1

Figure 3.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

2
 Figure 3.2 Classes of transmission media

3
 3.1. GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit

from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

4
 Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the

receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.

In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one

of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
5
 Figure 3.3 Twisted-pair cable

6
 Figure 3.4 UTP and STP cables

7
Table 3.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Data Rate
Category Specification Use
(Mbps)
1 Unshielded Twisted-Pair used in telephone <0.1 Telephone
2 Unshielded Twisted-Pair originally used in T-lines 2 T-1 lines
3 Improved CAT 2 used in LANs 10 LANs
4 Improved CAT 3 used in Token Ring Networks 20 LANs
Cable wire is normally 24 AWG with a jacket and
5 100 LANs
outside sheath
An extension to category 5 that includes extra
5E features to minimize the crosstalk and 125 LANs
electromagnetic interference
A new category with matched components coming
6 from the same manufacturer. The cable must be 200 LANs
tested at a 200-Mbps data rate.
Sometimes called SSTP (shielded screen twisted-
pair). Each pair is individually wrapped in a belical
7 metallic foil followed by a metallic foil shield in 600 LANs
addition to the outside sheath. The shield decreases
8 the effect of crosstalk and increases the data rate
 Figure 3.5 UTP connector

9
 Figure 3.6 UTP performance

10
 Applications
Telephone lines
To provide voice and data channels.
To connect subscribers to the central telephone
office commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair
cables.
DSL lines
To provide high-data-rate connections also use the
high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-
pair cables.
Local Area Networks
10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair
11 cables.
 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable carries signals of higher frequency

ranges than those in twisted-pair cable.

Five layer: Inner conductor, insulator, outer

conductor, insulator and plastic cover.

12
 Figure 3.7 Coaxial cable

13
 Table 3.2 Categories of coaxial cables

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 Cable TV
RG-58 Thin Ethernet
RG-11 Thick Ethernet

14
 Figure 3.8 BNC connectors

15
 Figure 2.9 Coaxial cable performance

16
 Applications
Analog telephone networks
A single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice
signals.
Digital telephone networks
A single coaxial cable could carry digital data up
to 600 Mbps
Coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely
been replaced today with fiber-optic cable
Cable TV networks
Traditional cable TV network, the entire network
used coaxial cable.
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 Applications
Cable TV networks
Cable TV providers replaced most of the media with
fiber-optic cable;
Hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the
network boundaries, near the consumer premises.
Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.

Traditional Ethernet LANs

Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently
high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital
transmission in early Ethernet LANs
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 Applications
Traditional Ethernet LANs

The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial

cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10
Mbps with a range of 185 m;

The 10Base-5, or Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick

coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of
5000 m. Thick Ethernet has specialized connectors.

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 Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and
transmits signals in the form of light.
1. I < critical angle, refraction;
2. I = critical angle, refraction;
3. I > critical angle, reflection.

20
 Figure 2.10 Bending of light ray

21
 Figure 2.11 Optical fiber

22
 Figure 2.12 Propagation modes

23
 Multimode
Multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths.
Beams move within the cable depends on the
structure of the core.

Multimode step-index fiber

• The density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges;
• A beam of light moves through this constant
density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding;
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 Multimode
Multimode step-index fiber
• At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to
a lower density;
• The distortion of the signal as it passes through
the fiber.
Multimode graded-index fiber
• Decreases this distortion of the signal through the
cable;
• A gradedindex fiber is one with varying densities.
Density is highest at the center of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge
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 Single-Mode
• Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly
focused source of light that limits beams to a small
range of angles, all close to the horizontal;
• The decrease in density results in a critical angle
that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation
of beams almost horizontal;
• Propagation of different beams is almost identical,
and delays are negligible.
• All the beams arrive at the destination “together”
and can be recombined with little distortion to the
signal
26
 Figure 2.13 Modes

27
 Table 3.3 Fiber types
Type Core ( ) Cladding ( ) Mode
50/125 50.0 125 Multimode, graded index
62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded index
100/125 100.0 125 Multimode, graded index
7/125 7.0 125 Single mode

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 Figure 3.14 Fiber construction

29
 Cable Composition
Outer jacket: PVC or Teflon;

Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen

the cable; Kevlar is a strong material used in the
fabrication of bulletproof vests;

Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to

cushion the fiber;

The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists

of cladding and core.

30
 Figure 3.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

31
 Figure 3.16 Optical fiber performance

32
 Applications
Backbone networks (SONET network)
Wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
WDM can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps
Cable TV networks
Cable TV companies use a combination of optical
fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid
network;
Optical fiber provides the backbone structure
while coaxial cable provides the connection to the
user premises.
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 Local-Area Networks

100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet);

1000Base-X.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Advantages
Higher bandwidth;
Less signal attenuation;
Immunity to electromagnetic interference;

Resistance to corrosive materials;

Light weight;

Greater immunity to tapping.

35
 Disadvantages

Installation and maintenance;

Unidirectional light propagation;

Cost.

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 3.2. UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without

using a physical conductor. This type of communication
is often referred to as wireless communication.

Topics discussed in this section:

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

37
 Figure 3.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

38
 Figure 3.18 Propagation methods

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 Table 3.4 Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
VLF Long-range radio
3 - 30 kHz Ground
(Very Low Frequency) navigation
LF Radio beacons and
30 - 300 kHz Ground
(Low Frequency) navigation locators
MF (Middle Frequency) 300 kHz - 3 MHz Sky AM radio
Citizens band
HF
3 - 30 MHz Sky (CB), ship/aircraft
(High Frequency)
communication
VHF Sky and Line - of - VHF TV, FM radio
30 - 300 MHz
(Very High Frequency) Sight
UHF TV, Cellular
UHF
300 MHz - 3 GHz Line - Of - Sight phones, Paging,
(Ultrahigh Frequency)
Satellite
SHF Satellite
3 - 30 GHz Line - Of - Sight
(Supperhigh Frequency) Communication
EHF Radar, Satellite
30 - 300 GHz Line - Of - Sight
(Extremely High Frequency)
40
 Figure 3.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.41
 Figure 3.20 Omnidirectional antenna

42
 Note

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.

43
 Applications

Multicast communication is one sender but many

receivers.

AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio,

cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting;

44
 Figure 3.21 Unidirectional antennas

45
 Note

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.

46
 Applications

Unicast communication is needed between the

sender and the receiver;

Cellular phones Networks, satellite networks , and

wireless LANs

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 Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

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 Applications

The standard originally defined a data rate of 75

kbps for a distance up to 8 m;

The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps;

Communication between devices such as

keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers.

Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through

line of sight;
the IrDA port on the keyboard needs to point to the
PC for transmission to occur.
49