Generation of AC Voltage

Φlinkage = Φmax Φlinkage = 0 Φlinkage = -Φmax Φlinkage = 0

   max cos
 max  flux density (B) * area of the coil
d
   angular velocity rad/sec    t
dt
   max cost
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 2
Faraday’s Law
d
e N
dt
d
   max sin t
dt
e  N max sin t  Emax sin t
Emax  N max
 Maximum value
 Peak value
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 3

Why sinusoidal waveform

The sinusoidal waveform is the only

alternating waveform whose shape is
unaffected by the response characteristics of
R, L, and C elements.

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 4

 Alternating (AC) Waveforms
v(t )  Vm sin t

(a) as a function of ωt, (b) as a function of t

2
One cycle ≡ T ≡ 2π 2  T T

f  frequency  no of cycles / Sec
1 
  cycles / sec(HZ )
T 2
  2 f
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 5

Important Definitions
ω = Angular frequency (rad/sec)
f = The number of cycles per second (Hz)
T = Periodic time
= The time taken to complete one cycle (sec)
Vm = The maximum value for the voltage or amplitude of
the sinusoidal voltage.
Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at
any instant of time; denoted by the lowercase letters .

6
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 6
 Phase Shift (Difference)
Let examine the two sinusoids

v1  Vm sin t
v2  Vm sin(t   )

v2 leads v1 by φ or v1 lags v2 by φ
The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the
relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the
same frequency plotted on the same set of axes.
7
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 7

Root-Mean-Square Value
We define the effective or RMS value of a periodic
current (voltage) to be the dc current (voltage) that
delivers the same average power to a resistor.
R
i(t)
~
v(t)
2
V 2 v (t)
P  I 2R  P(t) i (t) R 
2

R
1
T R
Pav   P(t ) dt
T 0
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 8
 v(t )

P(t )

Pav

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 9

T
1
Pav   Ri 2 (t ) dt  I rms
2
R
T0
T 2
i t dt   t d (t )
1 2 1
 I rms  
2
i
T 0 2 0
T 2
1 v 2 (t ) Vrms
Pav   dt 
T0 R R
T 2
v t dt   t d (t )
1 2 1
Vrms  
2
v
T 0 2 0
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 10
 Example
Determine the rms value of the current waveform

The period of the waveform is T = 4.

Over a period, we can write the current
waveform as

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 11

RMS Value of a Sinusoidal

2

 m t d (t )
1
 RMS 
2
2
A Sin
2 0

2 2

0 2 {1  cos2t }d (t )

Am 1

2
2
* {t  0.5 sin 2t }02
Am 1

2 2
2
Am 1 A
 * * 2  m
2 2 2
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 12
 Vm Im
Vrms  I rms 
2 2

The RMS value for a sinusoidal is the peak

value divided by the square root of two. This
is not true for other periodic waveforms such
as square waves or triangular waves.

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 13

Phasor Representation

ωt

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 14

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 15

Time function : vt   2 V sin t  o 

2V
2V
θo ωt+θo

at t = 0 at t > 0

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 16

 Phasor Definition
Sinusoidal wave can be visualized as the
length of the vertical projection of a vector ,
which rotates about a fixed point with an
angular velocity (). The phasor for a
sinusoidal is a snapshot of the corresponding
rotating vector at t = 0.
Time function : vt   2 V sin t  o 
Phasor : V  Vo
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 17

Phase Relationships
To determine phase relationships from a
phasor diagram, consider the phasors to
rotate counterclockwise. Then when standing
at a fixed point, if V1 arrives first followed
by V2 after a rotation of θ , we say that V1
leads V2 by θ . Alternatively, we could say
that V2 lags V1 by θ . (If θ = 0 we say that V1
and V2 are in phase.)

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 18

Time functions : v1 t   3 2 sin t  40 
v2 t   4 2 sin t  20

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 19

Complex Numbers
Ā= A  Polar Form
= x + jy Rectangular Form
imaginary • x is the real part
axis
y • y is the imaginary part
• A is the magnitude
real
 axis
•  is the phase
x
x  A cos A  x2  y 2
y  A sin 
y
  tan 1
x
20
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 20
 Complex Number
Addition and Subtraction
Ā = x + jy Ē = z + jw
• Addition is most easily performed in rectangular form:

Ā + Ē = (x + z) + j(y + w)

• Subtraction is also most easily performed in rectangular

form:
Ā - Ē = (x - z) + j(y - w)
21
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 21

Complex Number
Multiplication and Division
Ā = A  θA Ē = E  θE
• Multiplication is most easily performed in polar form:

Ā  Ē = (A  E)  (θA + θE)

• Division is also most easily performed in polar form :

Ā / Ē = (A / E)  (θA - θE)
22
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 22
 Example
Find vs (t ) , where : vs (t )  v1 (t )  v2 (t )

v1 t   20 2 sin t  45 
v2 t   10 2 cos t  60  
 
v2 t   10 2 cos t  60  10 2 sin t  60  90  
 10 2 sin t  30 


V1  2045
V2  1030
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 23

Vs  V1  V2
 2045  1030
 14.14  j14.14  8.66  j 5
 22.8  j19.14
 29.768 40

vs t   29.768 2 sin t  40  

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 24
 Operator ‘J’
J   1  190
J 2   1  1180 
J 3   J  1  90

A  A JA A
θ
J A  A  90
 J A  A  90 JA

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 25

Loads of AC Circuits
 Resistor Load
R
v(t )  2 V sin(t ) i(t)
v(t ) V
i (t )   2 sin(t ) v(t)
~
R R
 2 I sin(t )
V  IR
V I R
Voltage and Current are I V
in phase
Phasor Diagram
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 27

Inductor Load
v(t )  2 V sin(t ) L
i(t)
1 V
i (t )   v(t ) dt   2 cos(t ) ~
L L v(t)
 2 I sin(t  90 )

V  LI  XI
X  Reactance  L  2 f L ohm
V  JX I
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 28
 V

Phasor Diagram

Current lags Voltage by 900

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 29

Capacitor Load
v(t )  2 V sin(t )
C
dv(t ) i(t)
i (t )  C  2 VC cos(t )
dt ~
 2 I sin(t  90 ) v(t)
1
V I  XI
C
1 1
X  Reactance   ohm
 C 2 f C
V   JX I
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 30
 I

Phasor Diagram

Current leads Voltage by 900

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 31

L-Load R-Load C-Load

Current lags Voltage and Current Current leads

Voltage by 900 are in phase Voltage by 900

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 32

 R-L Load
V  VR  VL
VR  I R VL  J I X L
V  IR  J I X L
V  I ( R  JX L )  I Z v(t )  2 V sin t

Z  Impedance  ( R  JX L )  Z 
XL
Z  R  XL 2 2
  tan 1

R
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 33

V0 V 
I      i(t )  2 I sin(t   )
Z  Z
V
φ

φ
I
φ
V Current lags Voltage by φ
VR VL

I
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 34
 R-C Load
V  VR  VC
VR  I R VC   J I X C
V  IR  J I XC v(t )  2 V sin t

V  I ( R  JX C )  I Z
Z  Impedance  ( R  JX C )  Z   
XC
Z  R  XC 2 2
  tan 1

R
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 35

V0 V 
I    i(t )  2 I sin(t   )
Z   Z
I

φ φ
V
I Current leads Voltage by φ
VR VC
φ
V
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 36
 R-L-C Load
V  VR  VL  VC
VR  I R VL  J I X L VC   J I X C
V  IR  J I X L  J I XC
V  I ( R  JX L  JX C )  I Z
Z  R  J ( X L  X C )  Z  v(t )  2 V sin t

X L  XC
Z  R  (X L  XC ) 2 2
  tan 1

R
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 37

If XL > XC → Current lags Voltage by φ

If XL < XC → Current leads Voltage by φ

If XL = XC → Current in phase with Voltage

Z=R φ=0
This condition is called Resonance
And the current has the greatest value
At Resonance : X L  XC
1 1
 L   n 
C LC
1
fn   Resonance frequency
2 LC
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 38
 φ

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 39

Example
Find the input impedance of the circuit

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 40

 Example
Find current I in the circuit
The delta network connected to
nodes a, b, and c can be converted
to the star network.

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 41

The total impedance at the source terminals is

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 42

 Example
Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit

Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode. Applying KCL at the supernode gives

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 43

Example
Determine current Io using mesh analysis.

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 44

 Example
Obtain current Io using Norton’s theorem.
For mesh 1:

For the supermesh:

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 45

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 46

 Admittance

1 1
Y   G  JB mho
Z R  JX
G ≡ Conductance B ≡ Susceptance

V Z I
I Y V
AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 47

1 1 1 1 1
    ......
ZT Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn
YT  Y1  Y2  Y3  ......... Yn

AC Circuits Dr. H.H.Hanafy 48