Clay panels Sealing 25–26, 29, 85, 108, 117, 131, 87, 88–90, 94, 105–108, 111, 113–115,
Loam panels see Clay panels 150, 198 117, 132, 150, 168, 190, 224
Loam plaster 29, 39, 46, 92–99, Sedimentation analysis 18–20 Thermal insulation, retrofitting of 107–
102–104, 108, 114, 117, 132, 214 Self-build 13 108
Loam roof 117 Shrinkage 11, 22–24, 26–27, 36–38, 45, Thermal retention see Thermal storage
Loam-filled hollow blocks 88–90 47, 49, 51, 53–54, 64–65, 72–73, 77–78, Thermal storage 30, 88, 129
Mechanisation 50, 54, 59, 62 80–81, 92–94, 97, 99, 105–107, 109, Thinning 36–37, 93
Mixing 22, 34–36, 40, 46–48, 75, 87, 93, 111, 115, 117, 131 Thrown plaster 95
97, 101–102, 160 Shrinkage cracks see also Cracking 11, Tools 13, 23, 47, 52–53, 73, 93
Moisture content see also Water con- 22, 26, 37–38, 53–54, 64–65, 73, 77, Unfired bricks   see also Green
tent 12–14, 26, 28–29, 47–48, 59, 109, 80–81, 92–94, 105, 115, 117, 131 bricks 98–99, 150, 190
115, 178 Shrinkage limit 24–25 Vapour diffusion 19, 26–28, 39, 47, 49,
Montmorillonite see also Clay minerals Sisal fibres 37, 39, 92, 117 87, 93–95, 100, 103–105, 108
17–19, 22, 28, 32, 37–38, 40, 43–44, 99 Slurrying 36, 40, 45–46, 48, 65, 87–88, Vault 10, 30, 60–61, 67, 69, 75, 113,
Nubian vaults 123, 125–126 97, 102, 113, 131, 141, 146 117–121, 123, 125–129, 135, 141–144,
Openings, placement, lintel 51, 53–54, Soaking see also Stabilisers 13, 22, 150, 168, 170, 182, 190, 198
81–82, 87, 119, 125–126, 134–139, 168 34–36, 39, 45, 65, 143 Wall design, special types 111–113
Paints see also Coatings 15–16, 28–29, Soil 7, 10–11, 13, 15, 17–20, 22, 25, Wall design, build-up 110
38, 59, 67, 93–94, 99–103, 131–132, 32–34, 38, 44, 51, 53–54, 57, 60–62, Wall fixtures 65
139, 144, 146, 156, 160, 198, 212 64–66, 82, 84, 94, 111, 117, 134, 139, Wall heating/cooling see also Heating
Pisé see also Rammed earth 10, 12, 50, 141, 144, 146, 148, 152, 154, 156, 160, panels 132
53, 55 180, 194, 202, 210, 216 Wall junctions and corners 16, 18, 32,
Plasticity 22–24, 31, 44, 46, 131 Sprayed plaster 85 41, 46, 51–52, 66, 74, 77, 88, 97, 126,
Pollutants 13 Stabilisation see also Reinforce- 134–136, 168
Porosity 19, 26, 64 ment 38–39, 43–44, 120, 136, 202 Wall reinforcement 47, 61, 82–84, 104,
Porous concrete 14–15, 27, 29, 33 Stabilisation of plasters see Coatings 111, 139, 141, 146–147
Pouring of lightweight loam 46, 85, Stabilisers 38–40, 44, 46 Wall reinforcement, bamboo 51, 80, 131,
87–88, 113 Animal 39 138–140, 144
Prefabricated elements 7, 30, 57, 59, 67, Artificial 39–40 Wall reinforcement, steel 82–84, 139,
72, 80–81, 108, 144 Mineral 38–39 141, 146–147
Properties of earth 17–33 Plant 39 Water content see also Moisture content
Pumping of lightweight loam 85, 88, 106 Stiffness 23–24, 31, 37, 57 11, 19, 23–24, 31, 37, 41–44, 59, 62, 92
Quincha technique 164 Stranglehm 75–79, 82, 90, 109, 119, Water curing 36, 40
Radioactivity 33 131 Water intake 103
Rain erosion 26, 160 Straw bales 95, 97 Water repellence 40, 100–104, 114, 156,
Rammed earth floors 39, 113–115 Structural design see also Structural 212
Rammed earth panels 54–55 stiffening 136 Water resistance 26, 38, 77
Rammed earth walls 139, 140, 148, 158, Structural stiffening 51 Wattle-and-daub wall 10, 16, 80–81, 108,
162, 174, 178, 186, 206, 210, 212, 216, Substrate preparation 92 133, 135, 139, 164
220, 224 Surface treatment 54, 59, 65, 88, 210 Weather protection 39, 102
Recycling 13, 47, 156, 224 Swelling 22–23, 25–26, 38, 40, 53, 64, Wet formed plaster 97
Reinforcement 39, 47, 61, 82–84, 90, 104, 117 Wet loam techniques 51, 73–79, 80–84
104, 111, 139, 141, 146–147 Tamping of lightweight loam 85, 178
Relative humidity see also Ambient humid- Tensile strength 19, 31–32, 41, 45, 99
ity, Humidity 11–15, 26, 28–29, 48, 99, Thermal capacity see also Thermal reten-
108, 129 tion, Thermal storage 30, 90
Repairs 62, 78, 106–108 Thermal conductivity 29–30, 49
Reusability 13 Thermal expansion 17, 30

239 Subject index

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Front cover: Prototype building TECLA, Massa Lombarda, Italy (Design: Mario Cucinella
Architects; Construction: WASP Engineering)
Back cover: Office pavilion Earthbox, Asunción, Paraguay (Equipo de Arquitectura);
Residence at Valle Tucán, Emboscada, Paraguay (Gernot Minke); Maison pour tous, Four,
France (designbuildLAB); Vineyard residence, Mornington Peninsula, Australia (John Wardle
Architects)
Graphic design, layout and typesetting: Heike Strempel-Bevacqua
Copy editing and project management: Ria Stein
Translation into English: Shalima Hingorami, Rajeshwari Prakash, Sanjay Prakash, New
Dehli, India; Jörn Frenzel, Ian Pepper, Ria Stein, Berlin, and Gernot Minke, Kassel, Germany
Production: Heike Strempel-Bevacqua
Paper: 135 g/m² Magno Volume
Lithography: Bildpunkt Druckvorstufen GmbH
Printing: Beltz Grafische Betriebe GmbH

Library of Congress Control Number: 2025931114

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